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This paper aims at analyzing the gender aspect of IKSs practiced by both males and females as distinct knowledge legacies in the regime of forest products and local herbs. The rationale for this analysis is that women's knowledge and men's knowledge encompasses gender specific roles as prescribed by the society and supervisory functions for the conservation of particular biodiversity domains and cultural dynamics. DOI: 10.3126/opsa.v11i0.3031 Occasional Papers in Sociology and Anthropology Vol.11 2009 67-83

The region of which the ecology of the vegetation has to be de scribed lies between latitudes i6?N and I5?i5' S. and longitudes 32?i5' and 32?45' E. and occupies an area of about 2611 sq. Km. The White Nile from the south and the Blue Nile from the south east unite at Khartoum and form the Main Nile (River Nile) which flows northwards. The Main Nile and the White Nile divide the area into two parts; one to the west and the other to the east. The latter part is again sub-divided by the Blue Nile (Fig. 1). In an earlier paper (Obeid & Mahmoud, 1969) a general survey of the vegetation of Khartoum Province was given. The paper has included an elaborate account of the geology, geomorphology, soils and climate of the Province together with geological and soil maps. Thus, of these, only a brief summary will be given here.

grassland. In and around Lyme Park, Cheshire are a number of these marshes, and a part of the valley of the Bollinhurst Brook which flows through the park was found to be of particular ecolog ical and geomorphological interest. Investigation of the pattern of the vegetation in this valley forms the major part of this paper. However interpretation of vegetation pattern depended on a knowl edge of the conditions under which Juncus effusus marshes develop. This information was obtained from a survey of marshes in the area, and is presented in the first part of the paper.

Mycocepurus smithi (Forel) (Figs. 9-14) Atta (Mycocepurus) smithi Forel, 1893: 37(1-372 (Worker; St. Vincent Island: Bellisle, Brighton). - Wheeler, 1907: 717-718, 773-774, pl. 50, figs. 15,.10; pl. 52, fig. 44 (Worker; Cuba; Bion.). - Forel, 1912: 187 (Nest; Colombia: Dibulla). Mycocepurus smithi: Wheeler & Mann, 1914: 42 (Haiti: Cape Haitien. Diquini). - Santschi, 1933: 123, fig. 9 (Worker). - Wheeler, 1936: 204 (Dominican Republic: San Lorenzo). - Weber, 1940: 417 (Panama Canal Zone: Gatun). - Weber, 1946: 128-129 (Bion., Distrib., British Guiana). - Kerr, 1961: 47 (Brazil, Sao Paulo: Rio Claro; Bion.). Atta (Mycocepurus) smithi var. borinquenensis Wheeler. 1907: 718 (Worker; Puerto Rico: Vega Baja, Arecibo, Utuado, Monte Mandios). - Wheeler, 1908: 149 (Puerto Rico: Coama Springs). - Weber. 1934: 56 (Cuba: Soledad). - NOV. SYN. Atta (Mycocepurus) smithi var. tolteca Wheeler, 1907: 718-719 (Worker; Mexico, Jalisco: Tuxpan). - NOV, SYN. Mycocepurus smithi var. eucarnitae Forel. 1913: 235-236 (Worker; Santiago de Cuba). - NOV. SYN. Trachymyrmex attaxenus Menozzi in Eidmann. 1936: 85-8b, fig. 4; pl. 1. - fig. X, 1-3 (Worker, female: Brazil, Rio de Janeiro: Mendes; Bion.). - NOV. SYN. Mycocepurus reconditus Borgmeier, 1937: 246-248, figs. 34-36 (Worker, female; Brazil, Baia: Agua Preta = Uruguca). - Borgmeier. 1948: 204-205 (Peru: Valle Chanchamayo). - Borgmeier, 1948: 470 (Argentina, Formosa: Mojon de Fierro). - Kusnezov, 1953: 221 (Bolivia; Syn.). - Kusnezov, 1956: 49, fig. 69D (Worker). - NOV. SYN. Mycocepurus smithi var. trinidadensis Weber, 1937: 378-379. fig. 1 (Worker, female; Trinidad). - NOV. SYN. Mycocepurus bolivianus Weber, 1938: 155-156, fig. 8 (Worker; Bolivia: Rurrenabaque). - NOV. SYN. Mycocepurus manni Weber, 1938: 156-157. figs. 1, 2 (Female; Bolivia: San Gregori). - NOV. SYN. Worker. - Total length 2.8-3.0 mm; head length 0.67- 0.75 mm; head width 0.61-0.67 mm; scape length 0.54-0.61 mm; thorax length 0.83-0.93 mm; hind femur length 0.61-0.69 mm. Integument distinctly and finely reticulate-rugulose and punctate. Head as shown in Fig. 9; somewhat elongate with less bulging cheeks. Occipital angles feebly obliquely truncate, the lateral angle of the truncation often quite indistinct. Frontal carinae usually obsolete on posterior half of head. Occiput in side-view obliquely curving forward and downward, not forming a conspicuous angle with gular' face. Mandibles rather narrow; chewing border with 5 teeth. Base of antennal scape not dilated in a ringlike fashion. Thorax and pedicel as shown in Figs. 10 and 11. Premesonotal disc with- a circlet of only 4 well-developed pairs of teeth; the infero-lateral pair of pronotum and the pair in the center of the circlet lacking or- at best rudimentary; sometimes there is a convex transverse carinule between the antero-lateral pair of mesonotal teeth. Anterior pair of postero-mesonotal and epinotal spines very short and toothlike. Petiole rather slender, with a longer peduncle; body of node lacking a lateral horizontal carinule, the, anterior pair of teeth on top of node separated from the posterior pair of teeth by a very shallow excision; Postpetiole depressed, with a pronounced postero-median furrow on disc. Erect hairs confined to dorsum of head, dorsum of scape; clypeus with just a few long hairs on anterior border. Hairs on dorsum of gaster appressed. Female. - Quite similar to that of goeldii but strikingly smaller in size: Total length 4.1-4.4 mm; head length 0.80-0.85 mm; head width. 0.75-0.80 mm; scape length 0.64-0.67 mm; thorax length 1.20-1.31 mm. Specific characters as in workers, except for the thoracic spinulation. Pronotum usually, with only one well-developed scapular tooth, the antero-inferior tooth either rudimentary or completely wanting. Mandibles with 5 teeth on chewing border. Vermiculate-rugose sculpture of body finer, often quite weak, especially on dorsum of postpetiole and on sides of thorax. Wings infumated, venation as stated for the male in the generic diagnosis. Tibiae and dorsum of postpetiole completely lacking erect hairs. Male. - Still undescribed. Three isolated males taken by Dr. W. E. Kerr at Rio Claro, Sao Paulo, Brazil, seem to represent this caste of smithi. Total length 3.8 mm; head length 0.64 min; head width, compound eyes included, 0.69 mm; scape length 0.43 mm; thorax length 1.25 mm. Black; funiculus and tarsi brown. Integument densely reticulate-punctate and opaque. Differs from goeldii as follows: Much smaller in size (cf. measurements). Head (Fig. 12) more elongate, with less pronounced occipital angles; very little rugulose. Mandibles punctate and without distinct striae. Scape relatively shorter; funicular segments II-XI about three times as long as broad. Pronotum on each side with a single scapular tooth. Mesonotal scutum and scutellum rather faintly longitudinally rugulose. Rest of thorax practically without conspicuous rugae. Epinotal spines rectangular in side-view. Tergum I of gaster distinctly longer than broad. Genitalia quite distinctive (see Figs. 13 and 14). Wings infumated, venation as in goeldii. Pilosity of pedicel and gaster appressed. Distribution. - M. smithi is widely dispersed, ranging from central Mexico and the greater and lesser Antilles through Central America to southeastern Brazil (Sao Paulo State) and northwestern Argentina (Formosa Province). Specimens examined. - Over a hundred individuals, mostly workers, a few females and tentatively three males, from the following localities: Workers. - Argentina, Formosa: Mojon de Fierro (N. Kusnezov) (CTB). - Brazil, Sao Paulo: Guaratingueta(W. W. Kempf); Rio de Janeiro: Jardim Primavera (U. Kohnen), Mendes (H. Eidmann) syntypes of Trachymyrmex attaxenus Menozzi (CTB), Petropolis (C- Gilbert), Sao Bento (C. R. Goncalves) (CTB, DDSV); Guanabara: Rio-de Janeiro (W. W. Kempf, C. R. Goncalves) (WWK, DDSV); Minas Gerais: Teofilo Otoni (P. Thiemann, O.F.M.) (CTB), Tres Pocos(T. Borgmeier) (CTB); Espirito Santo: Vila Velha (0. Seifert, O.F.M.); Goias: Anapolis (W. W. Kempf); Mato Grosso: Dourados (R. Mueller), Jardim (R. Mueller); Baia: Agua Preta (= Uruguca) (G. Bondar) syntypes of M. reconditus Borgmeier (CTB); Para: Belem (C. R. Goncalves) (CTB, DDSV). - Bolivia: Espia, Rio Beni (W. M. Mann) (NAW), San Antonio (H. Marcus (CTB), Rurrenabaque (W. M. Mann) syntypes of M. bolivianus Weber (MCZ, NAW). - Peru: Valle Chanchamayo (W. Weyrauch) (CTB). - Surinam: Courantyne R. (N. A. Weber (NAW), Paramaribo (D. C. Geijskes) (CTB). - Trinidad: s. loc. (W. M. Wheeler, N. A. Weber) (MCZ, NAW), Diego Martins (Urich) (MCZ), Mayaro Bay (N. A. Weber) (NAW), Northern Range (N. A. Weber), syntype of M. smithi var. trinidadensis Weber (NAW). - Haiti: Diquini (W. M. Mann) (MCZ). - Dominican Republic: S. Lorenzo (s. coll.) (MCZ). - Puerto Rico: Utuado (W. M. Wheeler) syntypes of M. smithi var. borinquenensis Wheeler (MCZ). - Cuba: Aspiro Range), Pinar del Rio (A. Bierig) (CTB), Bolondron (W. M. Wheeler) (MCZ), Cayajabos (A. Bierig) (CTB). - Costa Rica: Bataan (N. A. Weber) (NAW). - Mexico, Jalisco: Tuxpan (McClendon) syntypes of M. smithi var. tolteca Wheeler (MCZ). - Females. - Brazil, Rio de Janeiro: Mendes (H. Eidmann) syntypes of Trachymyrmex attaxenus Menozzi (CTB); Bafa: Uruijuca (O. Bondar) syntype of M. reconditus Borgmeier (CTB); Mato Grosso: Jardim (R. Mueller). - Bolivia: S. Gregorio(W. M. Mann) holotype of M. manni Weber (NAW). - Surinam: Paramaribo (D. C. Geijskes) (CTB). - Males. - Brazil, Sao Paulo: Rio Claro (W. E. Kerr). (All specimens in WWK unless noted otherwise). Synonymy. - All the forms herewith placed into synonymy of smithi are briefly discussed in the following. These comments will also show the range of infraspecific variation of the present species. 1. M. smithi var. borinquenensis Wheeler, 1907, worker. - Syntypes from Utuado, Puerto Rico, seen. The main distinguishing feature of this form is said to consist in the presence of a small tooth on each side of the occipital furrow at the postero-median border of the head. This character, which is here indeed well-developed, also occurs occasionally in specimens from other often distant localities and is not apt to circumscribe a taxonomically valid form. 2. M. smithi var. tolteca Wheeler, 1907, worker. - Syntypes from Tuxpan, Jalisco, Mexico, seen. They are of a slightly lighter, yellowish color, have the posterior epinotal spines more acute and upright, a feebler cephalic sculpture; the small denticles flanking the midoccipital furrow in the preceding variant are here substituted by low and pointed ridges. However, none of these characters is significant. 3. M. smithi var. eucarnitae Forel, 1913, worker. - Types from Santiago de Cuba not seen. According to the description they are of somewhat larger size, have longer promesonotal spines, the anterior pronotal ones being as long as those of the mesonotum. Teeth flanking the midoccipital furrow as in var. borinquenensis. Several Cuban specimens examined, although not visibly disagreeing with the afore mentioned diagnosis, do not vouch for the existance of a particular geographical race on that island. Hence eucarnitae is just a plain synonym of smithi. 4. Trachymyrmex attaxenus Menozzi i. litt., worker and female. - The paper by Menozzi supposed to contain the formal proposition of this species never appeared in print. The name was published by Eidmann (1936), who also figured both the worker and the female and gave an important account of the biology of this ant. Syntypes, received by Borgmeier from Eidmann, proved on examination that this is nothing but the common and widespread M. smithi. 5. M. reconditus Borgmeier, 1937, worker and female. - Syntypes examined. In the original diagnosis this species is differentiated from obsoletus according to the description and figures of the latter. The types, however, confirm that reconditus is conspecific with, and a junior synonym of, smithi. 6. M. smithi var. trinidadensis Weber, 1937, worker and female. - A syntype worker seen. According to the description "the workers of this variety differ chiefly in sculpture. The anteriorly directed convex and blunt ridge between the anterior mesothoracic spines is more reduced or practically absent. Between the sharply carinate sides of the first gastric segment the surface is longitudinally and finely rugulose". Since these characters vary at random and the examined syntype does not reveal a tangible difference, the present variety is best relegated to synonymy of smithi s. str. 7. M. bolivianus Weber, 1938, worker. - Syntypes examined. This species has been correctly synonymized by Kusnezov (1956) with reconditus Borgmeier, which in turn is a synonym of smithi. 8. M. manni Weber, 1938, female. - The holotype was examined. The specimen possesses somewhat heavier reticulate-rugose and vermiculate macrosculpture. The antero-inferior scapular spine is rudimentary. Otherwise, thise female is much like smithi from which it may not be separated specifically. Bionomics. - The ensuing data have been compiled from papers by Forel (1893a): 371-372, 1912: 187), Wheeler (1907: 773-774), Wheeler & Mann (1914: 42), Eidmann (1937: 85-86), Borgmeier (1937: 248) and Weber (1946: 128-129). The contribution by Eidmann is by far the most complete. The small and sluggish workers when foraging carry dry leaves and caterpillar droppings back to their nest. The nesting sites are either in open fields and woods or even in moist gullies. The nest proper is in the soil. On the surface it is marked by craters of earth crumbs, measuring not more than 8 cm in diameter. These superficial structures stand out by their color which is different from that of the top soil, indicating that the nest cavities are at some depth. According to Bondar (Borgmeier, 1937) nest chambers have been dug out at a depth varying from 80 to 100 cm. In Colombia, Forel (1912) found a rather shapeless fungus-garden of this species at very little profundity. A fact reported by many observers and confirmed by my own field experience is that usually a small area contains many craters of the same species, whereas neighboring areas have none at all. H. H. Smith (Forel, 1893a) who first called attention to the phenomenon, suggested that the craters of a given area represent the entrances of just one common formicarium (as happens with goeldii during the mating season, according to Luederwaldt). This, however, has not as yet been established conclusively. The nest cavity, measuring 4-5 cm in width to 2.5-3 cm in height, possesses a flat ceiling and an excavated bottom. From the ceiling without the support of a framework of plant rootlets hang narrow clusters or threads of fungus material. These threads, which are quite consistent, are made up of finely cut up leaf material connected by the mycelium. The fungus itself has not as yet been identified. Eidmann states that superficially it resembles that of Atta sexdens, whereas Forel (1912) glibly states that it is not Pholiota (Rizotes) gongylophora. Away from the nest chamber lead several fine and threadlike tunnels barely giving passage to the tiny workers. Eidmann (1936, fig. 4) gives a photograph of a nest chamber with the suspended fungus garden. While collecting in Puerto Rico, Wheeler (1907: 774) made several attempts at excavation of the fungus garden of M. smithi but succeeded only once. In moist red clay under a stone he found a small irregular chamber with about 30 ants. The fungus garden, a small mass of approximately 2 cc in volume, consisted of caterpillar droppings studded with bromatia that scarcely differed from those of Cyphomyrmex rimosus and allies, the only Attine ants known to cultivate a yeast. Wheeler's discordant observation poses an interesting problem, but also needs further confirmation.. According to Eidmann, the colonies are polygynous. At any rate he found several dealated queens in a single nest chamber. The same author proclaims a lestobiotic relationship between M. smithi and Atta sexdens because he found a great many nest chambers of the former between the cavities made by the latter. However, if any such relationship exists, it is not obligatory since M. smithi also occurs in areas where no sign of an Atta sp. could be discovered. Perhaps this association, of which no details are known, dissolves itself in the loose relationship of facultative synoecetes. In southeastern Brazil AT. smithi lives occasionally side by side with M. goeldii under the same ecological conditions. Kerr (1961) even found 3 males of the former in a swarm of 150 males of the latter species at Rio Claro, Sao Paulo State, Brazil. None of the smithi males attempted to mate with goeldii queens., Published as part of Kempf, W. W., 1963, A review of the ant genus Mycocepurus Forel, 1893 (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)., pp. 417-432 in Studia Entomologica (N. S.) 6 on pages 425-430

