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For more than a generation a considerable amount of attention has been given to the development and utilization of an empirical measure of the theoretical concept of innovativeness. Research workers in agriculture have employed various types of adoption of farm practices scales as a measure of the relative rates of adoption of technological innovations by farmers. The major problem in using an adoption scale has rested with unidimensionality; the degree to which the developed scale measures the innovativeness dimension. Following the review of several research studies aimed at establishing unidimensionality, some sociologists claimed that the analyses provided no clear cut answer as to whether adoption scales measure only a single general dimension; innovativeness. The major aims of this paper are to demonstrate that such unidimensionality does clearly exist and to show the theoretical and practical implications. The data used in this paper were drawn from an interdisciplinary study of the factors determining the adoption of agricultural innovations by a sample of 116 woolgrowers in New South Wales.

Copyright of Sociologia Ruralis is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This paper reports the findings of a study of the discriminatory characteristics of accepters and non-accepters of an approved farm practice in two Iowa turban communities. Evidence is presented in support of the hypothesis of a trait typology among farm operators in their acceptance of approved technological practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article reports on the papers presented at the "Conference on Agricultural Research Priorities for Economic Development in Africa," that was held in Abidjan, Cote d'Ivoire in April 1968. The impact of research on agricultural activities of the African peasant farmers has not made anything, and that it has created a possible revolution in agricultural practices. There were few cases wherein research into food crops, agricultural systems, and internal marketing problems received more than passing attention. The opportunity for a comprehensive overview of the research needs in agricultural development was provided by the conference.

The paper describes an Irrigation Feasibility Study carried out for a Developing Country. The area considered comprised some 1,000,000 acres of land in Burma and the study was undertaken for the Burmese Government under the auspices of the United Nations. The solution technique used was Mixed Integer Programming, there being approximately 750 continuous variables, 50 integer variables and 250 constraints. The study is of particular interest in that the problem was solved both by conventional methods and by Operational Research methods independently. Therefore, a complete comparison of the relative merits of both approaches exists and is discussed here. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses several issues related to agricultural development discussed in the seminar sessions of the third world congress for rural sociology. Serious questions were raised concerning the appropriateness of the usual variable characteristics included in many sociological studies if such studies are to have utility for policy-makers and planners dealing with problem of development in rural areas. The relatively low correlations found between such characteristics as age, sex, years of schooling and size of farm suggests that the focus should be on characteristics more closely associated with involvement such as beliefs and disbelief about the groups or activities. Given the technology available today, it should be possible to collect the data appropriate to decisions about a given project in a reasonably short time and to tailor the collection to the particular area concerned whether it be a small rural village or a district or a nation. One of the major conclusions of the session and of cooperative researches has been that cooperatives have failed to make the contributions to development that sociologists had anticipated. It was felt that cooperative structure is quite flexible and could and should be adapted to local customs in many cases.

This article focuses on sociocultural problems in introducing new technology on Navaho irrigation project. The development of the Navajo Project under the Upper Colorado River Project will give the Navaho Indian Tribe an opportunity to rehabilitate 1,900 families on 122,000 acres of irrigated land. However, a wide gap exists between the Navaho's current level of agricultural technology and understanding of modem economic practices and that which he will need when the large irrigation development is completed,some years hence. This article describes a case study of a 60-acre farm which the Indian Bureau planned as one method of teaching the Navaho to bridge this gap. It did not succeed, largely because of the lack of coordination between the agency branches concerned, arid because the planners failed to take into consideration the culture and social organization of the community. The demonstration farm is located on a newly subjugated part of an existing irrigation project in the northeastern part of the Navaho Indian Reservation in New Mexico.

The article focuses on pest management of developing nations. According to the author, crop protection program should be parallel to the efforts in human population control to avoid famine. It was mentioned that traditional approach, and pest problems were factors which developing countries should address to avoid famine. With the green revolution, agricultural technology, and plant pest control are introduced, together with several approaches including plant introduction, monoculture, and vegetative propagation.

The article discusses the distinguishing characteristics of the agricultural science. The branch of sciences have emerged as distinct entities from other branches such as biological sciences, mathematics, physics, chemistry, and the social sciences, during the past century. The continual development in agricultural sciences has served as a vehicle for exploring new areas and catalyzing an onrush of changing technology as new problems are encountered. The nature, achievement, and challenges of various discipline of agricultural science including soil, plant, animal and food sciences are explored.

The article presents a speech by Theodore W. Schultz, a professor of economics at the University of Chicago, delivered during Ninth Agricultural Industries Forum at the University of Illinois in February 1967. He discussess on the malinvestment of the department of agriculture in the U.S., which includes the irrigation programs to enhance agricultural production.

