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The rate at which peat accumulates has been a matter of interest to geologists ever since the relation between peat deposits and coal beds has been appreciated. More recently the problem has assumed fresh importance because of the increasing use of peat microfossils as a key to post-Pleistocene climate. In particular the relative percentages of different kinds of fossil pollen preserved in peat have been much studied in Europe. The purpose of such studies has been to interpret the changes in vegetation adjacent to the peat deposit during the course of its formation. Since most of the pollen preserved is brought in by the wind, the picture of changes appears to be somewhat generalized for the locality, and, therefore, it is often of value in interpreting climatic history. In a general way such evidence in Europe has supported the earlier findings of Blytt, Sernander and others regarding the shifts in moisture and temperature during postglacial times (Biilow, '29). In North America a number of pollen analyses have been made, some of which are not regarded by their authors as shedding light on climatic change. The senior writer, however, has now examined material from Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Iowa and Arkansas. In every case he has obtained what seems like reasonable evidence of considerable climatic changes during postglacial times (Sears, '32). The most certain of these changes is a period of recent relatively dry climate followed by a gradual change to the somewhat more humid climate of the present. In the case of deep columns of peat from Ohio, Michigan, Indiana and Iowa there appears to be good evidence of an earlier dry period separated from the one just described byA a period of marked humidity. If these indications may l)e trusted the postglacial climate of North America has exhibited fluctuations similar to those of Europe. In Europe the postglacial climates have been accurately dated by de Geer's measurement of clay layers (Billow, '29). Since this means of measurement has not been generally available in this country we have endeavored to find other means. Of these the most hopeful has seemed to be a determination of the mean rate of peat accumulation particularly in the Ohio-Michigan area with which we are most familiar. The following paper describes the results obtained in this connection. Before proceeding with the paper acknowledgments should be made of

The distribution of forest trees in Uganda appears to be reasonably well known, at least so far as occurrence in flora-areas is concerned (Eggeling & Dale, 1952; Anon. 1952 et seq.; Hamilton, in press; Hedberg, 1957). A number of well-marked patterns of distribution can be identified. Pollen diagrams now available for Uganda show that there have been, at least locally, very large changes in vegetation during the last 15.000 years. In this paper, the significance of distributional patterns is considered in the light of pollen-analytical and other evidence of vegetational and climatic change.

Climate change and its effects on the water resources therefore also, livelihood is a major global concern. Water scarcity is already a major problem for the world poor, and changes in rainfall and temperature associated with climate change will likely make this worse. This indicates that efficient and effective management of the available water becomes essential for overall development, improving livelihoods and maintaining food sufficiency. Watershed management carries number of activities managing water resource to address the ever increasing water resource problems. Therefore, watershed management could be one of the tools to cope with climate change managing scarce water resource. This paper describes some of the watershed activities dealing with water resource management. Key Words: Watershed management, Climate change, Run off, Degraded land rehabilitation DOI: 10.3126/init.v2i1.2526 The Initiation Vol.2(1) 2008 pp33

There is widespread consensus that human activity has had a significant impact on global climatic patterns which will have important consequences for much of society. Although there has been much research on the relationship between corporate environmental performance and corporate financial performance, empirical testing of the association between proactive corporate climate-change strategies and financial (or accounting) performance is still in its infancy. Based on the logic embodied in the Natural Resource-Based View (NRBV) of the firm, firms that successfully implement strategies to lessen their effect on climate change should outperform competitors who are less proactive in such efforts. This study uses a matched-pair design to empirically demonstrate that firms with proactive climate change strategies achieved significantly higher levels of accounting performance than competitors that were less proactive, thus providing additional support for the NRBV. Introduction To satiate the needs of capital market stakeholders, firm managers are compelled to identify, formulate, and implement strategies aimed at achieving sustainable competitive advantage (SCA) and superior profitability. Unfortunately, traditional corporate strategies used in market-based economies have negatively impacted the natural environment in ways that threaten the ecosystems supporting mankind's existence. The multiplicity of problems resulting from climate change and the requisite measures needed to decrease (or stabilize) the atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases has become one of the most widely discussed environmental issues among journalists, politicians, environmentalists, academics, businesses, and other stakeholders. Indeed, the consequences of global climate change, such as rising sea levels due to melting glaciers, the spread of non-native pathogens, drought in some areas and greater flooding in others, are well documented (IPCC, 2007; McKibbin & Wilcoxen, 2002); and the United States' abstinence from the Kyoto Protocol will not protect it from the environmental and economic consequences of global climate change. If atmospheric carbon dioxide doubles by 2050, it will cost the U.S. an estimated $68 billion annually and the annual global cost will be approximately $304 billion (Hoffman, 2005). Although there has been much research examining the association between corporate environmental performance and organizational outcomes (e.g., Bansal & Hunter, 2003; Margolis & Walsh, 2003; Orlitzky, Schmidt, & Rynes, 2003; Russo & Fouts; 1997; Sharma & Vrendenburg, 1998), there are no published empirical studies that specifically examine whether firms pursuing proactive climate change strategies financially outperform competitors that are less proactive. To-date, the extant literature has focused on firm motivations for pursuing climate change strategies (Levy & Kolk, 2002; Kolk & Pinske, 2004, 2005, 2007b; Okereke, 2007; Porter & Reinhart, 2007), corporate political lobbying strategies regarding climate change (Kolk & Pinkse, 2007a), and the degree to which global firms voluntarily commit to reducing their impact on climate change (Stanwick & Stanwick, 2006). The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between proactive climate change strategies and accounting performance. In this paper, we describe how highly proactive firms typically engage in three broad climate-change initiatives aimed at reducing carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gas emissions: (1) by developing energy substitutes for oil and coal, such as wind and solar power, (2) by developing renewable energy sources (e.g., hydrogen and other fuel cells), and (3) by working collaboratively with firms, governments, Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), and other stakeholders toward large-scale climate-change solutions. We then show how these three climate-change initiatives are consistent with the logic embodied in the NRBV, a unique perspective of SCA based on the inter-relationship between the firm and the natural environment (Hart, 1995). …