Megaponera foetens (Fabricius) Plate VI, Figure 2 Zambi, [[worker]]; Niangara, [[worker]], [[queen]]; Rungu, [[worker]]; Avakubi, [[worker]]; Faradje, [[worker]]; Panga to Banalia, [[male]]; Boyulu, [[worker]]; Niapu, [[worker]]; Garamba, [[worker]]; Akenge, [[worker]]; Gamangui, [[worker]] (Langand Chapin); Malela, [[worker]] (J. Bequaert). Seventeen of the specimens from Boyulu, Niapu, Garamba, Akenge, and Gamangui were taken from the stomachs of four species of toads (Bufo funereus, superciliaris, regularis, and polycercus) and a male from Faradje was taken from the stomach of a frog (Rana occipitalis). The smaller individuals have the vertex and pronotum very shining, the mandibles toothless, and the funicular joints of the antenna; much shorter and more transverse than in the larger workers (Fig. la and b) and were therefore formerly regarded as a distinct species (M. crassicornis Gerstaecker). A worker media was also described by Emeiy as a distinct species, M., dohrni. At one time he interpreted the smaller individuals as the true workers and the larger as ergatomorphic females. Arnold, who found this view improbable for the reason that the large are about four times as numerous as the small individuals in the colony, has recently discovered the true female.1 It is of the ergatomorphic type, with a slender wingless thorax like the large worker and measures 18.5 mm. The petiole, however, is squamiform and not cuboidal as in the worker and the gaster is much more voluminous. It therefore resembles the females of Leptogenys (subgen. Lobopelta) and Onychomyrmex which I have described in former papers. Armies of Megaponera were frequently observed by Mr. Lang preying on termites or carrying the larvae and pupae in files, sometimes of 300 or more individuals. In the literature there are some interesting accounts of the habits of this ant.2 Wellman observed it in Benguela and informed Forel of its habit of marching in populous columns.3 In a later paper4 Forel published some observations of Prell on the same ant in German East Africa. He found it running in single file on the road. Most of the larger individuals were carrying worker and soldier termites in their jaws and Prell was struck both by the sonorous stridulation of the army and by its strong odor, which resembled that of oil of bitter almonds and was imparted to the alcohol of the vial in which the specimens were preserved. Similar observations were made by Bequaert in the Katanga.5 A more detailed, though incomplete, account of a raid on termites is given by Alluaud and Jeannel in Santschi's paper on the ants they collected in East Africa: When they are disturbed and run away the Megaponera foetens stridulate, and the noise made by a troop of them can be heard at a distance of several meters. We noticed this on several occasions, particularly at Fort Hall and New Moschi. At the latter station on the morning of April 10, 1912, in a corner of the forest at the edge of the Rau River, we encountered a troop of several hundred Megaponera marching in a column several abreast, apparently moving with decision to a predetermined goal. They descended the bank of the stream, stridulating loudly. We were unfortunately busily occupied at this spot collecting a lot of large Papilio which came down to the river to drink, so that we did not think of following the Megaponera army. An hour later these ants returned in good order in the reverse direction, each of them carrying in its mandibles a whitish pellet consisting of dead termites glued together with saliva. Some of them carried as many as ten to twelve termite workers thus agglutinated, others only two or three soldiers; one carried a dealated male, possibly the king of the plundered termitarium. The number of termites in a pellet varied with its size, but not an ant returned without something. While collecting a number of these Megaponera fcetens with their booty we experienced the effect of their sting, which is lancinating and very painful but very transitory. 1 1915. Ann. South African Mus., XIV, p. 48, footnote, fig. 2 Livingstone in his celebrated 'Missionary travels and researches in South Africa,' 1859, pp. 576- 577, has given what is apparently the earliest account of the termite hunting Ponerinae of Central Africa. His description of their foraging parties is remarkably accurate; he even mentions that "when disturbed, they utter a distinct hissing or chirping sound." 3 1909, Ann. Soc. Ent. Belgique, LIII, p. 64. In Entomological News, XIX, 1908, p. 33, F. C. Wellman gives an account of what is evidently a raiding party of Megaponera foetens, but unfortunately calls the ant " Polyrhachis militaris cupreopubescens." 4 1911, Bull. Soc. Vaudoise Sc.Nat.,(5) XLVII, p. 361. See also Prell, H., 1911, 'Biologische Beo bachtungen an Termiten und Ameisen,' Zool. Anzeiger, XXXVIII, pp. 243-253. 5 1913, Rev. Zool. Afr., II, p. 422. In his monograph of the Formicidae of South Africa (loco citato, p. 47) Arnold says: It is a common ant in Rhodesia and lives almost exclusively on termites, which are carried off by means of carefully arranged raids in which the ants march in double file. This is the species which is popularly called the "Matabele" ant, and like its cousin Paltothyreus, it is also endowed with a very offensive odor. They stridulate very loudly when disturbed, and their sting is exceedingly painful. The entrance to the nest consists of one or more simple holes without any mounds of earth around them. In the Proceedings of the Rhodesian Scientific Association, XIII, 1914, p. 26 et seq., Arnold has recently published a fascinating description of the extraordinary way in which the Matabele ant changes its nesting site and is followed by its numerous guests. I quote the greater part of his account, as the journal in which it appeared may not be accessible to my readers: This is eminently a termitophagous species, and it is likely that it changes the site of its nest more often than is the case with the majority of our ants. When we bear in mind how continuous their assaults are on the colonies of termites, it seems very probable that the supply of the latter insects may be so diminished within the practical range of the camp of the raiders that the latter may find it advantageous to move their quarters from time to time to new and more fruitful country. The migration of this ant which I am about to describe is of particular interest, apart from the behavior of the guest insects, because it was the occasion of the discovery of the true queen of the species. * * * My attention was attracted to this migration by seeing a mass of these ants assembled together with their larvae and pupae, in the open. On one side, many workers were to be seen bringing along the larvae in their jaws, on the other side of this mass a few workers were moving in the other direction, in a somewhat hesitating manner. Following the track backwards, I came to the site of the old nest, situated about 15 feet away. Returning to the camp, it was seen that some workers had started to pick up the larvae again, and were carrying them yet further away from the original nest, only to be laid down again at about another 15 feet further away. Subsequent observations showed that the migration was carried out in three stages, three temporary camps being formed between the old and the new nests, which were about 60 feet apart. The method adopted by the insects was as follows. First of all, the eggs, larvae, pupae and males were taken from the old nest and put down at the first camp, from which many workers were to be seen hurrying back to fetch away the rest of their charges. In the meantime, a few workers were to be seen pacing up and down on the other side of the camp. They did not carry any larvae and it would almost seem as though they had some idea of the numerical composition of the colony, and of what the volume of the first camp should be, before the old nest could be considered to have been emptied by its inhabitants, and the proper moment to have arrived for another start to be made. However, after about six or seven minutes, the march recommenced; and within a short time the second camp had been made at a distance of about 15 feet from the first. Similarly a third and last camp was formed further on. It was while the first camp was about to break up that I saw an insect then much larger than the largest worker, and which, when captured in the third camp, proved, to my surprise, to be the queen. The entrance to the old nest was a hole about 1 inch across, which ran down vertically for about 5 inches and then branched off at an angle. Looking down this hole, the various guests and parasites could be seen climbing up the walls in an almost continuous stream, hastening to join their hosts in their new home. These insects comprised a Lepisma, two species of staphylinid beetles, a histerid beetle and an onthophagous beetle; there was also a spider. The Lepismas as usual were very plentiful; of the larger staphylinid I saw only one specimen, but of the smaller sort and of the other beetles very many examples occurred, and during the half hour or so through which I watched the procession, about two dozen specimens of the spider were counted. Had it been possible to have cinematographed the scene, it would have furnished us with a film of surpassing interest. Here, as in the case of Myrmicaria, the myrmecophiles were able to follow the tracks of their hosts without any delay or uncertainty. Occasionally one of the smaller staphylinids would leave the beaten track for a short distance and then return to it again a little further on, but to the majority of these commensals, the odour of their hosts had laid down a path as clearly marked as a macadamized road would be to our eyes, so that with the above exception, it was rare to see any of these insects swerve from the line of march by as much as an inch. This motley crew of cringers, thieves, murderers and body-snatchers did not appear to attract the slightest attention from their victims the ants, which were too busy with the work in hand to waste any time on the rabble following in their wake. Of all this crowd, the spiders alone were able to keep pace all the time with the ants, but the slowest, the very small histerid, even at its most feverish pace, did not succeed in covering more than 2 inches per minute, so that it would have arrived at the new nest about six hours after leaving the old. Those beetles which managed to reach the different camps, while these were still intact, buried themselves in the heap of larvae and cocoons, where they remained until the gradual depletion of the mass made it clear that they had not arrived at the site of the real nest and that another wearisome journey had to be made to attain their goal. The spiders moved about in the camps in a very easy and unconcerned manner, making no attempts to hide under the piles of cocoons. They ran over the backs of the ants, mingling in a friendly way with the crowd; yet even in the hurry and bustle of this march, it was not possible for these animals to conceal entirely their method of earning a living. A worker ant, carrying a larva in its jaws, was seen just about to pass a spider standing on the edge of the camp. The spider ran up to the worker, stroked it with its front pair of legs for a second or two, and then plunged its fangs into the larva. The latter was released by the ant after a little hesitation, and within five minutes had been sucked dry by the spider. We know that there are many ant parasites which live chiefly on the young of their hosts; but usually these insects offer, on various parts of their bodies, those bribes in the shape of trichomes which make the ants careless of, or oblivious to the true nature of their guests. On the other hand, there are the synceketes, or indifferently tolerated guests, with which perhaps the histerid and onthophagous beetles found on this occasion should be classed, which do not usually bear trichomes. They owe their immunity from attack on the part of the ants, either to their insignificant size, or to their awkward shape, which prevents the ants from seizing hold of them. But it is difficult to understand how the spiders can live unmolested in the nests of such a powerful and vicious ant as Megaponera foetens and be allowed to feed on the larva;, without apparently the mildest protest. They do not possess trichomes, nor are they so constructed, by smoothness or hardness of texture, as to prevent the ants from seizing hold of them. The staphylinids arc probably to be placed in the category of synechthrans, or inimically persecuted intruders, which includes a number of insects which skulk about ants' nests, and get a living by rummaging about in the refuse heaps or kitchenmiddens, or by attacking solitary workers in the lonely corners and by-ways of the settlement. * * * In conclusion, it should be pointed out that in these latitudes, migrations of ants can be expected to take place only after sunset, or if earlier, only on dull and cloudy days, as was the case with Megaponera, since the delicate larvae cannot bear a lengthy exposure to the rays of the sun. Two of the viah of Megaponera collected by Mr. Lang contained a number of cocoons and larvae in various stages, so that, on reading Arnold's account, it seemed probable that the brood might show adaptations to being carried about and exposed to the sunlight. A study of the material shows that such adaptations can be detected. The larvae (Fig. 8a and b) arc grayish white, long and subcylindrical, and only slightly curved, with strongly marked segments and with smooth, remarkably tough integument, which is quite hairless in all stages, a condition I have never observed in any other ant larva. The head is very large, rounded, strongly chitinized, and terminal, with long, acute, falcate, edentate mandibles, minute vestiges of antennae, and very prominent tactile sensillae on the maxillae and labium. The size of the head and mandibles shows that the larvae are fed on pieces of termites and not with regurgitated liquid food, and the strong integument is evidently an adaptation to exposure to the air and light and to the exigencies of frequent and protracted transportation in the powerful denticulate jaws of the workers. The nudity of the integument indicates that even the very young larvae are carried singly and not in bunches held together by interlocking hairs as in most other species of ants. The cocoons are black and remarkably tough, characters which I have observed in certain Australian Ponerinae of the genera Diacamma and Rhytidoponera as adaptations to exposure to sunlight.1 This interpretation is confirmed by Mr. Lang, who, without knowing of my observations, informed me that he was surprised to find Megaponera often exposing its dark cocoons in heaps to the sunlight. Recently, in a letter to Prof. Poulton,2 G. D. H. Carpenter records some additional observations which he was able to make on M. foetens southwest of Lake Victoria: I see a good deal of the ant Megaponera foetens here: one is always coming across their long, solemn, slowly marching, black processions -of any number from 50 to 500 or so. I have never seen them carrying any other booty but the species of termite which abounds here -the one I have alluded to before. It lives underground and makes no hills -coming out of little holes and running about, uncovered, in the open, to get bits of live or dead grass which it carries down the holes. Presumably in correlation with its open-air habits, its color is much darker than the large termite whose hills I used to destroy on the islands, and which devoured my house. This one does not attack wooden posts nor does it make covered runs. Curiously enough, I have never seen an}' soldiers, which is perhaps why Megaponera wages such ceaseless war against it. This ant, when it goes out in column, wanders about looking for the termite holes. Immediately one is found there is great excitement. The little bits of grass which sometimes plug the entrance are dragged out, and the ants scramble down the hole very shortly reappearing with termites, feebly struggling in their jaws. Sometimes there seems evidence of an underground barricade, as ants come up to the surface with bits of dead grass, etc., as if they were breaking down hastily erected barricades! One can almost picture the termites hastily throwing up partitions of grass and earth to keep back the invaders. It would be interesting to know if the reason why Megaponera is absent from some parts, is because this particularly defenceless termite is absent also., Published as part of Wheeler, W. M., 1922, The ants collected by the American Museum Congo Expedition., pp. 39-269 in Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 45 on pages 64-69

Russell, Dale A. (1970): Tyrannosaurs from the Late Cretaceous of western Canada. Ottawa: National Museum of Natural Sciences, Publications in Palaeontology, No. 1, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.1040973, {"references":["Charig, a. J., J. Attridge, and A. W. Crompton (1965). On the origin of the sauropods and the classification of the Saurischia. Linnean Society of London Proceedings 176: 197-221.","Colbert, E. H. (1962). The weights of dinosaurs. American Museum of Natural History Novitates 2076: 1-16.","(1964). Relationships of the saurischian dinosaurs. American Museum of Natural History Novitates 2181 : 1-24.","Cope, E. D. (1866). Remarks on dinosaur remains from New Jersey. Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia Proceedings, June, 1866: 275-279.","(1869-70). Synopsis of the extinct Batrachia, Reptilia, and Aves of North America. American Philosophical Society Transactions n. s. 14: 1-252.","(1892). On the skull of the dinosaurian Laelaps inciassatus Cope. American Philosophical Society Proceedings 30: 240-245.","GiLMORE, C. W. (1920). Osteology of the carnivorous dinosauria in the United States National Museum. United States National Museum Bulletin 110: 1-159.","(1946). A new carnivorous dinosaur from the Lance Formation of Montana. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 106(13): 1-19.","Hay, O. p. (1908). On certain genera and species of carnivorous dinosaurs, with special reference to Ceratosaunis nasicornis Marsh. United States National Museum Proceedings 35(1648): 351-366.","Huene, F. von (1932). Die fossile Reptil-Ordnung Saurischia, ihre Entwicklung und Geschichte. Monographien zur Geologie und Palaeontologie 4: 1-361.","Kielan-Jaworowska, Z. (1967). Les resultats des expeditions paleontologiques polonomongoles (1963-1965) dans le Desert de Gobi et Mongolie occidentale. Colloques Internationaux du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, numero 163, Problemes actuels de paleontologie: 419- 25.","Lambe, L. m. (1904). On Diyptosaurus incrassatus (Cope), from the Edmonton Series of the North West Territory. Geological Survey of Canada, Contributions to Canadian Palaeontology 3: 1-27.","(1914). On a new genus and species of carnivorous dinosaur from the Belly River Formation of Alberta, with a description of the skull of Stephanosaurus marginatus from the same horizon. Ottawa Naturalist 28: 13-20.","(1917). The Cretaceous theropodous dinosaur Gorgosaunis. Geological Survey of Canada Memoir 100: 1-84.","Langston, W., jr. (1965). Pre-Cenozoic vertebrate paleontology in Alberta: its past and future. In Vertebrate paleontology in Alberta, University of Alberta, Edmonton, p. 9- 31.","Leidy, J. (1857). Notices of remains of extinct reptiles and fishes, discovered by Dr. F. V. Hayden in the bad lands of the Judith River, Nebraska Territory. Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia Proceedings 8: 72-73.","(1860). Extinct Vertebrata from the Judith River and Great Lignite Formation of Nebraska. American Philosophical Society Transactions n. s. 1 1 : 139-154.","Maleyev, E. a. (1955\"). Carnivorous dinosaurs of Mongolia (in Russian). Priroda June 1955: 112-115.","(1955b). Gigantic carnivorous dinosaurs of Mongolia (in Russian). Dokladi Akademii Nauk S.S.S.R. 104(4): 634- 637.","(1955c). New carnivorous dinosaurs from the upper Cretaceous of Mongolia (in Russian). Dokladi Akademii Nauk S.S.S.R. 104(5): 779-782.","(1964). Family Deinodontidae (in Russian). //; Rozhdestvensky, A. K. and L. P. Tatarinov, Ocnovi Paleontologii 12: 538-540.","Marsh, O. C. (1890). Additional characters of the Ceratopsidae, with notice of new Cretaceous dinosaurs. American Journal of Science (third series) 39: 418-426.","Matthew, W. D., and B. Brown (1922). The family Deinodontidae, with notice of a new genus from the Cretaceous of Alberta. American Museum of Natural History Bulletin 46: 367-385.","(1923). Preliminary notices of skeletons and skulls of Deinodontidae from the Cretaceous of Alberta. American Museum of Natural History Novitates 89: 1-10.","OSBORN, H. F. (1905). Tyrannosaurus and other Cretaceous carnivorous dinosaurs. American Museum of Natural History Bulletin 21 : 259-265.","(1906). Tyrannosaurus, upper Cretaceous carnivorous dinosaur (second communication). American Museum of Natural History Bulletin 22: 281-296.","(1912). Crania of Tyrannosaurus and Allosaurus. American Museum of Natural History Memoires (n. s.) 1 : 1-30.","(1913). Tyrannosaurus^ restoration and model of the skeleton. American Museum of Natural History Bulletin 32: 91-92 (1917). Skeletal adaptations of Ornitholestes, Struthiomimus, Tyrannosaurus. American Museum of Natural History Bulletin 35: 733-771 Parks, W. A. (1928). Albertosaurus arc (unguis, a new species of therapodous dinosaur from the Edmonton Formation of Alberta. University of Toronto Studies, Geological Series 25: 1-42.","Rozhdestvensky, A. K. (1965). Growth changes in Asian dinosaurs and some problems of their taxonomy. Paleontologicheskii Zhurnal 1965 (3): 95-109.","Russell, D. A. (1967). A census of dinosaur specimens collected in western Canada. National Museum of Canada Natural History Paper 36: 1-13.",", and T. Potter Chamney (1967). Notes on the bio-stratigraphy of dinosaurian and microfossil faunas in the Edmonton Formation (Cretaceous) Alberta. National Museum of Canada Natural History Paper 35: 1-22.","Russell, L. S. (1964). Cretaceous non-marine faunas of northwestern North America. Royal Ontario Museum, Life Sciences Contribution 61 : 1-24.","Sternberg, C. M. (1945). Canadian dinosaurs. Canadian Geographical Journal 30: 186-199.","(1946). Canadian dinosaurs. National Museum of Canada Bulletin 103: 1-20.","(1949). The Edmonton fauna and description of a new Triceratops from the Upper Edmonton Member. National Museum of Canada Bulletin 113: 33-46.","(1950). Map 969A Steveville west of the fourth meridian, notes on fossil localities. Geological Survey of Canada.","(1966). Canadian dinosaurs. National Museum of Canada Bulletin 103 (second edition): 1-28.","Walker, A. D. (1964). Triassic reptiles from the Elgin area: Ornithosuchus and the origin of carnosaurs. Royal Society of London Philosophical Transactions Series B 248: 53-134."]}

