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This paper is concerned with some of the often neglected behavioral problems associated with the practice of management by objectives. These include problems relating to managerial style, adapting to change, interpersonal skills, setting objectives, measurement, and management by objectives quality control. The paper concludes with some criticisms of the current state of management by objectives research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The characteristics associated with the creative individual and the identification of these characteristics have been explored in a companion paper in this Journal. Once this important task has been accomplished, the equally significant administrative question of the optimum utilization of this creative talent arises. The effective utilization of creative abilities within a goal seeking organization is conditioned by many variables including: top management's attitudinal posture regarding the value of creativeness and innovation; the organizational slack present in the resource inputs, and, certainly, the organizational climate created by the organization's design, control system, and reward system. Given the characteristics of the creative individual and given the recruitment of persons with creative abilities, this paper explores the issue of the organizational climate most conducive to the generation and maintenance of constructive creative responses oriented toward the organization's goals. We will first explore the question of what is the administrative hierarchy attempting to accomplish when it establishes a given organizational design. Within this framework, the organizational design of traditional administrative theory will be superimposed upon our model of the creative individual as developed previously. Given the basic incongruities of the "fit," the question of the possible variation of organizational structures to fit variable purposes arises. Finally, implications for possible organizational designs needed to utilize creative talent effectively will be explored. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reviews the goal approach and the system resource approach to the study of organizational effectiveness. First, the goal approach is defended with respect to criticisms made by the users of the system resource approach. Next it is criticized for its failure to develop general measures of effectiveness. The system resource approach is then criticized because optimization is not measured, few general measures are used, and the basic rule of mutual exclusiveness is seriously violated. Finally, a general measure of effectiveness is suggested, based on Georgopoulos and Mann's (1902) study of community general hospitals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the preceding pages we have described alternative methods of measuring the extent of goal agreement between a husband and a wife and the extent to which this agreement changes over time. Two different methods of measuring an individual's goals, the forced-choice response and the open-end response types, were shown to be amenable to measurement of agreement between the individuals. It is not the purpose of this paper to discuss the validity of either or both measures of an individual's goals. The methods of measuring husband-wife goal agreement and goal agreement change presented in this paper admittedly do not represent a high degree of methodological sophistication. At the same time, they do seem to represent a not too difficult procedure for operationalizing what could otherwise be some rather fuzzy variables. Often times, the inability to operationalize sociological concepts is a barrier to effective research. To the extent that the methods presented in this paper help to remove such a barrier from conducting research in the area of husband-wife goal agreement, the efforts have been warranted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper represents an effort to synthesize the work of philosophers of science with regard to teleological or adaptive systems. Methodological in focus, the intent is to identify a set of logical properties inherent in theories pertaining to organizations. This set of properties is referred to as a general analytic model for teleological systems and is construed to have heuristic value for the analysis of bureaucratic organizations as well as for development of a general theory appropriate to these organizations. The concepts of goal directedness, plasticity, interdependence of parts, system persistence and system change are examined and an explication of their relevance and interrelationship is attempted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper defines optimum as the condition most favouring factors which influence certain objectives and the achievement of those objectives. Factors which may influence certain objectives can be classified as (a) alternate strategies, (b) states of nature, (c) time, (d) costs related to the achievement of the objectives.
A suboptimum may occur as the result of one or more of the following actions. (1) Exclusion of one or more of the possible strategies (not based on economic consideration). (2) Exclusion of one or more of all states of nature (not based on economic consideration). (3) Inconsistency in the time intervals involved in the decision problem. (4) Neglect of the costs related to the achievement of the objectives. (5) Optimization of one objective resulting in a lower degree of attainment of other objectives. Examples of these categories are given and the paper discusses approaches to be taken in decision problems to eliminate the danger of a suboptimum.
This paper tries to overcome the shortcomings of suboptimization by looking simultaneously at all pertinent factors and functions of the integrated system as they evolve through time and impinge on each other. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Organization theorists have faced many difficulties in conceptualizing organizational goals and understanding organizational behavior through them. This paper suggests that commitment to a goal paradigm has retarded analysis by requiring the disassociation of conceptual scheme from incompatible empirical findings on organizations. Barnard's incentive system analysis is seen as providing the foundations of a counter paradigm, and suggestions are made for its development along the lines indicated by his statement "the individual is the basic strategic factor in organization." Organizations are not viewed as analytically distinctive social units given meaning by their goals, but as arbitrary focuses of interest, marketplaces whose structures and processes are the outcomes of the complex accommodations made by actors exchanging a variety of incentives and pursuing a diversity of goals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper attempts to explain relationships among community health and welfare agencies by viewing them as being involved in an exchange system. Organizational exchange is defined as any voluntary activity between two organizations which has consequences, actual or anticipated, for the realization of their respective goals or objectives. Organizations have need for three main elements: (1) clients, (2) labor services, and (3) resources other than labor services. Theoretically, were all the essential elements in infinite supply there would be little need for organizational interaction and for subscription to co-operation as an ideal for health agencies. Under conditions of scarcity, however, interorganizational exchanges are essential to goal attainment. The interdependence of the agencies is contingent upon three related factors: (1) the accessibility of each organization to necessary elements from outside the health system, (2) the objectives of the organization and particular functions to which it allocates the elements it controls, and (3) the degree to which domain consensus exists among the various organizations.. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article comments on the article "A New Approach: To an Urban Information Process," by Charles Eastman, Norman J. Johnson, and Kenneth Kortanek, published in this issue. The author agrees with the critiques of the original paper on the current methods of gaining information in studies of social systems, but feels that the criticism was incomplete. Furthermore, he expresses several concerns in the original article's proposal for gathering and processing information. Lastly, he points out the need for the emphasis or goals when gathering and processing information.