This article discusses the impact of changes in agriculture on political life of North American region. The impact of change on political institutions is described at both the local and national level. At the local level, increasing demands for improvements in services, increasing use of technology, and an ever growing demand for subsidy, credit, and welfare programs have served to modify the traditional autonomous, familistic patterns of government to more centralized and integrated operations. At the national level, the changing political scene is analyzed in terms of four sources of power which have been traditional with agricultural systems. The emerging source of political power of agricultural systems is seen most clearly in its control of the 'expertise' in food and fiber production.

This article discusses an approach in the planning of agricultural infrastructure in Jordan from the 1950s to 1960s. Agriculture supports about three-fourths of the population of Jordan, although its contribution to the gross national product is proportionately much less (about 20 percent) than the contribution of industry and service sectors. Foreign aid funds have had a marked effect on the non-agricultural sectors by stimulating commercial and construction activities. The chief source of trouble in Jordan's agriculture, as in most of the Middle East, is in the erratic rainfall pattern from year to year and season to season. For example, the 1955-1956 season had 17.6 inches of rainfall, the 1959-1960 season had only 7.5 inches. Jordan has a long summer drought, beginning usually in May and lasting until October. Aspects of Jordan's basic resource inadequacy is stressed in the article. A scatteration of projects in agriculture is likely to have less income-generating impact, at least in the short run, than a few projects which strike at this main source of instability. Jordan's total crop output was less in 1960 than in 1952, despite a decade of development effort, and this is an indication of the need for re-evaluation, particularly in view of the 2.5 to 3.0 percent annual population growth forcing the food demand. This article stresses that an adequate planning would solve the country's deficit. This includes introduction of complex irrigation systems and proper training of farmers in adopting new systems.

Agriculture remains the major industry in much of rural United States today. Thus, any model concerned with the development of rural communities must necessarily acknowledge the changes taking place in the food and fiber industry. One of the changes resulting from increased agricultural technology is the increase in the size of farms and the concomitant decrease in number. This decrease has had serious impact on many small communities, which originally provided services for a much larger population. Another change, which has begun receiving more attention in recent years that may have implications for rural communities, is the change in the organizational structure of the basic production unit. Historically the family farm has been the major organizational structure in United States agriculture. This article sought to compare two increasingly prevalent, alternative agricultural structures to the family farm structure with regard to community integration. Additional questions need to be raised concerning these agricultural structures and their relationship to other social indicators or indicators of quality of life. In addition, other possible organizational structures some of which are more prevalent in other societies than in the United States need to be examined.

Copyright of Sociologia Ruralis is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This article focuses on the harvest technology for the production of small grains and the state of farm labor supply in Great Britain during 1790-1870. In Great Britain and Japan the most successful developments in raising farm output were secured initially via the gradual penetration of inexpensive biological innovations. In one proto-industrial agriculture in Great Britain, the demand for labour-saving methods was successfully met by an intermediate technology, developed within or alongside an existing framework of traditional hand-tool techniques. The author presents three counter arguments: first, that between 1790 and 1870 there occurred in Britain an important transformation in hand-harvesting technology secured for the most part through the intermediate technology of improved hand-tool methods; second, that this was primarily a response to a deteriorating harvest labour market; and third, that for some time after 1850 many farmers preferred to deepen their investment in this range of seemingly obsolescent techniques rather than to exploit the more worth-while factor-saving alternative of mechanization.

Although many revisions have been made in undergraduate teaching in the agricultural sciences over the years, a number of significant new trends are underway today. However, important issues and problems confront educators and administrators in the colleges, schools, and departments of agriculture. The Commission on Education and Natural Resources in Agriculture offers assistance in solving them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents information on agricultural research in Communist China. After 1949, the Communist Party of China (CPR) started organizing and establishing agricultural research institutes, colleges, and laboratories. Qualified agricultural scientists have now been provided with the support and facilities required to conduct research and to develop technology for increasing agricultural production. Scientific agricultural research is mainly under the jurisdiction of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, which was established in 1957. Agricultural research in Communist China is also conducted by 30 or more agricultural colleges, and this research is coordinated with the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences.

The article focuses on the effects of protective trade policies on agricultural production in the U.S. The agricultural industry that was under the protective policies saw its development but not at large. Flax fibre had been raised since the colonial period. In 1828, duties were imposed which remained unchanged during the Civil War and it increased after 1870. The production of flax was done by rotting, scutching and hackling the plant. The silk manufacture as the household industry started in Connecticut since the Civil War. There was a striking growth of silk industry in the decade between 1950 and 1960.