Genus Polyrhachis. Body more or less armed with spines. Antenna elongate, usually nearly as long as the body; labial palpi 4-jointed, the basal joint shortest, the three following, each in succession, longer than the preceding; the apical joint three times the length of the basal one. Maxillary palpi 6-jointed, elongate, the basal joint short, about half the length of the second joint, each of the following joints more than twice the length of the second joint. Thorax: subovate in the females; compressed and frequently flattened above in the workers; wings as in Formica ligniperda. Abdomen globose. (Details, Plate I.) This genus of Ants, of which the Formica bihamata may be regarded as the type, forms a very distinct section of the Formicidae: the males I am not acquainted with. The habit of these insects is arboreal, as we learn from Mr. Jerdon, who, in his paper on Ants, in the Madras Journal, describes two species; of one, P. nidificans, he says, " This Ant makes a small nest about half an inch or rather more in diameter, of some papyraceous material, which it fixes on a leaf; I have opened two, each of which contained one female and eight or ten workers. It is veryrare; I have only seen it in Malabar." What can be the use of the formidable spines and hooks with which these creatures are armed, it is impossible to determine; on examination we find, as might be expected in species living on trees, and probably all have the same habit, that the legs are destitute of spines, and usually of pubescence also; the calcaria at the apex of the tibiae are very short, and the tips of the tarsal joints have very short spines and hairs. The Polyrhachis textor, described in these papers, was captured with its nest, and was sent from Malacca by Mr. Wallace; the nest is nearly oval, not quite an inch in length, its shortest diameter being a little over half an inch; this nest is not of a papyraceous texture, but fibrous, formed, as it were, of a coarse network; the colonies must consequently be very small, as Mr. Jerdon says, consisting of only eight or ten individuals; but probably at the height of the season, when the males appear, the nests may be somewhat enlarged, as we know to be the case amongst the social Wasps. Although these insects are usually rare, or at least seldom met with in collcetions, Mr. Wallace has captured no less than nineteen species in the East: from the New World I have only seen one or two, about four from Africa, and the same number from Australia., Published as part of Smith, F., 1857, Catalogue of the hymenopterous insects collected at Sarawak, Borneo; Mount Ophir, Malacca; and at Singapore, by A. R. Wallace., pp. 42-88 in Journal of the Proceedings of the Linnean Society of London, Zoology 2 on pages 58-59

3 d, Ponera, neuters and females with a sting; abdominal pedicle of one knot; antennas thicker towards the end, jaws triangular, head somewhat triangular. " Much difficulty has been met with in reading the manuscript of this and. the following papers, which may account for any errata that may be detected in these two papers from their very accurate and able, author. - Ed.

’ Phylolestes, new genus Wings long and narrow, about seven times as long as wide. Petiolation ends well before the level of the quad­ rangle in both wings. In the fore wings Ac is well distad of the level of petiolation and is opposite the midpoint between the two antenodals. In the hind wings Ac is Published with a grant from the Museum of Comparative ZoSlogy at Harvard College. Tillyard & Fraser , Aust. Zool. 9 (2), pp. 15­30, Nov . 1938. Lieftinck ,.Treubia 17, pp . 45 ­61, March 1939. Needham , G., Amer. Mus. Novitat. No. 1081, July 17, 1940. Venational terms used in this paper are those of Tillyard and Fraser (op. cit.) except that Discoidal cell of Tillyard Quadrangle . slightly distad of the level of petiolation and is closer to the second antenodal than to the first; second antenodal on a level with the arculus; quadrangle strongly acute with the proximal side as long as, or longer than, anterior side; subquadrangle separated from the wing margin with this separation more marked in the fore wing; anal bridge arises distally directly from the distal angle of the quadrangle in the hind wings, and originates slightly below the quadrangle in the fore wings; vein Cu P swings up sharply on leaving the quadrangle; R plus 5 arises closer to the subnodus than to the areulus, and more than one cell before the subnodus nodus located of the dis­ tance from the base to the distal end of the wing; IR3 arises at subnodus; IR2 is deflected strongly toward the stigma; at least one true sector between IR2 and R3, rising proximad to the level of the stigma; no oblique crossvein between R3 and IR3. Superior male abdominal appendages forcipate, inferiors rudimentary and plate­like. Penis typically Synlestine, lacking a terminal lobe and possessing a visible median spine. The genus Phylolestes is very close in the shape of the penes to the African genus Chlorolestes; however, it may easily be separated from this genus by the venation and the shape of the inferior abdominal appendages. In For the purposes of this paper a " true " sector is one which is straight for at legist five cells length. Chlorolestes the anal bridge originates distally well down the vein descending from the quadrangle in both wings, and joins the wing margin well before reaching Ac; Ac is opposite, slightly distad, or slightly proximad of, the level of the first antenodal; the wings are petiolated to, or nearly to, the level of the quadrangle; and the inferior abdominal appendages have a heavily sclerotized spiniform area. In Phylolestes the anal bridge starts at, or very close to, the distal angle of the quadrangle and runs into Ac before reaching the wing margin; Ac is opposite the midpoint between the first and second antenodals or closer to the second antenodal; the wings are clearly not petiolated to the level of the arculus; and the inferior abdominal appendages lack any heavily sclerotized area. The distal origin of the anal bridge is similar to a condition found in the Australian genus Synlestes, while the condition of Ac resembles that of the Oriental Megalestes; but a separation of these three genera may easily be seen by an examination of the penes and a comparison of the venation. Genotype. Phylolestes ethelae,., Published as part of Christiansen, K. A., 1947, A new genus and species of damselfly from southern Haiti (Odonata), pp. 256-262 in Psyche 54 on pages 256-258, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.3241358

Prionopelta sp. Chiapas, soil. Dr. Goodnight's specimens could not with certainty be referred to any of the species named in the "Wheeler Collection. This genus, while small, seems greatly in need of revision. Phylogenetically, it has been related by Wheeler and Emery to the Ectatommini. I would place it closer to the Amblyoponini, and provisionally include it in the latter tribe. It has "amblyoponine teeth" at the sides of the head anteriorly, and several species have the anterior clypeal margin denticulate as in Amblyopone. The structure of the alitrunk and especially the petiole also point to such a relationship. The mandibles seem only relatively slightly modified from certain types seen today among the amblyoponines. A small, headless male specimen in the Wheeler Collection among unidentified miscellany, bearing Wheeler's handwritten label " Prionopelta," is probably correctly placed. The structure of the petiole and sculpture and pilosity are those of the worker. The venation in this specimen is unusually complete for such a small ant, and is further unusual in that Mf1 comes off well basad of cu-a. In a recent paper (Brown and Nutting, 1950, pp. 116-121 and plate 8) it was stated that such basal displacement of the origin of Mf1 was more primitive than was an origin of this vein lined up with cu-a or apicad of cu-a. In a recent conversation, Dr. J. C. Bradley pointed out to me that this interpretation is questionable and cited examples in the Vespidae and other aculeate groups to prove his point. I had originally arrived at the conclusion cited in our wing venation paper through study of certain drawings by H. II. Ross of primitive sawfly wings, referred to in the homologization on the first few pages of our paper. In Dr. Bradley's opinion, these primitive sawfly wings just happen to be specialized in origin of Mf1. I am now willing to admit that in the ants, at least, basal displacement of this vein is probably derived. The true primitive position would then be the lining-up with cu-a, which checks with other primitive features as found in many myrmeciines and amblyoponines. The most important change this would make in our conclusions concerns the Dorylinae, which would seem to have arisen from within or near the amblyoponine stock instead of having arisen, as we stated in the paper in question, from a "pre-ponerine" stock. We most emphatically stand, however, on our conclusion that the cerapachyines cannot be considered as in the line of descent of the dorylines; the evidence of the wings and thorax shows that these two stocks are basically divergent. Prionopelta is an amblyoponine (or very close relative) with definite "doryline tendencies'' in the venation of the forewing. It may be mentioned here, in connection with the discussion of ant wing venation, that both Dr. J. C. Bradley and Dr. R. M. Schuster have communicated to me their belief that the vein we called "Rsx" in our wing venation paper cited above, the same element known as the "spurious vein" by mutillid specialists, is a secondary development in both ants and mutilloid wasps forming at the bending of certain crossveins such as the second or third r-m. This interpretation seems reasonable to me, especially in the light of Schuster's recent (1949, pp. 69-75, pl. 13, fig. 9) discovery of the very primitive mutillid Prototilla, which lacks the spurious vein. Returning to Prionopelta and relatives, the genera Onychomyrmex Emery, Lithomyrmex Clark, and Examblyopone Donisthorpe, which have been separated chiefly on the condition of the spurs of the middle and hind tibiae, must in my opinion also be included in the Amblyoponini despite present classifications which place them in separate tribes. Onychomyrmex (O. hedleyi Emery, O. mjobergi Forel, O. doddi Wheeler) in the Wheeler Collection actually possess very small rudimentary spurs. These genera, with Prionopelta, represent a developmental series with regard to the spurs of such continuity that it becomes evident that such a character in the Ponerinae may be accepted as of no more than generic significance. The same applies to the spurs in some ponerine tribes other than the Amblyoponini, as will be seen under Belonopelta below., Published as part of Brown, W. L., 1950, Morphological, taxonomic and other notes on ants., pp. 241-250 in Wasmann Journal of Biology 8 on pages 243-244