This paper presents a goal programming approach to the problem of scheduling aggregate production and work force. The approach is illustrated via two case applications. Numeric results are derived and compared to those of two other approaches. The results suggest that goal programming may be an effective approach for solving certain types of planning models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In response to the increasing significance of corporate information in the present economy, accountants have demonstrated an active interest in developing a cohesive and useful framework to guide the selection, measurement, and communication of information for published corporate accounting reports. Despite some notable contributions, especially over the past three decades, most qualified observers would undoubtedly agree that such a framework or theory has not been satisfactorily developed. The emerging philosophy of accounting research characterized by a commitment to a scientific attitude has enhanced greatly the potential for accounting theory. The essential purposes of this paper is to demonstrate that objectives for published corporate accounting reports should be an integral part of the development of corporate accounting theory formation. It also proposes a methodology for the development of objectives for published corporate accounting reports. The paper also tries to employ the proposed methodology in the logical development of basic objectives for published corporate accounting reports.

The article presents information about group perception and social change in Sri Lanka. This paper is an initial attempt to gain some added insight into the process of social change in Sri Lanka by applying, in rather impressionistic fashion, an analytical model to Sri Lankan data. The perceptual model on which this analysis is based is, as of this writing, neither rigorous nor complete. It is hoped, however, that this type of conceptual analysis may prove suggestive as a possible approach to the study of social change. It is a basic premise of this paper that man behaves as he does because of the ways in which he perceives the external world. By perception, one means here the process by which an individual selects, evaluates and organizes stimuli from the external environment. While individuals and the groups which they Constitute can only act or react on the basis of their perceptions, the important point is that the same stimuli are often perceived differently by different individuals and groups. Whether or not an objective reality exists apart from man's perception of that reality need not concern us here. In terms of human behavior, however, there exists, for man, only subjective reality-that is, the universe as individual men perceive it.

In recent years, decision making based on systematic analysis has been greatly emphasized. Yet, decision analysis is often carried out without analyzing the limitations of certain quantitative techniques. This paper presents the concept, solution method, and application potential of goal programming which eliminates many limitations of conventional linear optimization models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper presents a general paradigm for the structuring of a science course behaviorally and cites examples of behavioral schema from the life sciences. The first step in structuring a course behaviorally is to decide upon the terminal behaviors. These behaviors indicate what the student should be able to do when he completes the program. The essence of good curriculum development is the sequencing of instructional paradigms to maximize learning and minimize the duplication of previously learned material. Behavioral objectives should form an integral part of the process.