This article focuses on rural people in the postwar world in the U.S. The progress in agricultural technique tends to increase production of farm products, while the decline in births tends to decrease consumption. Both factors tend to reduce the number of workers needed in agriculture and force the migration of youth from farms. But during the economic depression many youth could not get jobs in town; consequently some of the fathers took their sons into partnership, commonly renting one or more farms and usually pushing tenants off the land. The advance in agricultural technique, especially the application of animal and mechanical power to farm operations. It has been only about a century since field work was done mostly by hand tools, and, of course, by man power.

The article outlines the research conducted on the vegetation in Mauritius. Researchers found that the mean annual rainfall over the upland climax forest is of the order of 3175 millimeters and the nearest site where records are available over a long period is at Curepipe Gardens. Another important factor that affect the metabolism of the living organism is the intensity of rainfall from day to day. Knowledge of such distribution would enable them to have a better appraisal of the real wetness or dryness of the site. Discussed are the details of the issue.

This article examines irrigation as a practical means to control potato common scab. It notes that irrigation in 1970 at Gleadthorpe E.H.F. increased potato yields and, when given from the time of tuber initiation, controlled common scab on the susceptible cultivars King Edward, Majestic and Record. Pentland Crown had little scab with or without irrigation. It was the driest May and June since 1934 and there was already a soil moisture deficit (SMD) of 1.8 inches at tuber initiation by King Edward and when water was first given. Subsequently irrigation at 0.6 inches or 0.8 inches SMD in controlling scab, and more effective at 0.6 inches SMD when maintained for 4 weeks than for 2 weeks. Irrigation at 0.6 inches SMD for 4 weeks increased the weight of premium potatoes by respectively, 16, 12, 13 and 12 tons/acre for King Edward, Majestic, Record and Pentland Crown. Tubers developed slowly in unirrigated plots both in volume and in the rate that eyes separated. King Edward produced more tubers per plant than Majestic; irrigation did not increase tuber numbers.

This article explores a number of related elements of the evolution of water projects in northern Victoria, as of March 1964. The author traces the impact of American influences on the local scene, having regard to two vital features of its history. First, the comparatively early start made by Victoria in the promotion of large-scale water conservation and in irrigation schemes with a high and increasing level of state participation, secondly, the factors that have helped to condition state policies relating to the location of projects and the systems of water supply and land settlement encouraged by them.

The article discusses the role of irrigation districts in California's water development. Early settlers found that California had excellent soil and temperature for agricultural development, but very scanty rainfall in the growing season. Irrigation was introduced on a small, individual scale, which developed into organized projects through the pioneering of the irrigation-district system. California has to the west the Coast Ranges composed of numerous indistinct chains that are broken into innumerable ridges and spurs and small valleys drained by short streams of rapid fall. In the east looms the Sierra Nevada, a great block of the crust of the earth, faulted along its eastern side and tilted up so as to have a gentle backslope to the west and a steep fault escarpment facing east. Today California is second only to Texas in cattle population, but the state has first of all become the world's leading exporter of fruit and vegetables. For a number of years the cash value of California's agricultural crops has remained the highest in the nation, and although significant crops are raised in the Imperial Valley and the coastal valleys, the largest share of California's crops is accounted for by the Central Valley.

Technological and economic development has spiraled in those areas in the United States that are at the crossroads of cultural exchange. On the other hand, cultural patterns of subsistence farmers in hill areas have changed very slowly. The cultural values in subsistence farming differ fundamentally from those in commercial agriculture. They stress getting along on small resources, staying out of debt, and being content with what you have, as contrasted with a special regard for managerial skill, high productive methods, and ambition to get ahead. The opportunity of subsistence farmers to shift into commercial farming is limited. The shift in values is most difficult; furthermore, as farm technology increases, a continuous flow of manpower out of agriculture is necessary. Local nonfann work opportunities are increasing, but the major shift is to employment in large urban centers. The habits and values of these people are a strong handicap in their adjustment to the responsibilities of urban life. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One approach to general sociological theory is utilized in the present study. Technological change, as measured by an adoption of farm practices scale, varies with the concepts of change orientation, communication competence, and status achievement. No significant relationships were found between technological change and locality group cohesion, family integration, and kinship group cohesion. A coefficient of multiple correlation of .409 indicates that much of the variation in technological change remains to be explained by other than the six conceptual variables included in the present study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effect of irrigation on the total population of an area is of real importance in the planning of irrigation developments. Plans must be made for towns, schools, roads, churches, and other public and semi-public developments that will be used by the total population, rather than by the farm population only. Some of the benefits of irrigation accrue to these townspeople and if wisely planned, the irrigation development may well assess a portion of its costs to the non-farm population supported by it. On the other hand, overly optimistic estimates of the number of non-farm persons that will be associated with an irrigation development serve no useful purpose, and may lead to erroneous conclusions as to the worth of the development. This analysis seeks to bring out some of the existing relationships of population groups in irrigated and non-irrigated areas in the Western states and to draw some conclusions from them. The total acreage in farms in 1940 was 255,605,636 acres and was made up of 93,316,209 acres in irrigated farms and 162,289,427 acres in non-irrigated farms. Thus there were 1.74 acres of land in non-irrigated farms per acre in irrigated farms. Recognizing the limitation of the data, a selection of counties was made, based on the ratio between the two groups of farms.