[Redescription of PHTHIRACARUS LAEVIGATUS (C. L. KOCH)] The present paper deals with Koch's Hoplophora laevigata, characterized by this author as a large species, with a highly arched and shiny notogaster, of which the hairs were invisible to him (so that they are very small), and a short sensillus that is curved to the front; he described the colour as rust-yellow (in the latin diagnosis defined as ferrugineus = rust-coloured or reddish brown; the coloured figure which accompanies the text is indeed rather dark brown), the notogaster presenting a black border, and the aspis the usual pair of light spots; the ano-genital region and the legs are described and figured as lighter. There can be no doubt about the belonging of laevigata to the genus Phthiracarus because of the smooth cuticle and the absence of a distinct median prodorsal carina. Among the nine species of the genus Phthiracarus collected by me in the surroundings of Regensburg, there is only one of which the notogastral hairs are inconspicuous, all other species having longer notogastral hairs that are much more distinct. This species is, moreover, the largest of all and has a highly arched notogaster, characters that exactly fit in with Koch's description of Hoplophora laevigata, just as the shape of the sensillus and the colour. Consequently, there is sufficient proof for the identity of Koch's original description and the material collected by me. This own material has served me for the present redescription. Jacot (1936) was the first to re-identify the species on the same grounds. His description is sufficient for an identification, but several characters that are interesting for a future subdivision of the genus Phthiracarus are not mentioned. I point for instance to the number of lyrifissures, and to the number and position of vestiges of hairs. Because Jacot mounted his specimens in balsam, he often could not see the difference between a place of insertion of a hair, a vestige of a hair, and a lyrifissure. Sellnick (1928, 1960) identified laevigatus with a species of Steganacarus; it is, however, evident that a species described by Koch as shiny and smooth (the translation of " laevigatus " is moreover, " polished " or " smooth ") cannot belong to Steganacarus, a genus with distinctly sculptured cuticle and a distinct median prodorsal carina. Phthiracarus laevigatus was characterized by Jacot as the only Regensburg species of which the genital valves present a distinct anterior apophysis. This apophysis has afterwards been observed in other species, and is for instance also present in P. nitens Nicolet. In the surroundings of Regensburg I discovered another species presenting this character, viz., the species above referred to as P. cf. contractilis. I do not know whether Jacot confused the two species. P. cf. contractilis is distinctly different from P. laevigatus by the less arched notogaster, the absence of the characteristic angle near c1, and the longer notogastral hairs. Apparently, it has also a habitat that differs from that of P. laevigatus, because I collected it in the large forests of spruce-fir (Schwaighauser Forst, Donaustaufer Forst), where P. laevigatus has not been found. Jacot (1930) considered P. contractilis Perty (the type of the genus Phthiracarus) a synonym of P. laevigatus. Perty's figures of the species, published by Clapar��de (1868), show, however, a yellowish brown mite, of which the notogaster is much less arched, without the characteristic angle near c1. Because Perty's species was also collected in Bavaria, there is some chance that it is identical with my material from fir-woods. There are, however, still more species of the group in Bavaria, as I collected a third one in M��nchen. I hope to return to the important contractilis problem in one of the following papers of the series; a neotype must be designated before the genus Phthiracarus can be subdivided. The study of P. laevigatus is thwarted by the behaviour of the specimens in lactic acid. Notwithstanding the fact that the species looks rather solid, heating with lactic acid causes serious deformation of the cuticle, whilst gass- and oilbubbles are formed in the interior. The results with slow heating in diluted lactic acid proved to be only little better. Among twenty specimens treated in this way, a few appeared to be completely suited for the preparation of detailed figures. In the present paper those structures which show little differences from Hoplophthiracarus pavidus (cf. van der Hammen, 1963), such as the gnathosoma and the coxisternal region, are not described again. Especially such characters are emphasized here, that will possibly prove to be important for a future subdivision of the genus Phthiracarus. Phthiracarus laevigatus (C. L. Koch, 1841). Hoplophora laevigata C. L. Koch, 1841, fasc. 38 (16); 1842, p. 117, pl. 12, fig. 66. Phthiracarus laevigatus, Jacot, 1936, p. 167, figs. 1-6. Material. - The topotypic material from the surroundings of Regensburg (Bavaria, Germany) dealt with here, comprises the following specimens (localities arranged from West to East, and from North to South). Keilstein near Keilberg, June 15, 1961; deciduous forest mixed with pines; litter: 6 specimens (sample 61 R 23).Idem, deciduous forest; litter and moss from stones and stubs: 20 specimens (sample 61 R 24). Donaustauf, June 27, 1961; hedge of elder along brooklet; decaying wood, leaves, and branches: 21 specimens (sample 61 R 45). Dechbetten, July 17, 1959; small moist wood, mainly consisting of elder; moss: 3 specimens (sample 59 R 1).Idem, June 18, 1961; small deciduous wood on a slope (Koch's " Feldh��lzchen "): 2 specimens (sample 61 R 32). K��nigswiesen, June 18, 1961; village-park; litter and moss: 9 specimens (sample 61 R 31). Hohengebraching, July 20, 1959; forest named " Argle " (spelled by Koch as " Arklee "); mixed forest; moss and litter: 1 specimen (sample 59 R 10).Idem, part of the forest with beech; litter: 2 specimens (sample 59 R 11).Idem, June 17, 1961; small, moist, open part in the forest, with grass and herbs; moss, roots, and decaying grass: 29 specimens (sample 61 R 28). Total: 93 specimens from 9 samples. Because the type-material of Koch's Oribatid mites is no more in existence, a female from sample 61 R 45 is designated here as neotype; it is preserved in the collection of the Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie, Leiden. Occurrence. - From the above-mentioned data it appears that the species has been found in moss and decaying material (wood, leaves, grass, roots), collected in forests, small woods, and hedges of mainly deciduous trees. The distribution around Regensburg is local; with some additions it still corresponds with the data given by Jacot (1936). The species is apparently absent in the large forests of spruce-fir North of Regensburg (Schwaighauser Forst, Donaustaufer Forst; although in the last-mentioned region it is found in the parts with deciduous trees). The occurrence reasonably corresponds with Koch's description of it: " An Feldrainen in Erdmoos, unter Hecken und Geb��sch, hier ziemlich selten ". Measurements. - 19 specimens from sample 61 R 45 (Donaustauf) have been measured (2 had been damaged during the observations), of which 6 are males, and 13 females. The measurements in the two sexes are the following: Male: length of prodorsum 0.345-0.415 mm (average 0.395); length of notogaster0.625-0.760 (average 0.720), height 0.465-0.620 (average 0.550). Female: length of prodorsum 0.390-0.540 mm (average 0.475); length of notogaster0.705-1.05 (average 0.890), height 0.540-0.870 (average 0.705). Habitus and colour. - The species is a relatively large Phthiracarus wit ha characteristic shape which sometimes can even be recognized without any magnification at all. The notogaster is highly arched and presents a distinct angle near c1. The surface is very shiny. The notogastral hairs are small and extremely thin. As a rule the specimens are rust-coloured to chestnut-brown. The notogastral limb is much darker, whilst the ano-genital region is lighter except for a dark transverse band; the aspis presents the usual pair of light spots. Cerotegument. - A cerotegument-layer is nearly absent; some vague granulations can be seen in the lateral part of the notogaster. I observed small white granular masses in the projecting part of the anterior notogastral limb. Cuticle. - When observed in a dry condition on a carbon block, the cuticle is extremely shiny, and nearly completely smooth. A faint superficial structure is, however, present, although nearly indistinguishable; it seems to be vaguely shagreened, but in fact it is punctate. The cuticle is very thin and can be easily damaged when preparing a specimen for study. After heating with lactic acid, the mites offen show a distinct swelling, consisting in a partial Separation of epiostracum and ectostracum, a phenomenon of osmotic origin. In these cases the brown ectostracum shows partial fractures, whilst the pale epiostracum is still entire. The epiostracum is distinctly punctate; each small circular area contains a point. The ectostracum shows a structure of fine points. Prodorsum (fig. 4A). - The prodorsum or aspis presents a distinct lateral ridge, and a pair of anterior light spots which are in fact sunken areas separated by an indistinct median carina The sensillus is represented in fig. 4 C; it consists of a slightly eccentric core and a surrounding border which is pointed towards the apex. The bothridium is crenate with about eight segments; in lateral view the posterior upper part appears to be covered by a fold. The thin interlamellar, lamellar, rostral, and exobothridial hairs are lying rather close to the surface of the aspis. The first-mentioned three pairs of hairs have distinct canals at the place of insertion; especially those of the rostral hairs are strikingly long. Notogaster (fig. 1). - The notogaster is highly arched. The outline presents a characteristic angle near c1, whilst the part between c1 and the anterior border is steeply sloping (these characters are already mentioned by Jacot, 1936, p. 167). The notogastral hairs are very small and thin; their disposition is represented in fig. 1; f1 and f2 are vestiges, just as in Hoplophthiracarus, f1 being situated still more posteriorly of hv There are four pairs of lyrifissures (instead of two pairs in Hoplophthiracarus pavidus and Phthiracarus anonymum), indicated here as ia, im, ip, ips; I am not certain as to the notation of the last-mentioned two fissures. The usual mark �� of a muscle is easily visible. Ano-genital region (figs. 2, 3 A-B). - Although the ano-genital region must be considered a fusion of anal, adanal, genital, and aggenital shields, the covers are simply indicated here as anal and genital valves. The hairs of the ano-genital region have the number usual for Phthiracaridae: 9 genital hairs (of which those numbered here by 5-9 are small and marginal, especially 5-7), 1 aggenital hair (with an anterior lateral position, its base covered by the overhanging anterior border of the valve), 2 marginal anal hairs, and 3 adanal hairs (of which ad1 and ad2 are vestiges, whilst ad3 is curved backwards). The vestigal condition of two adanal hairs will perhaps prove to be a useful character for the subdivision of the genus Phthiracarus. The anterior border of the genital valves presents a median apophysis which is especially distinct in lateral view (fig. 3B). The posterior border of the genital valves, and the anterior border of the anal valves present a row of some 6 teeth which constitute a lock. The anterior median lock of the anal valves is the reverse of the condition in Hoplophthiracarus. In P. laevigatus the left lobe is the external one which fits in a corresponding lock in the right valve; the right lobe is underlying. I name this condition right-fitting, in contradistinction to the condition in Hoplophthiracarus, which consequently must be named left-fitting. Possibly these conditions will prove to be characters of generic value. I have found no specimens with extended ovipositor. It. is not impossible that only those specimens which drop in alcohol during their search for suitable spots for egg-laying, have the ovipositor extended. The number of genital papillae is apparently 2; vestiges of a third pair could not be established with certainty. Palp (fig. 4B). - The palp consists of three joints. The formula is 2-2-7. The solenidion omega is free. The tarsus has three distinct eupathidia: acm, ul", and ul'; the last-mentioned eupathidium has a relatively large basal ventral tooth, probably representing the remainder of the subultimal hair su which has joined ul'. In fig. 4 B a small part of the infracapitulum is also represented, showing the long pectinate supracoxal hair e. Legs. - Just as in Hoplophthiracarus pavidus (cf. van der Hammen, 1963) the number of hairs on the legs is considerably reduced, so that consequently the correct notation is difficult to establish. In some cases, the hairs are, moreover, not placed in distinct pseudo-symmetric pairs, by which condition the Identification is thwarted. The long solenidions, especially 9, are unfavourable for a correct orientation, and must be cut off if necessary; s and consequently the plane of pseudosymmetry should preferably be orientated exactly horizontally in the slide. Legs I and IV are completely represented in respectively figs. 5 A-C and 6 A-C '> I have, moreover, added figures of tarsus II (fig. 5 D) and tarsus III (fig. 6 D). In my opinion the notation given in these figures is reasonably certain. The difficulties concern the tarsi, especially of the posterior legs. Tarsus I has 6 eupathidia: (if), (p), s, and a'. The antelateral pair of hairs (a), which is here regarded as consisting of an eupathidium (a') and an ordinary hair (a"), is not placed pseudosymmetrically: a" has a lateral (antiaxial) position, a' (the eupathidium) is nearly in the plane of pseudosymmetry. A similar orientation of the antelateral hair a" is found in tarsus II; here it is directed even upwards. Tarsus II lacks the iteral hairs (which are also absent 011 tarsi III and IV) and the primiventral hair pv' (unless the hair indicated here as a' will prove to be pv'). The numbers of hairs on tarsi III and IV are still more reduced. The identification of the hairs is here especially difficult because (tc), (p), and (u) are not placed in distinct pairs. There is only one antelateral hair on III and IV, viz., a'. Just as in Hoplophthiracarus pavidus tarsus III has a pair of fastigial hairs (ft) but no primiventral hairs (pv), whilst tarsus IV has one fastigial and one primiventral. The formulae from I to IV are the following. Hairs: I (1-4-2-5-16-1); II (1-3-2-3-12-1); III (2-2-1-2-10-1); IV (2-1-1-2-10-1). Solenidions: I (2-1-3); II (1-1-2); III (1-1-0); IV (0-1-0). The solenidions of the tarsi are free. On all tibiae phi is coupled with d. On genu I sigma2 is coupled with l', whilst sigma1 is free; d is absent., Published as part of van der Hammen, L., 1963, The Oribatid Family Phthiracaridae II. Redescription of Phthiracarus laevigatus (C. L. KOCH), pp. 704-715 in Acarologia 5 on pages 704-714

11. Rhinolophus rouxi Temm. (Plate fig. 9 a, b, c, d.) Diagnosis. Allied to Rh. borneensis, but larger, and with considerably longer metacarpals. Third metacarpal 34-38 mm. Forearm 46-51'5 mm. Details. This is a large, continental representative of the borneensis type, characterised chiefly by the much longer metacarpals and the shape of the lancet. In general size, the continental Rh. rouXi bears the same relation to the insular Rh. borneensis as the continental Rh. megaphyllus does to the insular Rh. simpleX. The sella is practically parallel-margined from base to summit; not rarely some faint indication of a constriction at the middle can be traced; summit broadly rounded off. In simpleX and its closest allies the lancet is long and quite (or almost) cuneate; in borneensis there is some tendency towards a slight emargination of the lateral margins of the lancet; this tendency lias been carried almost to an extreme in rouXi: the lancet is hastate, i. e., abruptly narrowed in the middle, the tip well developed and slender (not abnormally shortened, as in thomasi); but still, individually (though, as it seems, rather rarely), in rouXi, the lancet is less abruptly narrowed, as an atavism towards a passed stage. The ears are as in borneensis. Wing-structure almost on the simpleX-borneensis stage, i. e., III.2 almost always less than lg the length of III.1 The rare individual exception, that III.2 is equal to (or a mere trifle more than) 4 the length of III.1, is of some interest as foreshadowing the next important step to be taken in the series of evolution, viz., from rouXi to affinis, in which species III.2 is always considerably more than lg the length of III.1 Plagiopatagium inserted on, or 1-4 mm. above, the tarsus, i. e., there is evidently some tendency to draw the insertion of this membrane away from the ankle-joint, a little higher up on the tibia; compare with this Rh. affinis. The proportionate length of the tail is as in borneensis. Skull. The skull of Rh. rouXi is larger than that of borneensis, but I fail to find any appreciable difference in the shape���a strong evidence of the very close relationship between the two species. The individual variation in the size of the skull, in rouXi, is rather considerable (as is also the variation in the ex�� ternal dimensions of this Bat); but among 8 skulls of the typical form of rouXi, from localities so many and so distant inter se as to represent practically the whole area covered by this form, I do not find any so small as the largest among 1 skulls of borneensis (and b. spadiX); in so far there is no difficulty in discriminating them. The tooth-rows, too, in rouXi, are longer. As to the small S. Chinese race of rouXi (described below), the skull has the same length as the largest of borneensis, but the brain-case is decidedly broader, the zygomatic and maxiliar width greater. Dentition (19 skulls). p3, most often, quite external (12 skulls); not rarely half in row, or | in row (6 skulls); in one aged individual (teeth much worn) p. s is wanting, on both sides of the mandible, and the alveoli have disappeared. Cingula of p2 and p(, most often, in contact or separated by a very narrow, sometimes almost hairfine, interspace (13 skulls); in the remaining (6) individuals, distinctly separated, but the width of the interspace is not always quite the same on both sides of the mandible. The upper canine and p1 are, with rare exceptions, distinctly separated, p2 completely in the tooth-row (17 skulls, out of 19), as in all the foregoing species. The size of p2 and, therefore, the width of the interspace between c and p4 vary, however, to a certain extent; but in no instance is the width of the interspace as broad as (p2 as well developed as) in simpleX: this is a thing of the past. As to the remaining two skulls (Ceylon, Nepal), the interspace is very narrow, / r half eXternal. This is the first time we have to note instances of p2 not being completely in the tooth-row. As a general conclusion: ��� (1) In Rh. rouXi p3 lias arrived so far on its way towards disappearance as to be, generally, external; but still, not rarely, the individual variation falls back to a former stage: p.t partly in the tooth-row; and in some aged individuals the dentition (p3 disappeared) points forwards to subsequent stages in the series of evolution: Rh. ferrum-equinum (p3 rather often lost) and Rh. acrotis (p3 always lost). (2) As to p2 in rouXi, it is generally in the row, rarely half external; this latter, again, points forwards towards subsequent stages: thomasi, ferrum-equinum, and acrotis (p2 always external, or lost). Distribution. From S. China through the Himalayas to the Indian Peninsula and Ceylon. . Technical name. As Rh. rouXi has for many years been completely confused with Rh. affinis, some remarks are necessary to pr��ve that the name rouXi belongs to the species here under consideration. The type locality of Rh. rouXi is ��� Calcutta ��� *; the types (in the Leiden Museum) were collected by the French naturalist, M. Roux. There is in the Tomes Collection (British Museum') a skin also collected by Roux. The essential points 9 ~ 9 f * Temminck, l oc. infra cit., p. 30 c; Jentink, 6 Catalogue syst��matique des Mammif��res/ Mus. d���hist. nat. Pays-Bas, xii. (1888) p. 161 (under Rh. affinis). in the original description as given by Temminck are the following:��� (1) In ��� taille, forme du corps, des oreilles et des follicules accessoires du nez��� very much like Java specimens of Rh. affinis Horsf. It may be said so; the difference in the shape of the sella is not easily ascertained in dried skins. (2) ��� Des proportions moins grandes, ��� as compared with affinis. As measurements Temminck gives:���Of rouxi: forearm ��� 1 pouce 0 lignes ��� (49 ��� 5 mm.), expanse of wings ��� 0 pouces. ��� Of affinis'. forearm ��� 1 pouce 0 lignes, ��� expanse ��� 1 �� 2 pouces.��� 49'5 mm. is one of the commonest measurements of the forearm in the series before me. It looks a little contradictory that Temminck, having stated that rouXi is smaller than affinis (which is quite correct), gives precisely the same measurement of their forearms, though, at the same time, a considerably larger ��� expanse ��� of the latter species. But just that is the salient point. As a matter of fact, the two species can have the forearm of exactly the same length (very large rouXi, and small affinis}; but also in that case, the eXpanse of Rh. affinis is always markedly larger than that of Rh. rouxi, for the obvious reason that in the former species the second phalanx of the third (longest) finger is always absolutely longer than in the latter. (3) A red, a dark, and an intermediate phase of rouXi were known to Temminck. I have the same phases before me. That similar phases occur in Rh. borneensis has no bearing on the present technical question; borneensis lives far away from ��� Calcutta.��� The ���phases ��� of Rh. affinis are different. (4) ��� Les molaires de la m��choire sup��rieure sont en m��me nombre que dans l' affinis, celles de l���inf��rieure en compte cinq, ou une de moins, par le manque total de la petite dent dont l' affinis est pourvu, et qui forme la sixi��me molaire. ��� Since Temminck emphasises the ��� manque total ��� of p3, I suppose that he has not overlooked this small tooth, but has examined a (probably aged) individual in which it was wanting (cf. the specimen mentioned above). The word ��� sixi��me ��� is, of course, a lapsus for ��� cinqui��me ��� (Temminck counted the ��� molars ��� from behind forwards). To sum up:���There can be no doubt that Temminck���s Rh. rouXi is the Bat here under consideration, being a species (1) bearing much resemblance to Rh. affinis; (2) of almost the same size, but with a markedly smaller expanse of wings; (3) with a red, a dark, and an intermediate phase; and (4) inhabiting the Continent of India. ��� Rh. petersi. ��� ��� The original description of Rh. petersi is meagre ami vague; the figures of the head and nose-leaves published four years later are badly drawn; the type specimen (in the Calcutta Museum) has no indication of locality. This may sufficiently account for the fact that no technical name in the genus lias been the source of more confusion. I therefore think it of some use to give a brief sketch of its rather complicated history in literature:��� (��) As to the identification of��� ��� h. petersi,��� in the original sense of the term, there are only Rh. acuminatus section. I have not the slightest hesitation in referring the name as a synonym to the former species. As, however, Dobson himself later on applied the name to two Bats of the acuminatus section, it will only be necessary to give evidence, from his own description, that he was mistaken. The only important points in the description of ��� Bh. petersi as given by Dobson in 187'2 and 1876, 7. e. at the time when he had access to the type specimen, are the following (the italics are mine)���(1) The nose-leaves are ���as in Bh. acuminatus. except the upper border of the posterior connecting process, which is much less acute." This statement alone would be sufficient. In acuminatus the shape of the sella and lancet is very much as in rouXi, but the connecting process, both in acuminatus and in all its allies (sumatranus, calypso, audaX), is projecting and pointed; there is, in this respect, no difference between the species of the acuminatus section, and there is also no appreciable individual variation. When, therefore, Dobson in this decisive point (the chief character of the whole group to which acuminatus belongs) declares his Rh. petersi to be very different from acuminatus, it may safely be said that it has nothing to do with that group. Dobson had evidently before him an example of Bh. rouXi with a slightly raised connecting process (��� much less acute������than in acuminatus); such individuals are by no means rare; there are several in the British Museum, and the peculiarity is purely individual. Dobson found, quite naturally, that this peculiarity recalled that shape of the connecting process which had been described, one year earlier, by Peters in a species called by him Rh. acuminatus and. consequently, he compared it, in his paper, with this latter species, at the same time emphasising that there was a considerable difference. (2) The figure (side view) in Dobson���s ��� Monograph, ��� however bad it is, can scarcely represent the shape of the connecting process in acum inatus. Dobson has, no doubt, called the attention of his artist to the connectingprocess of the specimen to be figured as Bh. petersi, and the artist, in due obedience, has made his best to ��� emphasise ��� that point: this may account, I think, for the process being somewhat more exao-o-erated than in ordinary individuals of rouXi; but it is still not the process of an acuminatus. (3) The measurements of petersi are, without any exception, perfectly like those of several unquestionable specimens of rouXi measured by myself; there is not the slightest indication of a difference. (4) The type of petersi is from ��� India, precise locality unknown.��� The acuminatus section is distributed over Sumatra, Engano, Java, and Lombok. When Dobson wrote his ��� Monograph,��� there was not, in the Calcutta Museum, any specimen of any species of Bhinolophus from those islands; so that, if Rh. petersi were a member of the acuminatus section, the type, without locality, would have been the only Rhinolophus in the museum from any of those islands. This is, of course, not beyond the limits of possibility; but it is certainly much more likely that Rh. petersi, as also the vast majority of the Bats in the Calcutta Museum at Dobson���s time, came from some part of the Indian Peninsula or the Himalayas, the habitat of h. rouXi, and far from the home of Rh. acuminatv. s and its allies. * Dobson, J. A. S. B. xli. pt. ii. (Dee. 22, 1872) p. 337: id., Monogr. Asiat. Chir. (1876) p. 49, text-figs, a, b. f Peters, MB. Akad. Berlin, 1871, p. 308. To describe a new species which subsequently proves to be an old one is no rare occurrence, and, as a rule, it does no very serious harm. But the strong emphasising of a purely individual peculiarity, combined with the circumstance that the type had no ��� locality, ��� caused in this case a series of confusions: Rh. petersi emerged, like a ghost, very unexpectedly at such different places as the Gold Coast, Sumatra, the Himalayas, and S. India. And, curiously enough, the author of the ��� species ��� inaugurated the mistakes. When he had returned to London and was working out his ��� Catalogue,��� Dobson had no longer access to the type of Rh. petersi; he had his own short description only, and perhaps some private note. It is quite evident that, in these circumstances and occupied with the study of many other Bats, he lost the precise idea of the type specimen; he only kept in his memory, as its most important character, its ��� projecting ��� connecting process. So it came that he referred a specimen labelled ��� Gold Coast ��� to 7i /i. petersi ***��; for it is a genuine acuminatums, beyond all doubt from Java, and Dobson himself would scarcely have been able to tell why he called it petersi instead of Two years later, Dobson had for determination a collection of Bats belonging to the Gottingen Museum; among these he again believed he found a Rh. petersi t. I have had this example for inspection J; it is neither ��� Rh. petersi ��� nor Rh. acuminatus, but Rh. sumatranus. (6) In a paper on some Himalayan Bats, Capt. Hutton �� records Rh. petersi from Masuri. All the Bats mentioned by Hutton were presented to the ��� Indian Museum, ��� and are now in the British Museum. The two specimens labelled ��� Rh. petersi ��� are Rh. monticola, a species closely allied to Rh. lejndzis ||.*** �� * Dobson, Cat. Chir. Brit. Mus. (1878) p. 114. t Dobson, ��� On some new or rare Species of Chiroptera in the Collection of the G��ttingen Museum, ��� P. Z. S. 1880, p. 462. X I am indebted to Geheimrat, Professor Dr. Ehlers, G��ttingen, for the loan of this specimen. �� Hutton, ���On the Bats of the North-western Himalayas; with Notes and Corrections in Nomenclature by Prof. W. Peters,��� P. Z. S. 1872, p. 700. II As Hutton���s article is one of the very few papers which give information respecting the habits of Himalayan Bats, and therefore has been frequently quoted by subsequent writers, I think it advisable to correct the following errors in the identifications of the four species of Rhinolophus dealt with in that paper:������ Rh. affinis ��� (p. 696) is Rh. pearsoni; ��� Rh. rouXi ��� (p. 697) is Rh. affinis; ��� Rh. minor '7 (p. 698) is Rh. rouXi ; and, as pointed out above, ��� Rif. petersi ��� (p. 700) is Rh. monticola. Hutton���s Bats were (as also stated in his paper) determined, not by himself, but by Prof. Peters in Berlin. But the mistakes are so strange that they cannot, certainly, be due to Prof. Peters; an extensive confusion of labels must have occurred (I can rather easily, from Peters���s point of view, as laid down in his papers, guess the original arrangement of the labels), but the confusion had at all events taken place before the snecimens were returned to Hutton. (c ) In Blanford���s ��� Fauna of British India ��� (loc. infra citi) 1th. petersi is recorded from Masuri and from Nilghiri. The former statement is borrowed from Hutton���s paper. The latter is based on an example collected by W. Davison in Coonoor, Nilghiri. This specimen is now in the British Museum. It is a Rh. rouXi. In short: ��� (1) For reasons given above I regard Dobson���s Rh. petersi (1872 and 1876) as a synonym of 1th. rouXi���, (2) Dobson���s Rh. petersi (1878) is Rh. acuminatus���, (3) Dobson���s Rh. petersi (1880) is Rh. sttmairanus; (4) Hutton���s 1th. petersi is Rh. monticola; (5) Blanford���s Rh. petersi is partly Rh. monticela (Masuri), partly Rh. rouXi (Nilghiri). Geographical races. There are, at least, two forms of Rh. rouXi, differing in size and geographical habitat., Published as part of Andersen, Knud, 1905, On some Bats of the Genus Rhinolophus, with Remarks on their Mutual Affinities, and Descriptions of Twenty-six new Forms., pp. 75-145 in Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 2 on pages 93-98, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.3757451