El mecanismo de mitigación para el cambio climático, REDD+, representa una se las estrategias financieras que utiliza el pago por servicios ambientales para reducción de emisiones de carbono. Nacida dentro de la Convención Marco de las Naciones Unidas para el Cambio Climático, REDD+ ha sido diseñada para contribuir a la reducción de las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero a la atmósfera a causa de la deforestación y degradación de los bosques, en los países en vías de desarrollo con importantes masas forestales. Para fortalecer el mecanismo se han creado salvaguardas, que, aplicadas al mecanismo, tendrán la función de precautelar los derechos de las poblaciones que habitan y hacen uso de los bosques, reconocidos por los ordenamientos internos de los países, así como a escala internacional. El diseño del mecanismo REDD+ contempla los métodos financieros para su funcionamiento. Fuentes y distribución de los recursos. El presente trabajo explica cómo las salvaguardas son empleadas en dichos esquemas de financiación con el fin de que los derechos estén garantizados en todos los componentes de REDD+. The mechanism for climate change mitigation, REDD + represents a financial strategie in which payment for environmental services to reduce carbon emissions is used. Born in the Framework Convention of the United Nations Climate Change, REDD + is designed to help reduce emissions of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere caused by deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries with tropical forests. To strengthen the mechanism, they have been established safeguards, which, applied to the mechanism will guarantee the human rights of populations living and making use of forests, recognized by the internal systems of the countries and in an international scale.The design of REDD+ provides financial methods for operation. The financial sources and the distribution of the resources. This paper explains how the safeguards are employed in these financing schemes in order to protect these rights in all components of REDD +. Le mécanisme pour atténuer le changement climatique, REDD + représente une des stratégiesfinancières sont utilisées par le paiement des services environnementaux pour réduire les émissions decarbone. Né à la Convention-cadre de l'évolution du climat des Nations Unies, REDD + est conçu pouraider à réduire les émissions de GES dans l'atmosphère en raison de la déforestation et de la dégradationdes forêts dans les pays le développement des forêts importantes. Pour renforcer le mécanisme qu'ils ontété mis en place des garanties qui, appliquée au mécanisme fonctionnera à la sauvegarde des droits despopulations vivant et faire usage des forêts, reconnu par les systèmes internes des pays et à l'étranger. Laconception du mécanisme REDD + fournit des méthodes financières pour le fonctionnement. Sources etrépartition des ressources. Ce document explique comment les garanties sont employés dans cessystèmes de financement afin que les droits sont garantis dans toutes les composantes de la REDD +.

There is a worldwide consensus that climate change is a real, rapidly advancing and widespread threat facing this century. This is a crucial issue in Himalayan and special in Nepal because of its possible impact on water resource, biodiversity, and consequence on economic growth of the region. The increase trend of glacial retreat and variability on temperature and participation has the direct impact on the water resource and hydropower development. Mountain regions are particularly vulnerable, both because warming trends are higher and the impacts are magnifed by the extreme changes in altitude over small distances. It indicates the great variability of hydro-climatic variability in major rivers and their tributaries. Decrease runoff will have direct impact on the hydropower development, but there is uncertainty about the role of spatial variability of changing climatic scenarios and their possible impact for hydropower development in large and middle rivers. This paper presents the scenarios of climate change in Nepal in terms of hydro-climatic variability. The frst part describes hydro-climatic variability and its uncertainty for hydropower development, and the second part deals with the mitigation of uncertainties. Key words: Climate change; Deglaciation; GLOF; Water resource; Hydrological cycle; Hydropower; Himalayas; Nepal DOI: 10.3126/hn.v6i0.4190 Hydro Nepal Vol 6, January 2010 Page : 31-34 Uploaded Date: 24 January, 2011

