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The objective of this paper was to examine what effect government subsidized day care by itself might have on the labor force participation of low income group mothers. The policy issue was as follows: will the provision of adequate day care services (in terms of cost and quality) to low income group mothers substantially increase their labor force participation (by removing a significant barrier to employment), thereby reducing their potential for the receipt of income transfer programs? Responding to this issue, the paper reviews existing research on the relationship of provision of day care services to labor force participation. The paper concludes that provision of day care by itself will not lead to vast numbers of low income mothers entering the labor force; an estimated ten percentage point increase in labor force participation might occur in response to day care. The reasons for this percentage point increase being not larger are cited as: (1) many mothers prefer to care for their own children; (2) many mothers do not see the provision of subsidized day care as substantially increasing their net wage; (3) the structure of welfare laws makes employment, in some cases, economically unsound; and, (4) employment increases the already heavy burdens of the mother. (Author/RJ)

Eight discussions of parent participation cover the following areas: dimensions of family involvement in early childhood education; the relationship of the parent, child, and professional staff; parent reactions to the identification of handicaps and their involvement in early education; parent participation in a program of behavior modification for physically handicapped children; the use of parent meetings and parent educators who visit homes to assist parents in helping children to learn; a program for training mothers to instruct their infants at home; a sociological perspective on counseling parents of handicapped children; and early diagnosis of deafness and parent counseling. (RJ)

(1964). Child-rearing Practices of Mothers of Asthmatic Children: Contents of Paper: Part It. Journal of Asthma Research: Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 109-142.

This paper reports on a 1-year cross-cultural project designed to compare alternative modes of child care and child care programs in Sweden, Israel, and China with those in the United States. Based upon data available in documents pertaining to children, interviews with scholars involved in research on child care programs, and on-site observations at child care settings in Israel, Sweden, and the United States, this paper attempts to formulate a thesis on the kinds of social environments and interpersonal relationships which are most conducive to learning and academic achievement. Data has been compiled and discussed according to three major topics: role of the child, role of the parent, and role of the caretaker. The most general conclusion that can be drawn about the child care systems, in the United States and elsewhere, is that they are not providing enough of the kinds of care children need most. A second observation is that increased attention and concern in the United States should be paid to the discontinuities between our values and our behavior with respect to children. (CS)

Publisher Summary This chapter presents arguments for a developmental approach for childhood socialization. The contributions of Richard Walters have brought one to the point from which such studies can begin. His work will remain as a superb example of the process-oriented research that is needed to give some idea to understand the role played by imitation in childhood socialization. The problems of first imitations, the production of generalized imitation, and the role of imitation in the socialization of the child have not fully been understood. For this purpose, one needs sophisticated analyses of the modeling problem focusing on a wide variety of temperamental and cognitive vicissitudes as these interact with the contingencies of exposure to models in determining children's tendencies to imitate. Such research will facilitate accounting for some of the problems, for example, the emergence of first imitations), but it should also increase the practical usefulness of the knowledge concerning imitation with respect to child rearing, childhood education, and psychotherapy with children. The case to be made for developmental research on imitation is not a theoretical issue but a question of values.

The 17 papers in this book are collected to offer some insights into the problems of teaching the disadvantaged. Part I contains papers on the nature of the disadvantaged child, curriculum relevant to his needs, and difficulties in evaluating compensatory education programs; Part II includes papers describing compensatory education from various vantage points (promising practices, Title I programs, and home-school cooperation); Part III has papers which relate research on material child rearing practices, curriculum development, and teaching strategies to changes in educational practices; Part IV contains papers on reading instruction in the CRAFT project, the importance of teaching standard English and English as a second language, and the orientation of teachers in inner-city schools; Part V includes papers on vocational education, the school dropout, and the educational programs of Mobilization for Youth; and Part VI has papers on issues related to racial imbalance and the feelings of powerlessness which affect educational, employment, and social opportunities for the disadvantaged. (EF)

The methodology discussed is used in ongoing research to contrast the effectiveness of several patterns of parental authority with the same children at different ages. The first characteristic of these methods is the use of trait and behavior ratings to assess dispositional tendencies. The construct of a dispositional trait is used to account for continuity and stability within the personality. Situation, particularly a laboratory setting, can strongly affect behavior, but the extent to which an individual's behavior is situation-specific is itself a dispositional property. The validity of ratings partly depends upon the observer's ability to project himself into the position of the subject. The second characteristic of this methodology is the use of multiple stimuli and behavior settings. The three measures used here are self-report, interview and observation. Self-report avoids the problem of observer reactivity, but not of response set. Interview is useful in conjunction with observation; the symbolic meaning to the parent or child of the observed behavior is explored. The observational procedures used are laboratory experimental procedures, structured observations, and naturalistic observation. Safeguards to protect against bias in naturalistic observation are: explication of expectations in clear hypotheses, definition of hypothetical constructs, direct confrontation during data collection in which staff members correct each other's biases, and use of overlapping and intersecting sources of data. (KM)