Camisia Von Heyden, 1826 Camisia Von Heyden, 1826, p. 612. Nothrus, Berlese, 1883a, fasc. 17 (6); 1885c, pp. 3, 49; 1885d, p. 127; 1896b, pp. 24, 28; 1913a, p. 60. Von Heyden (1826) created the genus Camisia and designated Notaspis segnis Hermann as the type. Berlese did not know the name Camisia and used Nothrus instead of it. The name Nothrus is now used for a different genus as was mentioned above in the chapter on the family Nothridae. Berlese (1885a) published a generic diagnosis and mentioned N. bicarinatus (correct name: C. segnis) as type of the genus. In the same year (Berlese, 1885c) he mentioned the following species in a key: spinifer, bicarinatus (= segnis), segnis (= biurus), angulatus (= horrida), horridus (= biverrucata); in another paper (Berlese, 1885d) he gave a short diagnosis only. Berlese (1896b) mentioned a number of species, whilst later (1913a) he gave a long list, among which are species that now belong to the genera Heminothrus, Acronothrus, and Nothrus (N. quadripilus is listed in the same paper with Angelia as well as with Nothrus). Berlese made a number of errors in the nomenclature of the species, which are dealt with below. I remark that in 1913 Berlese created a subgenus Uronothrus with segnis (read: biurus) as type. In the Berlese Collection biurus is indeed labelled as Nothrus (Uronothrus) segnis. On the other hand, the real segnis and horrida are labelled as representatives of a subgenus Eunothrus that has never been published. The creation of a subgenus Uronothrus appears superfluous.

1.Jordanthribus planifacietus Zimmerman, B. P. Bishop Mus., 0cc. Papers 14 (13): 237, figured, 1938 (fig. 1, a, b; pl. 1, B). This species is smaller and conspicuously paler in color than is J. conspersus. The more salient differences are summed up in the synoptic table, and a detailed description is given in the paper cited above. Length, 1.75-2.25; breadth, 0.8-1.0mm. Seven specimens representing both sexes of this peculiar species were collected at Machanao by Usinger, June 5, 1936; five of them were from dead leaves of a fallen tree, the other two were beaten from dried leaves of fallen branches; 22 specimens from the National Museum were found by Oakley on Pandanus leaves, Dec. 30, 1938, no. 38-9035. In southeastern Polynesia I found this species on dead banana leaves and coconut fronds and swept it from low herbage. Its widespread distribution indicates that the species has been artificially spread by commerce., Published as part of Zimmerman, Elwood C., 1942, Anthribidae Of Guam, pp. 65-72 in Insects of Guam I, Honolulu, Hawaii :Bernice P. Bishop Museum on pages 66-67, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.5159835

Eupolybothrus (E.) grossipes (C. L. Koch) Figs. 4 to 7 Lithobius grossipes C. L. Koch, 1847, p. 146; L. Koch, 1862, p. 32, fig. 4. Lithobius montanus C. L. Koch, 1847, p. 148; L. Koch, 1862, p. 27, fig. 1. Lithobius festivus L. Koch, 1862, p. 29, fig. 2. Lithobius (Eulithobius) fasciatus: Pocock, 1890, p. 61. MATERIAL EXAMINED. The following specimens, preserved in spirit, are present in the Koch Collection of Arachnida and Myriapoda in the British Museum (Natural History); except where otherwise stated the labels appear to be in L. Koch���s hand: " Lithobius grossipes C. Koch, festivus L. Koch " ���Idria��� (Reg. no. 13.6.18.262). This specimen, a female30 mm long, although preserved in spirit has obviously been dried. An unusual feature is that the 14th leg appears stouter than the 15th; this appearance was noted, not only by L. Koch (1862) who undoubtedly used this specimen for his description of L. grossipes, but also by C. L. Koch (1847) in his original description. I therefore believe it to be the holotype and have labelled it accordingly. The fact that C. L. Koch gives Trieste as the type locality is consistent with the same specimen having been used for both descriptions since Idria (Idrija, Yugoslavia) is in the neighbourhood of Trieste. " Lithobius grossipes C. K. " " Hopfgarten, 26 August, 1868 " (Reg. no. 13.6.18.263-265) Three females 28 to 30 mm long. " Lithobius grossipes C.K. " " Seiseralpe [an alpine hut in Italy], *[leg.] Gredler" (Reg. no. 13.6.18.266). This specimen, a male35 mm long, agrees in detail with L. Koch���s (1862) description of L. montanus C. L. Koch, a description based on a single specimen sent him by Prof. P. Gredler from ���Seiseralpe��� in South Tyrol. This is undoubtedly the specimen in question and Was presumably relabelled by L. Koch when he realised its identity with L. grossipes, of which L. montanus is now an accepted synonym. " grossipes, Eisarkthal [Valle dell���Isarco, Italy] 1870 " (Reg. no. 13.6.18.267-269). Two females and a male30 to 31 mm long. "Lithobius grossipes C.K., festivus L.K. " ���Sudtirol��� (Reg. no. 13.6.18.270-282, part). Two females35 and 37 mm long, a mature male 34 mm long and two immature females17 and 21 mm long. " grossipes, Sudtirol " (Reg. no. 13.6.18.270-282, part). A single female37 mm long. " Lithobius grossipes C.K., festivus L.K. " ���Sudtirol��� (Reg. no. 13.6.18.270-282, part). Four mature females28 to 31 mm long and three immature females16 to 21 mm long. " Lithobius grossipes C.K., festivus L.K. " ���Sudtirol��� (Reg. no. 13.6.18.270-282, part). Three mature males28 mm long and two immature males12 and 14 mm long. " Lithobius grossipes C. Koch. " " Meran [Merano, Italy], [leg.] Milde " (Reg. no. 13.6.18.283-292, part). Three females 27 to 30 mm long, six mature males 27 to 38 mm long and an immature male 19 mm long. " grossipes, Meran [Merano, Italy], [leg.] Ausserer " (Reg. no. 13.6.18.283-292, part). An immature male23 mm long. " Lithobius grossipes C.K. " ���Garmisch��� (Reg. no. 136.18.293). An immature male24 mm long. Although not agreeing in every detail with L. Koch���s (1862) original description of L. festivus from Garmisch (Bavaria) this may be one of the specimens on which it was based. " grossipes, Ballino [Italy] 12.IX.69 " (Reg. no. 13.6.18.298). An immature female17 mm long. The identity of this specimen is doubtful; it may possibly belong to E. fasciatus. " L. grossipes." " Susa, Oberitalien " (Reg. no. 13.6.18.299-300). Two immature males18 and 24 mm long. The locality label is in L. Koch���s hand but the identity label has been rewritten. " leptopus? Hopfgarten " (Reg. no. 13.6.18.365). An immature female13 mm long. The following specimens are in the British Museum (Natural History), preserved in spirit in a jar labelled " Lithobius fasciatus Newp.Liguria, O. Thomas " in Pocock���s hand (Reg. no. 89.3.8.1-2): A total of 31 specimens ranging in size from fourth larval stadia 9 mm long to a mature male 43 mm long. These specimens almost certainly come from Busalla (Liguria, Italy) both because Pocock (1890) mentions Busalla as the locality and Mr. Oldfield Thomas as the collector of examples of " L. fasciatus " in his paper on Ligurian centipedes, and because they were mixed with two specimens of Lithobius doriae Pocock; in the same paper this author describes L. doriae as a new species not only from the same locality (Busalla) but also from the same habitat as " L. fasciatus " (Pocock, 1890: 59 & 64) and he must mistakenly have included specimens of the two species under the same label. I have relabelled these two examples of L. doriae and placed them in a separate tube. The following specimens were contained in the above jar along with the Ligurian specimens but in separate tubes: A badly mutilated "stadium agenitalis" 12 mm long labelled " Eulith. grossipes, Grande Chartreuse [Is��re, France], [leg.] A. Dollfus " (Reg. no. 89.3.10.1, part) and a badly mutilated immature male 15 mm long labelled " L. grossipes Koch, Portofino [Italy] " (Reg. no. 89.3.10.1, part). Both labels appear to be in Pocock���s hand; in neither case is it possible to identify the specimens other than as species of the subgenus Eupolybothrus. DIAGNOSIS or ADULT. Length 27 to 43 mm. Antennae of 40 to 58 articles. Glandular pores of 15th leg concentrated on internal and dorsal aspects of prefemur and all aspects of other articles. 15th metatarsal general setae rarely exceeding a quarter the diameter of the article in length. 15th metatarsal seriate setae present. Basal pit of male 15th femur small and shallow. Internal dorsal sulcus of male 15th femur extending to margin of pore-free area which is not swollen. No coxolateral spines. DESCRIPTION or ADULT. Length: 27 to 43 mm; 15th legs up to two-thirds of body-length. Colour: pale to dark brown, often with a darker dorsal median band. Antennae: half to two-thirds of body-length, sometimes shorter in female; of 40 to 50 (female) and 47 to 58 (male) articles, the distal 10 to 14 often very elongate in large specimens. Ocelli: number and general pattern as described for E. fasciatus; in some specimens, however, the ocelli of the superior row may be round rather than oval and little larger than the others, but they are always relatively widely separated from one another. There is a tendency for the ocelli of the second, third and fourth rows to be more numerous than those of the superior row but this is by no means invariable. Prosternum: with 6+7 to 8+9 small teeth, usually 7+7 or 8+8; minute setiform lateral spines immediately postero-lateral to the external teeth in some specimens, but these spines are often absent from one of both sides, particularly in large specimens, possibly due to damage. Tergites: emargination of posterior borders of large tergites variable, particularly that of T.14 which may be quite markedly emarginate or may be almost straight; posterior angles of T.5 rounded or blunt, those of T.8 blunt or angulated sometimes with traces of projections, those of T.10 blunt or angulated often with slight projections, those of T.12 sometimes blunt but usually angulated with slight projections, those of T.14 blunt or angulated, sometimes rounded; posterior angles of T.4 usually rounded, sometimes very slightly projecting. Posterior projections on T.6 always well-developed, usually blunt, sometimes sharp; those on T.7 well-developed, sometimes very broad and short, with or without some sinuosity of their internal borders; those on T.9, 11 and 13 well-deVeloped with internal borders more or less sinuous; in some specimens this sinuosity is so marked, particularly on T.11 and 13, that the tip of the projection is narrow and pointed as in the figured immature female of E. litoralis (Fig. 12). Posterior border of intermediate tergite sinuous in male, with rounded or trapezoidal emargination in female. Coxal pores: 35 to 65 in four to six irregular rows on each of the 12th to 15th coxae, most numerous on 14th. Glandular pores of 15th legs (Fig. 4): concentrated on all aspects of femur, tibia, tarsus and metatarsus, and also on internal and dorsal aspects of prefemur as figured by Verhoeff (1937: 172, fig. 2) for " Polybothrus fasciatus ". Chaetotaxy of 14th and 15th legs General setae: on the metatarsus sparse and short, not more than a quarter the diameter of the article in length, usually much less in males (Fig. 5), sometimes a little longer in females; on the tarsus, tibia, femur (Fig. 4) and prefemur shorter and sparser than on metatarsus, sometimes a little longer in females than in males. Seriate setae (Figs. 5 & 6): as in E. fasciatus, but in females those of the 15th metatarsus may be reduced to about three at the distal extremity of the article. Spinous setae: on the 14th tarsus the ventral external and ventral internal setae are of much the same structure (Fig. 6) and correspond to the ���spines��� VaTa and VpTa described by Brolemann (1930: 246) in " Bothropolys fasciatus "; in addition to the ventral internal seta there are, in large specimens, a few more spinous setae at intervals along the ventro-internal border of the tarsus. On the 13th and more anterior legs the spinous tarsal setae are similar to those on the 14th but rather more numerous along the ventro-internal border; the tibia of each of these legs also bears a linear series ofspinous ventro-internal setae, the most distal of which corresponds to the ���spine��� VpT of Brolemann. Same of tuft (males): short and few, but present in all adults examined (Fig. 4) Sculpturg of male 15th legs (Fig. 4) Prefemur with dorsal sulci distinct, internal one continuous with basal femoral pit, external one not reaching the distal end of article; basal femoral pit shallow, occupying about a quarter to a third the diameter of the base of femur, continuous distally with the narrow internal femoral sulcus which runs to the margin of the pore-free area and is of the same width and depth throughout; external femoral sulcus similar in width, starting level with the basal pit and extending further distally than the internal sulcus; pore-free area occupying distal one third or less of the internal aspect of femur, with no swelling, almost glabrous, the minute setae on its surface being just as sparse as on the rest of shaft. Sculpturing of male 14th legs Internal and external dorsal sulci usually fairly distinct on both prefemur and femur. The 14th leg of holotype The femur (R. only) is unusually broad so that the 14th leg appears stouter than the 15th; this appearance is not due to defective development of the 15th leg as suggested by Latzel (1880: 48). Spinulation 14 VpF and 15 DpT may be absent; 15 VpF and 15 DaF may be present; no coxolateral spines; a well-developed 15th accessory apical claw. Genitalia. Male: posterior border of genital sternite with a median notch, more distinct in large specimens, and long marginal setae on either side, the medial setae adjacent to the notch being often shorter than the more lateral setae but showing no sharp differentiation; gonopods long and slender, basal article less than half the length of distal article. Female: two cylindro-conical spurs on each gonopod separated from one another at their insertion by about their own diameter, the internal pair being often rather smaller than the external pair even in mature specimens; claw of gonopod sharp, without denticles; dorso-lateral setae of gonopod short and stout, in an irregular band of about six setae on the first article, about twelve on the second and none on the terminal article. In large specimens the spurs of the gonopods may be short and blunt and the claw blunt, possibily due to wear and tear. IMMATURE STADIA. There is sufficient available material to describe the last larval stadium and five further stadia which probably cover the complete post-larval lifehistory. It is difficult to make an exact comparison between each of these stadia and those described by Verhoeff (1905) for Lithobius forficatus; Verhoeff���s terms are only roughly applicable and are therefore placed in parenthesis. Fourth larval stadium Length: about 9 mm. Antennae: 19 to 24 articles. Prosternal teeth: usually 6+6, sometimes 6+5 or 6+4. Tergites: posterior border of last tergite (T.12) deeply emarginate; posterior projection on T.6, 7, 9 and 11 well-developed. Coxal pores: one on 12th coxa. First post-larval stadium (agenitalis 1) Length: about 10 mm. Antennae: broken. Ocelli: 1+2, 1. Prosternal teeth: 6+6 or 6+7. Tergites (Fig. 7): posterior borders of large tergites deeply emarginate; posterior projections on short tergites well-developed and much narrower than in adults. Coxal pores: 2, 2, 2, 1. 14th and 15th legs: missing. Second post-larval stadium (agenitalis 2) Length: about 12 mm. Antennae: broken. Ocelli: 1+2, 2. Prosternal teeth: 6+6 or 6+7. Tergites 2 as in last stadium. Coxal pores: one relatively large external pore and 4 to 6 much smaller pores on each of the 14th to 15th coxae. 14th and 15th legs: missing. Genitalia: undeveloped. Third post-larval stadium (immaturus) Length: 12 to 14 mm. Antennae: 38 articles. Ocelli: 1+3, 3, 2. Prosternal teeth: 6+6 to 7+7. Tergites: posterior borders of large tergites as in last stadium; posterior projections on short tergites rather less narrow; posterior border of intermediate tergite straight. Coxal pores: 7 to 10 on each of the 12th to 15th coxae. General setae of 14th leg: those of metatarsus exceeding the diameter of the article in length. Seriate setae of 14th leg: as in adult. Spinons setae of 14th leg: not fully developed. Spinulation of 14th legs: as in adult. 15th legs: missing. Male genitalia: posterior border of genital sternite without a notch, with or without one or two marginal setae on either side; gonopods appears as unsegmented slender buds. Female genitalia: gonopods small with indefinite segmentation and neither spurs nor claw. Fourth post-larval stadium (praematurus) Length: 15 to 18 mm. Antennae: 39 or 40 articles. Ocelli: 1+3, 3, 3 or 1+3, 3, 2, 2. Prosternal teeth 6+6 to 7+7. Tergites: approaching the shape found in adults, but posterior borders of large tergites tend to be more deeply emarginate and posterior projections on short tergites tend to be narrower and sharper; posterior border of intermediate tergite straight or slightly emarginate in either sex. Coxal pores: 10 to 19 on each of the 12th to 15th coxae, usually many more on 12th than on 15th. Glandular pores of 15th legs: as in adult. General setae of 14th and 15th legs: much longer than in adult, those of metatarsus being about as long as the diameter of the article. Seriate setae of 14th and 15th legs: those of 14th tarsus and metatarsus as in adult; those of 15th metatarsus reduced to a few at the distal extremity of the article. Spinous setae of 14th leg: not fully developed. Setae of tuft (male): absent. Sculpturing of 15th legs: indistinct in males as in females. Spinulation of 14th and 15th legs: as in adult. Male genitalia: posterior border of genital sternite with or without a trace of median notch, with about 3 or 4 marginal setae on either side; basal article of gonopod as long as distal article. Female genitalia: gonopods fairly well-developed, completely segmented, with or without minute spurs, with a small claw. Fifth post-larval stadium (pseudomaturus) Length: 19 to 25 mm. Antennae: 40 to 49 articles. Ocelli: 1+3, 4, 3 to 1+4, 4, 3, 2. Prosternal teeth: 7+7 to 8+9. Tergites: as in last stadium but posterior border of intermediate tergite very slightly sinuous in male, with rounded or trapezoidal emargination in female. Coxal pores: 20 to 35 on each of the 12th to 15th coxae. General setae of 14th and 15th legs: those of metatarsus up to half and those of tarsus up to one third of the diameter of the article in length; others relatively shorter than in last stadium but longer than in adult. Seriate setae of 14th and 15th legs: as in adult but sometimes slightly reduced on 15th metatarsus. Spinous setae of 14th leg: as in adult, or the ventral external seta more slender. Setae of tuft (male): absent. Sculpturing of 15th legs: femoral sulci more distinct in males than in females, but basal femoral pit and pore-free area absent or ill-defined. Male genitalia: posterior border of genital sternite usually with a feeble median notch and about 6 to 8 marginal setae on either side; basal article of gonopod about half the length of distal article. Female genitalia: gonopods with small unequal spurs and a well-developed claw. DISCUSSION. This is the species which, ever since the publication of Pocock���s (1890) Synonymy (see p. 294), has been regarded by most authors as the typical form of Lithiobius fasciatus Newport. But Chamberlain (1925) designated L. grossipes C. L. Koch as the type species of Eupolybothrus and only he, among modern authors, uses C. L. Koch���s name either because he was not familiar with the current European literature or because he regarded Newport���s description of L. fasciatus as inadequate. It seems that when L. Koch redescribed L. grossipes in 1862 he had only the holotype before him and identified his other available specimens of the species either as L. montanus C. L. Koch or as a new species, L. festivus, based on immature examples. Most of the material in the Koch Collection was probably named subsequent to 1862 when L. Koch must have realised the identity of these three forms with one another and labelled them " L. grossipes " of " L. grossipes, festivus." His reason for the continued use of the name ���festivus��� on some of the labels is quite obscure and was not based on immaturity. E. grossipes has been fairly adequately described under either grossipes or ���fasciatus��� by a number of authors. Verhoeff (1937: 178) describes T.8, 10, 12 and 14 as having rounded posterior angles and T.9, 11 and 13 as having posterior projections with almost rectilinear borders. Whereas a few of Koch���s specimens have rounded angles on the large tergites as figured by Verhoeff (1937: 174, fig. 7, oben) for " fasciatus ", the majority of Koch���s and all Pocock���s specimens have sharp or even slightly produced angles, particularly on T.10 and 12, much as figured by Verhoeff (1937: 174, fig. 7, unten) for Polybothrus baldensis. The posterior projections on the short tergites are more often as described and figured by Verhoeff (1937: 173, fig. 6) for ���fasciatus��� but there is considerable variation and those of T.11 and 13 may have their internal borders so sinuous and emarginate, and their extremities so narrow, that they resemble the figure of E. litoralis (Fig. 12) or even Verhoeff���s (1937: 173, fig. 4) figure of T.13 in P. baldenis. The exact shape of the trunk tergites is so variable that it is of little use as a taxonomic character, and the above description as well as the figures of E. litoralis (Figs. 10 & 12) might apply equally to each of the three species under consideration. But th, Published as part of E. H. Eason, 1970, A redescription of the species of Eupolybothrus Verhoeff s. str. preserved in the British Museum (Natural History) and the Hope departement of Zoology Oxford (Chilopoda Lithobiomorpha), pp. 289-310 in Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History), Zoology 19 on pages 295-303