Climate change and its impact on human survival have been today's major challenge and key topics of discussion globally. When considering the catastrophic impacts climate change will bring to earth, in-depth studies on the mechanics and chemistry of climate changes has been emerging. Simultaneously, international and national policies to reduce the vulnerability from climate change have been developed. This article discusses environmental retrospect and climate change issues and highlights efforts taken by global community to reduce GHG. An analysis through an equity lens is made between developed and developing nations and distinction of science and post normal science, and how skeptics revolve around the myth of climate changing ‘naturally' is discussed. A brief status of climate change in Nepal has been mentioned and some mitigation and adaptation measures that can be carried out at the institutional and individual level to start solving the climate crisis conclude the paper. Key Words: Global warming, Climate change, International policies, Intra- generational equity, GHG, Renewable energy, Individual adaptation DOI: 10.3126/init.v2i1.2527 The Initiation Vol.2(1) 2008 pp79-90

Climate change is predicted and currently observed to especially affect the rural poor, and some sort of support for adaptation is relevant. This paper tests two vulnerability assessment indexes in Lete and Kunjo VDCs in Mustang District: the Livelihood Vulnerability Index (LVI) and the Livelihood Effect Index (LEI). The indexes are completed based on primary data from 60 randomly selected respondents and the vulnerabilities at VDC and household levels are assessed. The figures resulting from the vulnerability assessments correspond with contextual information from the area elicited during key informant interviews and the methods are concluded useful in a Nepalese context. Both indexes validly reflect the relative differences between the two VDCs in terms of vulnerability to climate change impacts and factors contributing to it and both could therefore usefully form the basis for a nationally applicable index to identify and prioritise mitigation needs. However, a number of challenges to using indexes and basing them on respondents’ perceptions are recognised. Key words: Climate change; livelihoods; Mustang; vulnerability DOI: 10.3126/banko.v20i1.3503 Banko Janakari , Vol. 20, No. 1 pp.9-16

This paper reviews some of the major findings, conclusions, and recommendations of the Study of Man's Impact on Climate (SMIC). This study was conducted in Stockholm during the summer of 1971 under the sponsorship of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and was hosted by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences and the Royal Swedish Academy of Engineering Sciences. Thirty scientists from fourteen countries devoted 3 weeks of concentrated effort to develop a consensus concerning the present and future scale of man's activities that may affect the global temperature and heat balance and to determine whether such effects may become large enough to cause climate changes for the whole earth or for large regions. The principal conclusions of the study was that man may indeed be affecting local, regional, and global climate through a large number of varied activities. The gaps in present knowledge were identified and recommendations on how to fill these gaps were developed.

We describe in this paper a set of general circulation model experiments on possible climate changes caused by man's generation of thermal energy or pollution. Three experiments were carried out: one in which we introduced only a small initial error, one in which we added the expected ultimate levels of thermal energy generation, and one in which we added a negative amount of thermal energy. In an three experiments, we obtained the same results, indicating that the thermal pollution effect is probably small compared to the natural fluctuations of the model. We also discuss some limitations of the present model for inferring the proper climatic-change response.

In our days, communities have to face high level of water and food consumption based on uncertain supplies and growing demands. Thus, they work to prevent floods, soil erosion, to supply fresh water for population, industry and irrigation and to redirect streams and rivers in order to increase the food production. On the other hand, climate changes increased the frequency of extreme events like droughts and floods, and water management became a matter of great concern, in order to protect and preserve fertile land and drinkable water resources. Powerful software are needed to help environmental specialists to develop reliable projects for sustainable land development, in a short time. In the present paper, we will briefly present AutoCAD Civil 3D 2010, the most powerful software application released by Autodesk Inc., a short time ago. Using AutoCAD Civil 3D 2010 components together with new set of extensions, named Hydraflow Extension, land development specialists can deal with a large variety of hydrologic and hydraulic aspects, such as delineating watersheds and drainage areas and computing time of concentration and other rainfall-runoff relationship for the designated basins.

Any plan for military preparedness based on a defense of this hemisphere would be incomplete without proper consideration for the role of climatic factors in American warfare. Adherence to the Monroe Doctrine may necessitate the sudden dispatch of troop units with considerable striking power sufficient to prevent invasion or to break enemy footholds in any part of the Americas. Extending from one arctic region to the other, the Americas present all types of climate and all varieties of climatic change. Diseases caused by abrupt climatic change or by prolonged exposure are manifold and constitute important problems of preventive medicine in warfare. Troop movements, therefore, must always carefully take into account the degree of climatic change involved lest the efficiency of the fighting force be considerably, even dangerously, impaired. It is my purpose in this paper to outline the principal factors of this important problem and to present a basic and

If an apology is necessary for the introduction of that concerning which so much has already been written, it is found in the vast importance of the subject, the wide diversity of opinions, the rather general absence of clearly defined knowledge and the increasing mass of literature extolling without limit the virtues of special methods of treatment. It is not my purpose to advocate unduly the adaptability of any climate or climates to the various stages of the disease. To present a plea for the more rational and conservative measures of treatment in a climate appropriate to the individual case, in opposition to the present employment of serum-therapy in its various modifications, is the object of this paper. As a preliminary postulate, I will submit that climate in conjunction with painstaking attention to details of management offers to the pulmonary invalid greater assurance of improvement than can be otherwise obtained.