This paper discusses the impact that systems analysis has had on the welfare reform legislation of the last four years. After a general discussion of welfare reform's objectives and constraints, and their particular application to the family assistance proposal, the state of the art of systems analysis as related to welfare problems is described. The successes and failures of the cost-effectiveness approach in developing and modifying the proposal are outlined in analyses of major issues, including the proposal's impact on state welfare programs, work incentives, the integration of cash assistance with assistance in kind, and alternatives for welfare administration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper presents a holistic analysis of hospital management admission systems. It outlines control strategies which will facilitate a system's effectiveness for various organizational attributes. In particular, attention is focused on bed occupancy levels and on the stability of flows into the hospital as interacting control variables. The paper surveys the major available mathematical models and evaluates their use vs. the use of simulation. It emphasizes the potential use of an iterative assignment model which explicitly considers the alternative profiles for preferences for service attributes held by the various participants in the admission system. To reconcile conflicting objectives of these participants the DELPHI and the Multi-attribute Reduction methods are proposed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes the use of simulation techniques at SDC in the analysis of time-sharing system operation. The purpose and goals of this research effort are briefly outlined and some comments on the advantages and disadvantages of direct simulation for this type of work are given. The existing simulator models are described in terms of inputs, general flow, and outputs; and the results of initial investigations with these models are given. Work currently in progress is discussed, and some related problems that may possibly be studied in the future by similar methods are noted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

David P. Rutenberg [1] provided a method to solve separable nonlinear objective functions with large-scale linear constraints by using W. I. Zangwill's Convex Simplex Method [2]. However, here seem to be several errors in §4.3 [1, p. 397]. Two counterexamples to his conclusions are given in this paper. A revised definition of subproblem, therefore, an optimal criterion of the large-sealed program, is also given. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of many published indices as aids for decision-making is demonstrated to be largely unsubstantiated in theory and of only limited value in practice. This paper attempts to define the useful areas of applications of indices in the decision-making process. A technique is postulated whereby indices are used as a measure of the state of the system, and a decision-rule, which is compatible with some real objective, is determined. In this way the value of an index can prescribe what action is necessary rather than just indicate that some action is necessary. The arguments are developed in the context of the maintenance function, but the general conclusions can be applied equally well to other indices irrespective of their field of application. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Goal attainment in organizations is maximized when goal displacement is minimal. Goal displacement is minimal where goals are tangible. If there is a high degree of goal intangibility, goal attainment can still be maximized by keeping tangible goals directed toward the central intangible goals, but it is reduced by displacing tangible goals to peripheral goals of system maintenance. The system of evaluation and sanctioning reinforces both the peripheral displacement of goals and the neglect of the claimed goals in favor of goals designed to maintain the organization primarily as an end in itself. Increasing goal attainment is difficult, since those who have most authority to support such activity frequently are not inclined to do so. Five major hypotheses and a model on the marginal propensity to perform are suggested for describing the relationships discussed in this analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examine: the changes and nines of change in a well known professional reform organization. ft focuses on the interplay of change-oriented goals with their environment. The extent and forms of two goals, militant community action and indigenous participation, are traced throughout the organization history, and a distinction is made between various interpretations of participation and the concept indigenous. "To maintain the organization its goals were changed many limes. Maintenance was aided by the recruitment of professionalized, middle class, minority group members, taken as being the equivalent of the poor. A feature of professional reform organizations is just such symbolic representation. Several interpretations of these remit: In terms of other government sponsored reform movements are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper attempts to present an analytical framework of analysis of problems relating to public systems. Current optimization models, which originated in the private sector, are not adequate to handle the complexity of the decision making processes in public policy analysis. The proposed model aims at lessening ideological debates over statements of goals, and it emphasizes policy selection through goal redefinitions where both goals and policies arc formulated simultaneously. The model is based on an iterative process where consensus over policies is arrived at between the policy maker and the Constituents of the public system. The principal feature of the model is that it incorporates political debates and bargains, and provides for the development of insight. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper first examines and illustrates the way in which value judgements can be incorporated in a system, and how they can be externalized by changing the system's boundaries. Then some general statements about value judgements and their locations in systems are advanced. The acceptance of these statements enables an extension of the notion of "value judgement" from sentences to systems. Thus criteria are spelled out for attributing the terms "normative" and "positive" to systems. Then the changes are examined which occur when a system undergoes the transfer of a value judgement from its structure to its (external) environment. Furthermore an attempt is made to clarify (by means of this Method of Neutralizing Systems) the longstanding controversy of value neutrality of science and of our own discipline, Finally an analysis is sketched which reveals that the assertion "ought-to-sentences cannot be reduced to is sentences" need not be tautological if it is meant to hold within a system only. If the pertinent normative remnant lies beyond the system boundaries, a value judgement can indeed be reduced to a factual statement, but merely within this system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The following paper is an attempt to formulate our existing knowledge of worker frustration, and to suggest new lines of research by which the present understanding of behavior in this field may be clarified and extended. The present era may be described, in part, as an age of technological order in the midst of cultural disorder, an age of power in which man's sense of impotence is pervasive and acute. This contrast is most dramatically revealed in the work activities of modern man. It has been hypnotized that the worker is frustrated by the insignificance of his work. It has been argued that labor of this kind is insignificant because the task performed is so far removed from its ultimate purpose that the worker cannot possibly retain a lively, agreeable awareness of the end toward which his labor is directed. Another hypotheses is that the worker is frustrated by absentee ownership of the products of his work. Recognition of the frustration resulting from labor under these conditions is implicit, it would seem, in the bonus and profit-sharing plans now being accepted by many corporation managements. If the worker, as is usually the case, cannot achieve a business of his own, he can at least hope to achieve a lesser goal--that of "getting ahead" by moving from a lower to higher status in the industrial hierarchy.