Oribotritia Jacot, 1924 Oribotritia Jacot, 1924, p. 83. Tritia Berlese, 1883a, fasc. 6(1); (p.p.) 1896b, p. 20. Phtiracarus (p.p.), Berlese, 1913a, p. 55. Berlese (1883a) created the genus Tritia, with Hoplophora decumana C. L. Koch as type; he used the generic name later on for species of the families Oribotritiidae and Euphthiracaridae. Michael (1898) placed Tritia in the synonymy of Phthiracarus Perty, and Berlese adopted this opinion between 1904 and 1913, when he contributed species of the above-mentioned two families to Phtiracarus. Berlese (1913a) published a diagnosis of " Phtiracarus " and designated P. berlesei (= Oribotritia decumana) as type of the genus, although Phthiracarus is monotypical (type: P. contractilis). In his 1916 and 1923 papers Berlese returned, however, to the use of Tritia. Jacot (1924) discovered that Tritia is preoccupied. For this reason he created the new name Oribotritia. Hoplophora decumana is of course also the type of Oribotritia. Three species of the genus are dealt with in Berlese's papers., Published as part of van der Hammen, L., 1959, Berlese's Primitive Oribatid Mites, pp. 1-93 in Zoologische Verhandelingen 40 on page 34

II. Genus Probolomyrmex Mayr Probolomyrmex Mayr, 1901, Ann. naturh. Hofmus. Wien 16: 2 - 3. Type species: Probolomyrmex filiformis Mayr, 1901, t. c. 3, [[worker]] Type locality: Port Elizabeth, South Africa. Monobasic. Escherichia Forel, 1910, Zool. Jahrb. Syst. 29: 245 - 6. Type species: Escherichia brevirostris Forel, 1910, t. c, pp. 246 - 7, [[worker]] Type locality: Ghinda, Ethiopia. Monobasic, syn. n. (1) Synonymy As predicted by W. L. Brown (1952), study of the holotype of Escherichia brevirostris shows it to be unquestionably referable to Probolomyrmex, thus establishing the above synonymy. Moreover, brevirostris is almost certainly a senior synonym of the Ugandan P. parvus Weber (see p. 355). The single known brevirostris worker is a perfectly typical Probolomyrmex, except for its well developed compound eyes. Separate generic status on the basis of this character would be completely unjustified. (2) Characters of the genus Worker Known for all species except the South American P. boliviensis Mann. Small sized monomorphic ponerine ants. Head longer than broad, its maximum width less than 0.5 mm. Clypeus and anterior part of frons produced forwards as a narrow subrectangular shelf bearing the exposed and closely approximated antennal insertions, which are separated by a thin, vertical lamella formed by fusion of the frontal carinae. Mandibles small, elongate-triangular, obscured in facial view by frontoclypeal process; each with an acute apical tooth followed by a series of small denticles, the anterior one of which may be enlarged. Labrum transverse, its anterior border with a deep median cleft. Palpal formula, maxillary 4: labial 2. The 3 basal maxillary palpomeres about subequal in size (1 - 1.5 times longer than broad), the apical one longer (3 - 5 times longer than broad). Labial palpomeres subequal in length, about 2.5 - 4 times longer than broad. Eyes lacking, except in the unique holotype of P. brevirostris (Forel), in which they are well developed, with about 14 facets. Antennae 12 - segmented; apical portion of scape with the flexor surface more or less concave in cross-section, receiving the folded funiculus; the latter slightly incrassate but without a distinct segmental club, its second joint sometimes strongly transverse, apical joint about as long as the 3 preceding together. Body and legs slender. Mesosomal 1 sutures virtually lacking, represented only by weak ventrolateral traces, as shown in the accompanying figures. Propleura inflated, projecting ventrally. All tibiae with a single pectinate spur; pretarsal claws simple, lacking a median tooth. Declivitous face of propodeum margined on each side by a low obtuse carina, which is usually bluntly dentate above. Petiolar node narrow, strongly arched above, higher behind than in front, with an evenly curved anterodorsal profile and an almost vertical posterior face. The latter usually quite strongly concave in side view and enclosed laterally and dorsally by a low carina. A moderate constriction between first and second post-petiolar segments. Second post-petiolar segment (abdominal IV) with its tergite and sternite fused laterally to form a tubular structure (as usual in ponerine ants). Sting well developed. Sculpturation with 2 basic components: dense fine shagreening and associated large scattered punctures, latter often weakly incised and rarely lacking. Pilosity very reduced, limited to a few minute bristles on underside of frontoclypeal shelf, some long stout hairs on mandibles and a few fine ones about openings of metapleural glands. Pubescence very fine and short, essentially absent in some species, moderately abundant in others. Colour pale yellowish- or reddish-brown. Because of the extreme structural reduction of Probolomyrmex, taxonomic discrimination of the species is almost entirely dependent on characters of dimensions and proportions, especially those of the head, antennae and node, and sculptural details. 1 The term " mesosoma " is here used for thorax + propodeum (see Michener, C. D., 1944, Comparative external morphology, phylogeny and a classification of the bees (Hymenoptera). Bull. Amer. Mus. nat. Hist. 82: 167). Queen This caste is known for only four Probolomyrmex species: parvus, greavesi sp. n., angusticeps M. R. Smith and boliviensis; all are figured below. The general habitus is very standard, with interspecific differences parallel to those of the workers, which are known for all these species except boliviensis. Size about as in conspecific workers. Structure and proportions of head capsule, frontoclypeal process, mandibles, labrum, labio-maxillary complex, oral palpi, antennae, legs, petiole and gaster almost exactly as in workers; the scapes proportionately a little shorter and the gaster slightly more voluminous. Compound eyes and ocelli well developed. Mesosoma structurally unreduced. Pronotum large; propleura as in worker. Mesoscutum lacking notauli; parapsidal lines fine but distinct. Profile of mesonotum not indented at trans-scutal suture, which is finely incised. Scutellum shield-shaped, its anterior border straight, dorsal outline (viewed from side) evenly convex. Metanotum moderately convex, not produced into a point like that of the male. Suturation lacking between metepisternum and propodeum; general form of latter as in worker. Wings (known for two species only) long and narrow, with very reduced venation (figs. 1 and 2). Fore wing with a single closed (median) cell. Hind wing with a single longitudinal vein (probably radius + subcosta) and 3 subapical hamuli and with no trace of an anal lobe. Pilosity, pubescence, sculpturation and colour as in conspecific workers. Male The only known male of Probolomyrmex is a paratype of the Australian P. greavesi, which is described below. General features as in figures 26 and 27. Head subglobose, frontoclypeal region and frontal carinae produced anteriorly as in the female castes. Antennae 13 - segmented; scapes relatively long, reaching back to the anterior ocellus; funiculus slightly incrassate, proportions of its segments as shown in figure 26. Mandibles large, triangular, with a single strong apical tooth; masticatory border rounding evenly into posterior one. Palpal formula, maxillary 4: labial 2; proportions of palpomeres as in worker. Pronotum well developed. Mesonotum lacking notauli; parapsidal lines distinct. Scutellum moderately convex. Metanotum produced into an obtusely pointed median dorsal tooth. Metepisternum separated from propodeum by a strong suture, and itself divided obliquely into anepisternal and katepisternal areas. Legs each with a single pectinate tibial spur. Pretarsal claws simple. Wing structure and venation as in female. Petiole rounded above, with a low, simple subpetiolar process. Constriction between postpetiole and gaster barely marked. Second post-petiolar segment with its tergite and sternite fused laterally to form a tubular structure, which is slightly arched ventrally. Pygidium (tergite VIII) without a terminal spine, its apex broadly rounded. Cerci lacking. Subgenital plate (sternite IX) short, its apical margin transverse, with a very obtuse median point. Genital capsule simple. Basal ring entire; gonoforceps fairly narrowly digitate; volsellae well developed, cuspal heads somewhat expanded, and digitae simple; penis valves triangular, narrowed apically, with ventral edge finely serrate, teeth directed basally. Larva (figs. 3 - 7) Described from two cuticles of final instar larvae, which originally contained pharate pupae. Body straight, elongate-subelliptical, with 13 differentiated somites, separated by rather indistinct intersegmental lines. Head anteroventral, almost orthocephalic. Prothorax not narrowed to form a neck. Abdomen stout, diameter greatest at its third and fourth segments. Leg vestiges present on all thoracic segments. Spiracles small, apparently lacking on prothorax and last 2 abdominal segments. Terminal somite forming a stout, blunt, posteroventrally directed tail; also with a median posterodorsal suspensory process of the form shown in figures 3 and 4; a low cone-shaped structure articulated to the terminal somite by a narrow neck (in life the flat base of this cone serves to attach the larva to the ceiling or walls of the nest). Anus ventral, at anterior base of tail. Sides of body longitudinally crinkled, as shown in figure 4 (this may not be a feature of the larval cuticle prior to pupal formation). Body beset with numerous low mammiform tubercles, 12 each on the thoracic and first 8 abdominal segments; arranged in 12 longitudinal rows: 2 mid-dorsal, 2 mid-ventral, a midlateral pair on either side, and single dorsolateral and ventrolateral series. The tubercles form a single transverse row on each somite, except the prothorax, where the ventrolaterals are displaced anteriorly, and the mesothorax, where the mid-ventrals are displaced slightly forwards to accommodate the leg vestiges. Mid-ventral prothoracic tubercles displaced laterally by the leg vestiges and a large median welt, which lies across anteroventral part of segment and is apparently not homologous with the tubercles. Each tubercle bears a single median nipple-like papilla, except the prothoracic ventrolaterals, which each carry 2 papillae, the anterior one with a pair of minute bristle-like sensilla. Tubercles and papillae vary in size and shape, as shown in the figures. Integument, apart from the surfaces of the tubercles, densely papilligerous; papillae 0.003 - 0.005 mm. high, arranged generally in transverse rows. Pilosity completely lacking. Cranium large, subcircular in anterior view, slightly concave behind. Head naked, except for a few sensilla and some minute hairs. Antennae a pair of low flat subcircular elevations, each with 3 sensilla. Mouthparts only moderately prominent. Labrum small, semicircular, breadth at base slightly more than twice length; apical border entire, with a few small sensilla; posterior surface densely spinulose, the spinules arranged in arcuate rows. Mandibles long, narrow, moderately sclerotised, not greatly expanded at base; apex slightly curved posteriorly and drawn into a strong mesally inclined tooth, with 2 much smaller teeth on its inner border. Maxillae hemispherical. Palpi not peg-like, each represented by a group of 3 sensilla shaped as shown in figure 6. Galea closely adjacent to palpal sensilla, a relatively very small finger-like structure with a slender apical process. Labrum prominent. Palpi reduced similarly to those of maxillae, each represented by a group of 4 sensilla, shaped as shown in figure 7. Opening of sericteria small, slit-like. Hypopharynx spinulose, the spinules arranged in many short arcuate rows. The Probolomyrmex larva is distinguished from those of all other known ponerine ants by the shape of the body and the unique posterodorsal suspensory organ, which is analogous (but clearly not homologous) with the dorsal " doorknob " tubercles found in some genera of the tribe Ponerini (see G. C. and J. Wheeler, 1952, 1964). Pupa This stage is known only for P. angusticeps, the pupae of which are unusual in that they lack cocoons. A very few other ponerine ants, including some species of Amblyopone, Discothyrea and Ponera, share this same negative characteristic. It is not a universal character in any of these genera and may not be in Probolomyrmex. (3) Life History and Biology Very little is known concerning the biology of Probolomyrmex. The few available ecological details indicate that most of the extra-Australian collections were made in rain-forest, or in islands of native forest in plantations. Nests in such situations are apparently located in leafmould or fragments of rotting wood on the forest floor. A shift in ecological preferences may have taken place in the evolution of the Australian P. greavesi; both collections of this species were made in drier forest types (open Eucalyptus woodland and an exotic Pinus plantation), in which the nests were located in the soil under rocks. Some features of the social biology of P. angusticeps are described below (see page 360). These are based on the only known observations of a live colony of Probolomyrmex; unfortunately it is impossible to estimate whether certain features, particularly the peculiar aspects of larval and pupal life and such details as colony size and composition, are normal for the genus. Direct positive feeding records are not available, although the holotype worker of P. brevirostris was taken in a termite nest, where it may have been seeking prey. It is noteworthy that several other ponerine genera (Discothyrea and Proceratium), which have similar oral and anterior head structure to that of Probolomyrmex, are evidently obligatory arthropod egg predators (Brown, 1957). All known sexual forms of Probolomyrmex are of the normal winged type, so that colony proliferation probably includes a mating flight, as is usual in ants. (4) Systematic Position of the Genus Until recently Probolomyrmex was affiliated with Proceratium, Discothyrea, and other genera synonymous with them, in the spurious tribe Proceratiini Emery. This group was disbanded by Brown (1952, 1958), who showed that the " proceratiine habitus " of its included genera has evidently been convergently derived in several unrelated stocks. Proceratium and Discothyrea should apparently be included in the tribe Ectatommini, and Probolomyrmex appears to be related to Platythyrea and Eubothroponera, constituting with them the tribe Platythyreini. The close similarity between Probolomyrmex and some Discothyrea species, in frontoclypeal structure and other characters, is explained in these arguments as being due to convergent resemblance. Brown's platythyreine assignment was based on a comparison of Probolomyrmex with Platythyrea, in which characters of habitus and the details of pilosity and sculpturation were considered. He concluded that " the point-by-point agreement is so close that I must consider Probolomyrmex to represent a direct derivative of Platythyrea modified for a highly cryptobiotic existence ". The present paper contains much new information, including details of palpal formulae, wing venation, and male and larval characters. Unfortunately these facts shed little further light on the possible affinities of Probolomyrmex; they neither strengthen the argument for a platythyreine placement, nor do they imply a better alternative assignment. Although the additional female characters of palpal formula and wing venation and structure assist in the taxonomic diagnosis of the genus, they have little value as phylogenetic indicators. The 4: 3 palpal formula probably also occurs in Platythyrea (counts of 6: 4, 3: 2 and possibly 2: 2 were given by Brown (1952)), but this formula is also produced in other lines of ant evolution. The wing venation is exceptional in its extreme reduction, to a point where all trace of affinities is lost. The Probolomyrmex male has a decidedly " proceratiine habitus ", with the frontoclypeal process at least as well developed as that of any known Discothyrea male. Other apparently correlated features include the mandibular structure, the relatively large ocelli and the elongated antennal scapes. Considerable variation is shown in the structural complexity of the frontoclypeal region among females of Proceratium, and this variation is closely paralleled in the available males, each being similar to conspecific females. Moreover, the more extreme " proceratiine " head structure of Discothyrea females is also reflected in their males. Thus, it is not too surprising to find that the frontoclypeal structure of the Probolomyrmex male is similar to that of the females, and the similarities between the Probolomyrmex and Discothyrea males need in no way weaken Brown's argument. The palpal formula and wing venation are no more valuable as phylogenetic markers than in the female castes, and the genitalia are quite unspecialised, conforming to a basic ponerine plan. Similar simple genitalia occur in at least some males of Proceratium, Discothyrea and Platythyrea, as well as in those of other genera. The Probolomyrmex male differs from those of Platythyrea in the characters discussed above and in the following additional features: it has single pectinate spurs on the middle and hind tibiae, and it lacks cerci, a terminal pygidial spine and an anal lobe on the hind wing. These same characters occur in males of Proceratium and Discothyrea as well as in those of many other ponerine genera; all are probably correlated with the small size of these animals and do not provide good phylogenetic markers. The lack of a median tooth on the pretarsal claws of all castes of Probolomyrmex need not preclude a platythyreine ancestor, since these structures occur in many ants as secondary adaptations to epigaeic foraging behaviour. Ant larvae are very plastic organisms and may exhibit extreme modifications in response to specialised needs. Because of this, it is often difficult to evaluate the phylogenetic significance of their characters. Probolomyrmex larvae are extremely specialised, and very perplexing in this regard. The body form is unique among ponerines, and is no doubt correlated with the peculiar method by which the larvae are suspended from the ceiling of the nest by their terminal abdominal tubercles. The mandibles are rather ordinary but at least do not resemble those of Proceratium (G. C. and J. Wheeler, 1963, fig. 18, Ilia). The absence of papillae on the maxillary and labial palps is known elsewhere in only one other ponerine genus, Onychomyrmex (tribe Amblyoponini) (G. C. and J. Wheeler, 1959, p. 638); this is almost certainly a convergently developed specialisation. A posteroventral tail is known only in two other Ponerine genera, Platythyrea and Proceratium! The low boss-like tubercles of Probolomyrmex larvae somewhat resemble those of Proceratium; however, similarly distributed, probably homologous, tubercles of diverse shape frequently occur in ponerine larvae (G. C. and J. Wheeler, 1952,1964) so that the possibility of convergence in this character is very likely. Platythyrea larvae have a series of paired protuberances on the ventral side of the body. These appear to be homologous with the midventral series of tubercles in Probolomyrmex and other ponerines; they may possibly indicate that the ancestral platythyreine larva was more generally tuberculate. The finely spinulose and papilligerous cuticle of the Probolomyrmex larva resembles that of Platythyrea, but similar cuticular structure occurs elsewhere in the Ponerinae and this resemblance could be convergent. Although considerable information on the characters of Probolomyrmex is now available, a decision on the taxonomic position and phylogenetic affinities of the genus must still be largely subjective, dependent on the bias involved in " weighting " the various characters that could possibly represent phylogenetic indicators. Like Brown, I favour a platythyreine relationship for the genus, thus giving less weight to the characters of its " proceratiine habitus " than to the similarities with Platythyrea. III. Measurements and Indices In a genus as structurally reduced as Probolomyrmex, the use of detailed measurements and indices calculated from them is essential in providing objective characterisation of the various species. All measurements cited in this paper were made with a stereomicroscope fitted with an ocular scale reading in units of 0.1 and 0.01 mm. directly, at a magni