This report comprises a critical analysis of research in the area of the disadvantaged student, mostly on population characteristics and on educational programs offered them. Much of the research on such factors as genetic and environmental influences, verbal ability, motivation, school achievement, attrition rate, demographic characteristics, health care and nutrition, has been biased; and efforts at intervention have been unsuccessful, with demonstration projects taking precedence over controlled experiments. Necessary to raise the standard of research and educational programs are: (1) increased funds for meaningful large-scale innovation; and (2) development of effective ideas for the best utilization of available funds. Suggestions for improvement include the better understanding, and more appropriate design and control of social-psychological learning conditions; greater qualitative analysis of learning behaviors; matching this broader range of characteristics to the design of appropriate learning environments and experiences; and the need to change political factors in education. It is especially important to hold educators more directly accountable to those they serve, and to give greater attention to the role of students in the direction of their own education. (KS)

The contents of this document include the following papers, each followed by a discussion amongst workshop participants: "Nutritional Studies on United States Preschool Children: Dietary Intakes and Practices of Food Procurement, Preparation, and Consumption, "Kathryn M. Kram and George M. Owen; "Food and Nutrition Intake of Children from Birth to Four Years of Age," Juanita A. Eagles and Priscilla D. Steele; "Child Feeding in the Rural Low-Income Family, "Jana W. Jones; "Infant and Child Feeding Practices in the Urban Community in the North-central Region," Norge W. Jerome, Barbara B. Kiser and Estella A. West; "Poor People, Good Food, and Fat Babies: Observations on Dietary Behavior and Nutrition Among Low-income, Urban Afro-American Infants and Children," Betty Lou Valentine and Charles A. Valentine; "Cultural Determinants of Food Habits in Children of Mexican Descent in California," Phyllis B. Acosta and Robert G. Aranda; "Infant and Childhood Feeding Practices Among Low-Income Families in Urban Hawaii," Myrtle L. Brown and Claire Hughes Ho; and, "Infant and Child Feeding Practices Among Low-Income Reservation and Rural American Indian and Alaska Native Families," Mary A. Peterson. (JM)

This survey investigates 6 major questions: (1) do adolescents and their parents perceive youth as overindulged; (2) are parent-child communication channels open; (3) has understanding between parents and their children broken down; (4) do children identify with their parents; (5) has discipline been permissive; and (6) do adolescents reject the Establishment? Results are based on a national sample of 2,000 10th through 12th graders, randomly selected to match 1960 census distributions for sex, grade in school, residence and geographic region. Some data on parents was also obtained. The findings include: (1) as a gripe about youth, overindulgence ranks very low; (2) the degree of influence in family decisions correlates positively with parent-to-child and child-to-parent visibility, (3) half the parents were reported as "moderately strict," only 7% as "not at all strict;" (4) evidence indicates that children do identify with their parents when it comes to ranking gripes about youth today; and (5) 6-12% of the sample are skeptical about joining the Establishment. (Author/TL)

This document reports the first phase of a longitudinal research project designed to produce information on how to raise children so their basic abilities may develop optimally during the first six years of life. Although this Preschool Project has been in operation five years, the study is not yet completed because statements about the effects of various child rearing practices and experiences have not been put to experimental test. Nontheless, preliminary results concerning optimal and restricted development of 48 children in a natural environment can be reported. In general, child rearing interactions during years 1-3 appear to offer the most relevance for intense investigation. The mother's direct and indirect activities appear to be the most powerful formative factors in the development of the preschool child. Some "best guesses" about the most effective child rearing practices can be made. Findings suggest that effective mothers (1) are generally permissive, (2) usually but not always respond to their child's appeals for immediate help (3) act in response to overtures by the child and (4) have a high energy level. References and tables of data are included. (WY)

This research was designed to serve two major purposes: (1) to create a substantial library of theoretically neutral observational data as permanent documentation of actual life experiences in the lives of 3-year-old children from different socioeconomic backgrounds and (2) to analyze specimen records in order (a) to describe and quantify the kinds of active environmental inputs received by the children, (b) to assess relationships between home experiences and socioeconomic status, (3) to explore the characteristics of the social environment of children in disadvantaged homes, and (d) to relate findings to certain data in the research literature on child-rearing. Narrative descriptions of behavior of 8 low-income urban, 8 low-income rural and 8 middle-income urban children provide the basic observational data recorded as Environmental Force Units (units of behavior of agents acting with respect to the child). Child behavior is then coded and described according to a set of 26 variables. Similarities and differences across groups on some dimensions of the variables are presented. Results of this analysis feature wide individual differences, some important similarities across the three socioeconomic groups, and some interesting intergroup differences in orientation to child-rearing. (NH)