This paper attempts to integrate theoretically the Bales-Parsons model of small groups and a theory of complex organizations. The organizational positions of the instrumental and expressive leaders are seen as critical variables, affecting both the fulfillment of the functional needs of participant groups and the groups' commitment to organizational goals. Complex organizations are distinguished according to the nature of their goals, power employed. and the level of lower-echelon commitment they require. The relations between the small group and the complex organization are reviewed for each kind. These theoretical consideration are applied to the study and administration of prisons, the "Human Relations" approach in industry, therapeutic mental hospitals, and schools. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper first examines the relations between functional and causal analysis, and concludes that a statement about the function of an institution can be made relevant to a causal analysis of the development of that same institution only (legitimately) by additional assumptions concerning human motives or evolutionary selection or (illegitimately) by use of the postulate of necessary integration. Secondly, it argues that only events can properly be related by causal laws and that questions about the functions of institutions (considered as constructs from observed events) logically imply questions about the causal effects of the events from which they are constructed. It finally seeks to classify approaches to socio- logical analysis with respect to these two theses and to indicate those differences which stem from different methodological assumptions and those which reflect different value preferences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The theory of anomie has undergone two major phases of development, as exemplified by the work of Durkheim and Merton. In this paper a third phase is outlined. As currently stated, the theory focuses on pressures toward deviant behavior arising from discrepancies between cultural goals and approved modes of access to them. It focuses, in short, upon variations in the availability of legitimate means. One may also inquire, however, about variations in access to success-goals by illegitimate means. The latter emphasis may be detected in the work of Shaw, McKay, Sutherland, and others in the "cultural transmission" and "differential association" tradition. By taking into account differentials in access to success-goals both by legitimate and by illegitimate means, the theory of anomie may be extended to include seemingly unrelated theories of deviant behavior now contained in the traditional literature of criminology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this paper is to call attention to the fundamental importance in the U.S. of age, sex and class instigations and goals in the socialization of the human organism. It must be admitted immediately that the psychological reinforcements of appropriate status behavior, that is, the nature of the striving instigations and prestige responses which apparently motivate the child's internalization of social controls is not understood. What prestige, approval, acceptance and mastery are in terms of biopsychological dynamics one does not yet know. Indeed, the physiologist has not yet satisfied himself concerning the nature of the biological processes underlying the primary eating, sexual and pain responses of man. It seems clear, however, that even these so-called biological drives reach their psychological threshold only in socially determined form. Although they are less complex functions of social training than is competition for status, nevertheless eating, or sexual behavior, or even reaction to postoperative shock certainly includes psychosocial determinants. These cultural formants differentiate between variously socialized men with regard to the biopsychological instigations of hunger, sexual drive or anxiety.