On the Skull of the D��nosaurian Laelaps incrassatus Cope. By E. D. Cope . (Read before the American Philosophical Society, May 6', 1892.) The characters of the skull in the carnivorous Dinosauria are only partially known, so the present opportunity is improved to add to our knowledge a. considerable number of points, if not to exhaust the subject. I have temporarily in my possession two incomplete crania of the Laelaps incrassatus, from the Laramie formation of the Red Deer river, in the Dominion of Canada, which have been submitted to me by the Geological Survey of the country for determination and description. I express here my thanks to the honorable Director ofthe Survey, Dr. A. R. C. Selwyn, for the opportunity of examining these important specimens. The first specimen consists of the skull, from the orbits to the muzzle inclusive, with the two dentary bones with teeth adhering to the inferior surface. The second specimen includes most of the parts absent from the first. The muzzle and orbital region are wanting, but the parietal and occipital regions are present, with the basis cranii and palate; parts of the quadrate bones and both mandibular rami nearly complete with teeth. The bones of the skull are dense and light, and some of them are pneumatic. The sutures separating the premaxillary, maxillary and nasal bones are not distinguishable in the specimen, and both are considerably injured. There is a large subround preorbital foratnen whose centre is a little nearer the superior plane of the skull than the alveolar border. It is separated from the orbit by a narrow isthmus. The frontal bone is very narrow between the orbits. The prefrontal forms a vertical convex crest on each side, as represented by Marsh to exist in the Megalosaurus nasicornis. The orbits are longitudinally widely parallelogrammic, and are of enormous size, equaling in long diameter the length of the muzzle in front of them. The post frontal and postorbital elements appear to be fused, and form an L-shaped bone, whose horizontal limb is supraorbital, extending forwards over the orbit anterior to its middle. and terminating in an acute apex. The other limb is vertical and postorbital, extending to the jugal bone. A small piece on the inner side of the postfronto��rbital at its posterior angle on the superior face of the skull is of uncertain determination. The maxillary diminishes rapidly in depth below the orbit and terminates a little posterior to it. The jugal overlaps it above, and probably terminated at about the posterior third of the orbit, but the suture is not clear at this point. The frontal is supported below by two vertical elements posterior to the middle of the orbit. These closely resemble the corresponding pieces in Sphenodon, and are the postoptic * and epipterygoid respectively. They are preceded by a vertical compressed element which corresponds with the orbitosphenoid of Sphenodon, but it is not perforate. and the optic foramen is posterior to it. lt is elongate anteroposteriorly, and its anterior extremity is concealed anterior to the orbit. The postoptic is strongly concave at its anterior margin, and the inferior part of this border is produced anteriorly. The epipterygoid, on the other hand, is openly concave posteriorly, its inferior portion being dirested posteriorly and enclosing a large foramen with the postoptic. The external face of the maxillary bones is rugose with fine ridges, and rather numerous foramina. The jugal extends well posteriorly, and increases in depth, but its posterior extremity is broken from the specimen. The mandibular rami are compressed, and the symphysis is oblique and ligamentous. The deutary bone is followed posteriorly above by a deep surangular, with rounded superior border, whose superior outline, though convex, rises hut little above the level of the dentnry. The dentary is produced below it. On the inner side is seen a large splenial foramen, from which extends anteriorly a narrow strip, the splenial. The other borders of the foramen are formed by zt large laminiform bone, the opercular of Cuvier, which extends to the superior border of the ramos, cutting off the dentary posteriorly. It is apparently homologous with the inferior anterior part of the coronoid. For the remaining parts of the mandibular ramns see the description oi the second specimen. The external face of the dentary is roughened and presents foramina which are most numerous anteriorly. where they are connected by shallow grooves, like the rims between the holes of small Mammalia. Opposite each tooth is one or two shallow vertical grooves. * For the definition of this element, see Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1892. The teeth have the usual Megalosaurian form and have long roots sunk in very deep alveoli. There are eleven present in the maxillary bone, of Which the terminal ones are rapidly reduced in dimensions. Fourteen teeth in the dentary bone which diminish in size at the posterior end of the series. The premaxillary teeth are lost, but none of those in the anterior part of the dentary bone have the incisor-like character' of those of the genus Amblypodon of Leidy. The first tooth of the dentary is smaller than the second. and both have more convex external faces than the teeth which succeed them. In the second skull the only partof the superior portion remaining is the brain ease, and this is distorted by pressure which has forced it to the left side of the middle line. The postorbital region and the arches are gone. The occipital appears to be continuous and subhorizontal and is obtusely angulate medially above. The basioccipital is vertical as in the crocodiles proper, and the brain case is closed in front of the petrosal in much the same way, with thin ossifications. The fontmen magnum is small, as is also the transversely oval occipital condyle, which looks directly posteriorly, and not downwards. On each side of the basioccipital are two large foramina, one above the other, the inferior issuing in a deep groove or fossa. They are bounded externally by a broad vertical ala. Anterior to this ala are two other large foramina, one above the other, both issuing from fossae. One or both of these is the trigeminal. The middle line of the brain case is keeled below, except near and at the anterior extremity, where it is flat and is perforated by a transverse foramen. This is possibly a pituitary foramen, which thus penetrates the palatal root " as in the Opisthocoelus Dinosauria as stated by Marsh. The rami of the mandible are pressed obliquely against the inferior aspect of the skull, but are separated far enough to permit the palatopterygoid elements to be seen. These form a rather narrow, flattened rod on each side the middle line, which extend to the robust basipterygoid processes, which look downwards. Each pterygoid then turns abruptly outwards with its edge downwards towards the quadrate, but the specimen does not permit me to discover whether it reaches that element or not. It sends a robust process to the inner side of the basipterygoid, thus extensively embracing it. The anterior part of the palate is invisible. The relations of the dentary and surangular bones are the same as in the specimen No. 1. This specimen shows that the angular and articular are distinct elements. The angular is an elongate element, which is extensively exposed anteriorly on the internal face of the ramtts, and then passes to the external face, terminating in an acuminate lamina below the articular cotylus, but not reaching the angle. The articular is only developed anteriorly on the internal border of the ramus, where it extends Well forwards, extensively overlapping the angular. The surangular extends posteriorly to the borders of the articular colylus, and spreads out below the articular as though it would enter into the composition of the angle of the jaw, which it does not. It is perforated by a round foramen near its interior border, and its inferior face is separated from the external face by a prominent longitudinal down-looking angle. The articular cotylus is transverse and is not bifossate. The quadrate contracts immediately above its condyle and is then broken off in the specimen, but it probably has a rather slender shaft. There is a large foramen in the internal wall of the ramus which is bounded below by the articular. A singular bone occurs in both skulls whose position I cannot determine. It is a slender, strongly curved cylindric cone, which rises from the posterior palatal region and turns upwards, outwards and then backwards and a little downwards, with a compressed acute apex. It is not articulated with any element at the apex, which lies near the jugal bone, and its basal connections are broken away in both skulls. It is possibly a part of the hyoid apparatus, but if so it is difficult to identify it with any known element. The hypohyal is more appropriate than any other, but I do not make any identification. History.- I described this gigantic reptile in the Proceedings of the Philadelphia Academy for October, 1876, from teeth derived from the Laramie formation of Montana, and afterwards (l. c. December, 1876, p. 340), I described it more fully from a nearly entire dentary bone with teeth from the same region. This individual did not differ much in dimensiones from those now described. Our knowledge of the structure of the cranium of the carnivorous Dinosauria has been very slowly acquired. Buckland and Mantell originally knew only the mandibular rami, but Phillips much later obtained a maxillary bone. From these fragments he proposed a restoration on the basis of the skull of the Lacertilia, with but a single postorbital bar. In this kind of restoration Prof. Owen coincided on the occasion of his description of another maxillary bone in the Quarterly Journal, Geological Soc. of London, 1883, p. 334. In a figure of a restoration, he adopted the Lacertilian model instead of the Crocodilian, and he therefore inserted a triangular postorbital, and an elevated coronoid element. He also omitted the preorbital foramen. Dr. J. W. Hulke, at that time President of the Geological Society, expressed the opinion, on hearing Prof. Owen���s paper, that Megalosaurus has two postorbital bars, an anticipation proven to be correct at a later date. In 1884, Prof. Marsh published a paper which contains a description of the skull of a species of carnivorous Dinosaur which he calls Ceratosaurus nasicornis. While this animal is probably a species distinct from the Megalosaurus bucklandii,* it has not yet been shown to belong to a different genus. In this paper the presence of a zygotnatic arch like that of the Crocodilia is demonstrated for this sole order, and the preorbital foramen is also described. The general and more obvious characters of the cranium are given, but many of those which are necessary for an exact understanding of the position of the genus are not given especially are the characters of the mandibular ramus omitted. In the present paper these omissions are mostly supplied, but a number of important problems remain to be definitely settled. See Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1892, Vol. xvii, p. 17, where one of these is stated. I pointed out in 1866, when the genus Laelaps was described, and later, in 1869 (Vol. xiv, Trans. Arner. Philos. Soc), that it differs from Megalosaurus in the much more acute and compressed claws. I add that the present species differs from the M. nasecornis of Marsh in the much larger and more anteriorly placed orbits, and in the much smaller prerobital foramen. * Amen Jour. Sci. Arts, 1884, p. 330. It has been shown that the character on which Prof. Marsh relied to distinguish the genus Ceratosaurus, and the family Ceratosauridae, viz., the confluent metapodials, is pathological. The keeled process on the nose is probably only a specific character. Figures of these remains will he given in the final publication by the Geological Survey of Canada., Published as part of Cope, E. D., 1892, On the skull of the Dinosaurian Laelaps incrassatus Cope, pp. 240-245 in Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 30 on pages 240-245, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.3406278