Though the list of countries, which may be cited as examples of successful agricultural performance, is a brief one, Mexico is usually included. The fact that its agricultural production, measured in physical terms, has expanded spectacularly more than fivefold between 1940 and 1964 qualifies it for the distinction. This was achieved by certain strategies designed to promote agricultural growth. The development of Mexican agriculture is typically divided into two historical phases. The Mexican Revolution, 1910-1917 eventually resulted in the drastic policy shifts which distinguished these two eras. It is argued here that a second major revision has occurred which separates the post-revolutionary era from the current one. The most recent shift is not widely or explicitly recognized in the literature, especially that segment of it produced by North American observers. Furthermore, the current policy mix serves to explain both Mexico's agricultural successes and the serious problems faced by a vast majority of its rural population.

The article focuses on the destruction of tropical ecosystems due to overpopulation, and agricultural methods. It was mentioned that growth rate in human population threatens the natural populations of plants, and animals. It explores the author's journeys in the Republic of Panama, where he witnessed deforestation, and the inefficient methods in agriculture. The author argues that with the growth of population, allowing the land to revert to forest was impossible, specifically in Madden Lake, Panama. The author inferred that other tropical countries also face the same environmental problems as with Panama, and suggests a halt in population growth, or improvement in agricultural methods as answers to the problems.

It is informed that national affluence, along with increased agricultural technological efficiency, surplus production, and the inelasticity of demand for food products has resulted in a cost-price squeeze for farmers. This situation demands as a solution that surplus farmers be helped to transfer to other forms of employment where they will presumably prosper along with the lesser number of farmers left behind to operate the larger farms. It is opined that national affluence simply occurred presumably as a result of the Adam Smith laissez-faire operation of the market place, and there is no alternative for farmers other than to adjust to this affluence by reducing their number. Presumably, the prosperity of such adjusting farmers will be increased, although they will move into an economy where technological advances are displacing manual labor and small entrepreneurs at a rate probably equal to or greater than that in agriculture. It is opined that whatever prosperity farmers do and will have can be attributed in large measure to the organized auspices through which their goods are produced and marketed.

In American society with its great emphasis on efficiency and monetary return, the tendency is to view income opportunity as the basic determinant of technological change. A recent study of the diffusion of hybrid corn, for example, concluded that profitability accounts for most of the change to hybrid varieties. In such a conceptualization of the change process factors such as socioeconomic status, economic resources, and group and individual values tend to be seen merely as or facilitators of the change process. This article describes and analyzes what might be called a natural experiment in the diffusion process. The experiment tests the relative importance of the profitability of an innovation as compared with the role of congruence to an existing cultural pattern. In the case of agricultural technology numerous examples could be cited of the much more rapid rate of adoption which has occurred following the adoption of a similar type of practice previously. For example, Tenmarq wheat was introduced in Kansas in 1932 and required twelve years to reach 37 per cent adoption. Whereas Pawnee was introduced in 1943 and required only seven years to reach 38 per cent adoption.

The article presents the findings from a study designed to determine whether the five conceptualized stages in the adoption process of new farm practices can be validated empirically. At first stage the individual is exposed to an idea. He is aware that the new practice exists, but he lacks details concerning it. At second stage the individual is motivated by his curiosity and interest in the new practice. He is interpreting the new idea by relating it to other experiences and other phenomena which are part of his environment. At third stage the individual is concerned with applying the idea to his present or predicted situation. The relative advantage of the new practice over other alternatives is considered. A decision to try or not to try the new practice is made. In the fourth stage, the individual is concerned with the specifics of how, what, when, and where. Information and data regarding the technique and method are sought rather than evaluative information. The fifth stage consists of evaluation, satisfaction with the trial and the decision for continued use.

A letter to the editor is presented in response to the article "Some Effects of Crop-Production Technology on Environmental Quality."