Estimates of the cost of rearing children have been developed by the Consumer and Food Economics Research Division, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, from the 1960-61 Survey of Consumer Expenditures conducted jointly by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics and the USDA. Costs are at the levels of the USDA's economy, low-cost and moderate-cost food plans, for urban, rural nonfarm and farm families in the four principal regions of the U.S. Estimates cover the first 18 years of the child's life and are presented at 1960-61, 1969 and 1970 price levels. Costs for the average child in families of no more than 5 children are presented in "Cost of Raising a Child;" costs for the child in families of specified size in "Child Rearing Costs at Two Levels of Living" (limited to the North Central and Southern regions). More than one-half the document consists of tables. (Author/MK)

This paper is designed as an information guide for those persons responsible for rearing human infants from birth to 18 months. The author provides an extensive review of the literature and trends of research in this area noting that the current volumes of knowledge in this area are not yet dependable enough to provide reliable bases for practice. He notes that among the problems presented in the study of infants are (1) availability of subjects in natural environment, and (2) the lack of reliable measures for research. Provided is an enumeration, explanation and evaluation of kinds of studies and known information about infant development. Included are longitudinal studies, cross-sectional studies, and assessments of direct and indirect evidence. The author feels that practitioners should demand and support the production of more dependable knowledge by sponsoring field and basic research throughout infancy on the whole infant (rather than on his separate behaviors) as he functions in real life. White admonishes practitioners to accept the fact that, for the time being, child-rearing practices must be designed on an admitted best guess basis. An extensive bibliography is provided. (Author/AJ)

The countries discussed in this paper are the francophone countries of West Africa and the Republic of Congo, with comparative references made to North Africa (mainly Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia). Obstacles to the adoption of family planning in the countries of tropical Africa are a very high mortality rate among children; a socioeconomic structure that favors high fertility; very low levels of literacy; infrastructure and female participation in non-agricultural jobs; an inadequate health infrastructure; an acute lack of health personnel; and governmental opposition to the idea of population control. If family planning were introduced as an integral part of maternal and child health (MCH), it is believed that the program would have some chance of success. Potential areas of assistance by donor countries in creating a network of MCH centers are: (1) if desired by the countries, building up a "post partum" family planning program in major hospitals of major cities; (2) stimulating the development of MCH centers in both rural and urban areas; (3) offering scholarships for the training of nurse-midwives and developing local facilities for their training; and (4) offering assistance in the fields of census taking and demographic sample surveys. Ten tables present population, demographic, and mortality data. Two appendixes are reprints of two articles. An annex presents a summary of the meeting proceedings. (DB)

The Houston Parent-Child Development Center was established to provide a basis for educational improvement for Mexican-American families and to yield basic information about the importance of the whole family for a child's success in learning. Certain cultural factors, such as language and sex role expectations were taken into account in establishing the program for a specific population. Families enter the program when their child is 1 year old. At this stage, services are provided in the home, with training provided mainly for mothers. After the first year, the mother and child go to the center for learning activities. Project families also participate in several workshops with each other, and frequent parent discussions are held. Language instruction is woven into all program activities. The evaluation design includes plans to gather data on children, mothers, and other family members on an annual basis. Control group families will be involved. Evaluation measures for children and adults are listed, including developmental scales, intelligence tests, structured interactions, attitude surveys, child rearing inventories, etc. Initial data has been collected for 34 program and 28 control families, but only preliminary analysis has been completed. (DP)

This report describes a 4-year project at the Sarah Lawrence Nursery School in which the teacher's role was expanded to include extensive work with parents. Nursery school teachers, after conferring with psychiatric consultants about children's problems, had frequent meetings with parents in which observational and childrearing information was shared, and effective strategies for dealing with individual children were worked out. Eleven case studies are presented, representing families who worked closely with the nursery school teacher and were helped to handle difficult situations with their children. Implications of the project for preventive psychiatry and mental health services for preschool children are discussed. (DP)

This paper presents a review of the research concerning the effects of maternal employment on the child. Findings are organized around five theories: (1) the working mother provides a different role model than the non-working mother; (2) employment affects the mother's emotional state (sometimes providing satisfactions, sometimes harassment, and sometimes guilt) and this, in turn, influences the mother-child interaction; (3) the different situational demands as well as the emotional state of the working mother will affect child rearing practices; (4) working mothers provide less adequate supervision; and (5) the working mother's absence will result in emotional and possibly cognitive deprivation for the child. Evidence cited supports the first four theories. (Author/SET)

This study seeks to discover which aspects of a student's background, alone or in combination with the kind of school attended, play the greatest role in achievement. The paper presents results of a wide variety of analyses that explore different aspects of family background and the school as they relate to achievement of students of differing racial-ethnic and sex-group membership and geographical origin. The individual student is the primary unit of analysis. The principal finding is that, although factors of home and family greatly outweigh school factors in achievement, all the differences in achievement associated with racial-ethnic group membership can be accounted for by considerations that are social in nature and origin. The greatest role is played by a set of motivational factors that are closely related to child rearing practices. The most important are: (1) the expectations that both the student and his parents have for his school performance; (2) the extent to which families engage in activities that are supportive of these expectations; and (3) the student's understanding of the importance of hard work to success, as well as the possible benefits of an education. (Author/LP)