Genus MACRANCYLUS LeConte Macrancylus LeConte, Am. Phil. Soc., Proc. 14: 338, 1876. Haloxenus Perkins, Fauna Haw. 2: 148, 1900. Synonymy by Champion, Ent. Mo. Mag. II, 20: 123, 1909. This genus was described as American by LeConte, but I have shown in my "Synopsis of the Genera of Hawaiian Cossoninae " [B. P. Bishop Mus., 0cc. Papers 15(25): 285, 1940] that the genus belongs to the Pacific fauna and that the genotype of Haloxenus is a synonym of the genotype of Macrancylus. In other words, the genotype of Macrancylus is a Pacific insect that has been imported into America. The genus has remained monotypic until now, but the discovery of a new species on Guam indicates that there are more species to be found in the Pacific. [Since this was written, I have described a third species from Samoa (B. P. Bishop Mus., 0cc. Papers 16(7): 172-173, 1941)]., Published as part of Zimmerman, Elwood C., 1942, Curculionidae of Guam, pp. 73-146 in Insects of Guam I, Honolulu, Hawaii :Bernice P. Bishop Museum on page 141, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.5159964

Dorylus (Anomma) nigricans subspecies burmeisteri (Shuckard) Seven workers from the stomach of a toad (Bufo regularis) taken at Stanleyville; a series of workers of all sizes from Stanleyville and Lukolela to Basoko (Lang and Chapin); also workers from Katala (J. Bequaert). Dorylus nigricans is the famous driver or army ant, which has so greatly impressed all the African explorers. In my ant-book I have quoted some of the accounts of the earlier observers. To the field naturalist the various races of D. nigricans and D. wilverthi are so similar in appearance and habits that he designates them all as "driver" or "army" ants. It is not surprising therefore that Mr. Lang's notes refer indifferently to both species. The four fine photographs (Pls. II, III, and IV) belong undoubtedly to D. wilverthi (vide infra) but the following note probably refers to both species: "Wherever they go, even though the file be very small, the army ants clear a road that can be easily seen. But when a large army is passing, they not only build a road but also bridges and frequently even fill in all the depressions between the dried grass with particles of sand or soil until a perfect road has been constructed. Across a pathway used by pedestrians, where they are often disturbed, they build walls and regular tunnels even in the hardest ground. Particle by particle is carried out by the steady stream of small workers and the soldiers, large and small, watch on both sides of the line, ever ready to attack anything that may approach. They assume a very peculiar attitude, with mandibles wide open and the head and thorax bent up and back till it forms a right angle with the abdomen. When they seize anything, the abdomen can be torn off without their loosening their grip. They are greatly feared by the natives and even the greatest laggard moves rapidly when passing 'the line.'" In connection with the fact cited by the early explorers, that the drivers are able to kill large animals when confinement prevents their escape, Santschi's quotation of the following observation of Cruchet concerning D. nigricans in Benguela is of interest: "Twice during the course of the year we have been compelled to take the cows out of the kraal and drive them elsewhere, because they bellowed so piteously. On looking into the matter we found that the Anommas caused all this disturbance by crawling into the natural orifices of the animals, especially the anus and vulva. A brooding hen had her head half eaten away, but would not abandon her eggs. On three occasions one of my comrads had to quit his chamber during the night and take up his quarters in the work shop." According to Forel,1 a very interesting account of the habits of Dorylus nigricans in East Africa has been published by Vosseler,2 but I have not had access to this paper. Forel's paper, however, contains reproductions of three of Vosseler's photographs, one showing the Anomma overwhelming a white rabbit and the others showing its army on the march and crossing a stream. Prof. Emery, some years ago, kindly sent me copies of these photographs, which seem to me worthy of being again reproduced for the benefit of my American readers (Pl. V, figs. 1 and 2; Pl. VI, fig. 1). The singular dichthadiigyne, or female of D. nigricans, was discovered by H. Schultze in Uganda. It measures 29 to 31 mm. and has been carefully figured and described by Forel in the work cited above (p. 177)., Published as part of Wheeler, W. M., 1922, The ants collected by the American Museum Congo Expedition., pp. 39-269 in Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 45 on pages 46-47

The object of this paper is to summarise the results of an anthropological biological survey made in Ig5o-6 on the breeding populations of an area including Rwanda, Burundi, and part of the Kivu province of the ex-Belgian Congo (Hiernaux i956; ig60; i963; i964; i965a). The author was based at the Astrida (now Butare) centre of the Institut pour la Recherche Scientifique en Afrique centrale (IRSAC), where he derived benefit from the presence of several ethnologists, a linguist, a demographer, and an economist. The paper will start with a few general remarks on the prospects of survey work in physical anthropology and on its strategy. On one point, taxonomy, it will extend beyond the geographical frame considered, and include some preliminary and partial results of research now in progress. The object of study of physical anthropology is the biological diversity of Man. This can be approached in various ways. Mathematicians working on models, atid biologists experimenting on mice have made contributions of prime importance for the theoretical understanding of human diversity. When all the published quantified information on the biological characters of ethnic groups living in Africa south of the Sahara is considered, discarding only those samples which are too small or are not representative, about half of the area is a terra incognita from this point of view. Data exist on 460 groups, but there is no one variable common to them all (Hiernaux ms.). We evidently need more data on more populations if we are to solve those anthropological problems which cover a wide African area, such as the taxonomy of Man in Africa, or the associations between environmental and biological variables. The Human Adaptability Committee of the International Biological Programme has been wise in recommending more extensive surveys on biological characters everywhere in the world, like the one in central Africa dealt with here. While the lack of data is still so great that any survey will collect something of interest, some areas are, however, more interesting than others. These are areas in which there are wide variations of both environment and gene pools. There is a fair probability that the investigator starting a survey in such a part of the world will find situations approximating a latin square in design, or at least comprising several cells of it. The simplest latin square, one with four cells, would consist of two genetically different populations living in two different biotopes. Such a situation would allow one to analyse the overall diversity into that part due to genetical causes and that part due to the influence of the environment on the phenotype. The Rwanda area is favourable in this respect: its inhabitants display an extreme intergroup diversity, and ecologically it is a contact area where the equatorial forest and the eastern savannah meet. It also receives influences from the north along the Nile and from the south along the Great Lakes rift.

Cumbungi swamps are the most permanent waterfowl habitat in much of the inland of south-eastern Australia and are known to form valuable dry-weather refuges for many waterfowl and to provide favoured habitat at all times for some species. As part of a series of studies of the ecology of waterfowl in inland New South Wales the breeding and food of species found in such a swamp have been studied. This paper describes the general ecology of a cumbungi swamp and provides the introduction to a series of papers on the waterfowl encountered in it.

The distribution of forest trees in Uganda appears to be reasonably well known, at least so far as occurrence in flora-areas is concerned (Eggeling & Dale, 1952; Anon. 1952 et seq.; Hamilton, in press; Hedberg, 1957). A number of well-marked patterns of distribution can be identified. Pollen diagrams now available for Uganda show that there have been, at least locally, very large changes in vegetation during the last 15.000 years. In this paper, the significance of distributional patterns is considered in the light of pollen-analytical and other evidence of vegetational and climatic change.

An analysis of community structures in relation to applicability of various measures of diversity is undertaken. Structural changes in natural communities are examined with respect to succession. It is concluded that in general, diversity, however measured, can be expected to increase, at least initially with time over a successional gradient. The relationship between structural diversity, biological diversity and succession is investigated and it is concluded that in the case of marine fouling communities the former attribute of a substrate generates increased biological diversity whereas the latter characteristic is restrictively determining of future associations. This paper consists of two parts of which this, the first deals with relationships between structural and species diversity in conjunction with community development. The second section concerns relationships between community development and organization.

Species o f the Red Algal genus Plocamium are a common and an attractive feature of the South African intertidal marine flora. This paper collates information on this genus from literature and the collections of Tyson, Becker, Isaac, Simons, the University o f Cape Town Ecological Survey, Pocock and the Botanic Station, Durban. Specimens o f the latter two collections, although seen, are not cited here. The Ecological Survey referred to above was carried out by Professor Stephenson assisted by various members of the University staff between 1931 and 1940 and their collections are cited below with the designation “ Ecol. Surv.”, after the manner of Silva (1959).

In this paper we attempted to present a glimpse of linkage between the nomads living in the pasture of Upper Mustang and their role in biodiversity conservation. The nomadic rangeland in Upper Mustang region harbors endangered Trans-Himalayan species like snow leopard, lynx, brown bear, Tibetan wild ass, Tibetan argali etc. with a variety of birds. It also harbors various medicinal species endemic to the region. Nomads are completely dependent on the livestock for the sustenance of their livelihood. There are only nine nomads families residing in rangelands of Upper Mustang, among them three families are resided in Lo- Manthang Panga area whereas four families in Dhalung/Chhujung area and one each in Lauchhe/Dhaknak area and Ghami Lekh area. Seasonal grazing is a customary practice for all nomadic families. Interview with the nomads (N=9) reveals that the grass availability in the pastures is in decreasing trend. They reveal increase in the number of snow leopard and blue sheep whereas the population of Tibetan Gazelle is in decreasing trend. Rijiphuwa and Pika are the two sites in Dhalung/Chhujung area where snow leopard and grey wolf are the main problem creators. In Lauchhe area (summer pasture) and Dhaknak area (summer pasture), grey wolf and snow leopard are the main problem animals. In comparison to other pasture, the families of Dhalung/Chhujung area faces higher number of livestock losses. Nomads use their own traditional measures to protect their livestock against predators. Large flocks of goats/sheep often come from Tibet to Dhalung/Chhujung area which increases the pressure during the summer and is also the root cause for the deterioration of the pasture. The daily activities of Tibetan nomads have created disturbances resulting adverse impacts on the biodiversity. During summer, the habitat of Tibetan gazelle and Tibetan wild ass is badly affected. Key words: Biodiversity, conservation, nomad, pastoralism, Upper Mustangdoi:10.3126/on.v3i1.333Our Nature (2005) 3: 42-49

In this second paper on the North American Proctotrupidœ, I have taken up the sub-family Platygasterinœ, comprising, for the most part, small black species, all parasitic in larvæxs belonging to the Dipterous families Cecidomyiidœ and Tipulidœ.It will be seen that I have recognized in our fauna species in all of the described genera but Iphetrachelus Haliday, and one new genus parasitic on Cecidomyious hickory galls.

During the last decade many have been interested in the study of the flora of Nepal. There have been those who have carried their investigations over years and others who have visited only once, but all have brought valuable information about the distribution of plants in the area. In recent years, Nepal has proved to be rich in new taxa and particularly in the new species of Meconopsis, of Primula and of Pedicularis. Based on the published data, some deductions can be made about the phytogeography of Nepal. Information is gradually accumulating and becoming available as to the range of extension of the widely accepted East Himalayan elements and the West Himalyan elements. It is here in Nepal that the differing floras of the Eastern and Western Himalayas merge. The outstanding result is an expression of the eastern-ness of the vegetation of East Nepal, while in West Nepal the West Himalayan elements abound; thus botanically Nepal is of particular interest. Because of Nepal's importance as an area of “transition” or as we may also call it as an area of “merging”, the geographical subdivisions of Nepal are discussed in the paper. Further, the data at hand is now much more than what was available to Hooker and Chatterjee. The author, in complete agreement with Stearn, proposes that lang: 83°E. may be taken as the boundary between the botanical provinces of Eastern Himalaya and Western Himalaya. It is also pointed out that in the study of the vegetation of such areas where differing floras meet, plotting of geographical positions is a necessity.

The Makalu-Barun National Park (MBNP) and its Buffer Zone (BZ) of eqastern Nepal shares is borders with Sagarmatha National Park on the west and with the Qomolongma Natural Preserve of the Tibet Autonomous Region of China on the North. The Park is rich in cultural diversity with many ethnic groups. Most of the households are economically poor and depend on subsistence agriculture, animal husbandry and diverse natural resources for livelihoods. Slash and burn cultivation on steep slopes, poaching, hunting, over grazing, high dependency on natural resources, poverty and food deficits are the main threats to biodiversity in MBNP and BZ area. The MBNP was established in 1991 while its BZ was declared in 1998. the basic underlying approach of protection and management of the Park and its BZ is biodiversity conservation through people participation, without relying on military force. This paper highlights the implementation of the biodiversity conservation and management approaches through people participation in the MBNP and its BZ, and also explores notable achievements and effectiveness of partnership of the Government of Nepal, the Mountain Institute (TMI) – an INGO and the local communities to sustain conservation efforts as well as to improve local livelihoods. Key words: Biodiversity; National Park; Buffer Zone; participation; culture; linkages Banko Janakari Vol.16(2) 2006 pp.37-44

1) Instead of phytocoenosial and synusial units which have been applied to epiphyte communities, a proposal on the use of new terms, “epies”, “epilia”, and “epido”, community units of corticolous communities in forests, is submitted in the present paper. 2) Two associations, Ponapeeto-Campnospermetum brevipetiolatae and Cyclosoreto-Horsfieldietum nunus, are recognized in the range of tropical rainforests characterized by Campnosperma brevipetiolataVolkens in Kusaie, Micronesia, and 4 epilias are found in the forests.

This paper deals in general with diversity of vascular plants, status of invasive alien species (IAS) and nationally threatened plant species, human use potentials of phytodiversity, and some phytodiversity-based measures to restore and improve the Ramsar characteristics of Beeshazar Lake and surrounding landscape system, which isa part of the Barandabhar forest corridor (BFC) - an extension of buffer zone of the Chitwan National Park, Nepal. Keywords: Phytodiversity, Beeshazar Lakedoi:10.3126/on.v5i1.797Our Nature (2007)5:41-51

Nepal is nature's paradise. It's a small attractive package of nature embracing the rich biological diversity in the tiniest area. One of the nature's gifts to Nepal is its vegetation. The narrow strip of land harbours over 170 parcels of vegetation. The need of categorisation of Nepal's forest type is thus not only needed to acknowledge the rich diversity but also to make it applicable in scientific studies and researches. This paper endeavours to classify the Nepal's forest according to all the rational parameters yet avoiding the strict compartmentalisation which is near to impossible as in the case of natural and life bearing heritage like forest. Key Words: Forest type, Ecological map, Classification, Protected areas DOI: 10.3126/init.v2i1.2512 The Initiation Vol.2(1) pp1-9

The broad geographical range of thermophilous calcareous grass lands in the British Isles affords an excellent subject for research in both phytogeography and phytosociology. The grasslands of the chalk downlands of southern England are quite well-known ecolo gically (Tansley 1939), but the lack of comparative data from the grasslands of the older limestones prevents a detailed phytogeo graphical comparison of component communities of the Class Festuco-Brometea in western Europe. Over a period of four years the regions shown in Figure i were visited and sampled and the results are presented here and in two subsequent papers. Over 500 grassland Aufnahmen were collected and from these, Associations erected, characterised and classified accordingly to the Z?rich-Montpellier School of phytosociology and the system of vegetation classification for central and north-west Europe advocated by Lohmeyer et al. (1962). These Associations have been related to one of the predominant measurable factors which influences plant geography, namely that of climate. For this purpose, modified climate-type diagrams of Walter & Lieth (1967) have been used to illustrate the main climatic trends which are reflected by the floristic composition and structure of the limestone grassland communities.

This paper emphasizes wildlife biodiversity and the management techniques and drawbacks particularly in Bhawal National Park. The park was declared a National Park in 1982; there was a great diversity of animal species at Bhawal National Park especially peafowl and jungle fowl dating back, to the British era as well as the Pakistani era. But unfortunately during and after 1971 there were neither reports nor any sighting of these attractive creatures. It is also remarkable; the remaining creatures such as civet, skunk, mongoose etc are endangered as well. The park management techniques and how they can be improved in order to preserve wildlife from the viewpoint of the Forest Department as the villagers couldn’t give any. Information through field observations, interviews and focus group discussions were collected. Conservation is the only alternative measure remaining for the rapidly dwindling small area of the Sal forest; The WMNCC will definitely have to come into effect if a consensus and status of the existing wildlife is to be published; The park management staff can also put up some colorful signboards depicting what species of wildlife that the tourist can find; Co-management of protected areas has great importance for conservation. Key words: Bhawal National Park, Management technique, Nature conservation, Wildlife biodiversitydoi:10.3126/on.v3i1.340Our Nature (2005) 3: 83-90

This paper brings together all the species of Microphanurus from the Ethiopian and Indo-Malayan regions that I have written about during the last eight years. I have found that the fauna of neither region could be studied in isolation if a proper understanding of the taxonomic relationships and host-preferences of the genus were aimed at.The key contains all the species from the regions concerned of which the types or at least authentically named specimens are in the British Museum. Two new African species are described.For the identification of the Hemipteron, Atelocera stictica, Westwood, and for other information I am much indebted to Mr. W. E. China.

Most of the research on the effects of pesticides on wildlife has been done in order to reduce harmful side effects, that is by scientists interested in conservation. Since the approach of conservation ecologists is conditioned by the aims of their work these should be mentioned, for, unlike the aims of agriculture and preventive medicine, they cannot be taken for granted. This is unfortunate because conservation is, I believe, an important and probably an essential activity of modern man. Essentially the aim of conservation is to hand on biological diversity to future generations. The reasons for this are : 1. We never know when a particular species may not become of particular value to man in the future; once a species becomes extinct it is lost for ever. 2. Biological diversity produces stability; and in a general sense a stable total environment is better for mankind than an unstable one. The important corollary from the point of view of today’s discussion is that conservationists are primarily concerned with the survival of species. In this their approach is radically different from that of medical and veterinary experts who are primarily concerned with the survival of individuals. One of the main practical results of the difference is this—for medical purposes, toxicological data provide a reasonable basis for predicting the hazards of pesticides; but for the conservationist they are inadequate unless supplemented by data obtained in the field. The concern of the conservationist with populations conditions his whole approach to the problem of pesticides; but I believe it forces him into looking at it fundamentally, for the essential pesticide problems are ones of population ecology. In this paper I shall describe the nature of the subject in ecological terms before briefly summarizing research which is being done to elucidate some of the wildlife problems.