Proprietors of a society, in order to gain their ends, frequently resort to the use of force and violence. An important tool is the organization of violence. Massive violence is instituted by these organizations and at the behest of the societal proprietors as a means of goal attainment. One of the consequences of this massive violence is the disruption of the experience of everyday life and the imposition of another experience upon the actor. The organization, as a result of its own action, creates problems which must be solved in order that action may be continued. The organization must make combat action meaningful by making it relevant; it must devise strategies for successfully moving individuals from one reality to the other; it must define the parameters of the most relevant action, i.e., violence; it must socialize men into violence; it must devise strategies to constrain, channel, and direct the actions of men socialized into violence; it must, in short, construct a social reality designed to cope with the exigencies of the battle-moment. A discussion of some of the factors relevant to the success or failure of this project has been the subject of this paper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the factors which affects an individual's motivation to perform on a group task, as well as his feelings of accomplishment and satisfaction, is the clarity of the social structure within which the individual functions psychologists B.R. Raven and J. Rietsema in a recent experiment were concerned with some effects upon a group member of the clarity of the group's goal and the path to that goal. With a very ingenious method, utilizing a tape recording, they were able to induce two degrees of goal clarity the subject (S) was given the task of cutting out geometrical figures presumably to be used by the other members of his group in constructing some three-dimensional objects. While S was involved in his paper cutting, he was permitted to hear, over a loud speaker, what the others were doing with the pieces he had provided. One half of the Ss were given, through the recorded discussion, a clear picture of the goal the others were working toward and what they were doing to achieve it. The recording heard by the other Ss presented the group task as quite vague and ambiguous.

This paper describes techniques for measuring two commonly neglected dimensions of self-perception. One technique yields a measure of uncertainty of self-perception. The other produces an index of pessimism of self-perception. Persons with uncertain self-perceptions were found to set goals which are high relative to their past performance, to expect their performance scores to vary considerably over time, and to be more likely than others to overestimate their future performance. There is also some indication that they are less certain than other persons that their announced goals are realistic. Persons who are pessimistic in their self-appraisals were found to make low and pessimistic estimates of their future performance, and to be intropunitive in their explanations of their performance. A measure approximating the index usually employed in studies of self-perception was also found to be related to goal-setting behavior. Persons whose self-appraisals are favorable are less certain than others that their announced goals are realistic. They tend also to set their goals high relative to their past performance, and to avoid intropunitive explanations of their performance. The findings indicate the value of continued research linking indexes of self-perception with measures of goal-setting behavior.

The article presents the author's comments on the research paper of sociologist A. Etzioni. The author examines the adequacy of Etzioni's analysis by considering it in relation to the study of innovation in a religious organisation. Etzioni's argument implies that, since an organisation is primarily a means to an end, in distinguishing between organisations primacy should be given to distinctions between the means employed rather than to distinctions between the ends to be achieved. In all three types of organisation defined by Etzioni namely normative, utilitarian and coercive, some attempt is usually made to legitimise the exercise of power in terms of a description of the world, such as to permit inferences from that description as to the rightness of both the organisational goals and the means used to achieve them. Etzioni omits the place of legitimising systems of belief in organisational structure as an element in his typology, and this omission is closely related to his failure to discuss the relation of his different types of organisation to their conditions of action. Although he devotes a chapter to considering compliance and organisational environment, Etzioni uses this term to imply structural setting rather than conditions of goal achievement.

This article presents a reprint of the paper "Analisis fundamentales sobre la decision directiva." In this paper, the author discusses the fundamentals of the managerial decision-making process. Many management theories are based on an impossible pretense, namely, that the act of decision must be free of all subjective assessments and limited to an objective and impersonal attitude. This pretense confuses two acts that intervene in managerial actions, each one with its own nature and particular laws: knowing and deciding. A manager must have a different attitude when facing each one of these acts. The act of knowing must be basically regulated by fidelity to what is real, while deciding must be concerned with fidelity to the personal self of he who decides. This is, precisely, one of the more radical difficulties inherent in managerial action: One must be objective while appraising reality, but one cannot be objective when deciding to change it. The election of an alternative for action springs from the knowledge one has about a reality that must be acted upon, but it also derives from a self that pursues a goal in that reality. In the decision referring to the goal to be attained, the subjectivity of whoever decides must necessarily intervene, and the decision process involves both personal values and expectations.

This article presents a reprint of the paper "L'informatique etlepouvoir: Pouvoir dans l'entreprise et pouvoir de l'entreprise," that was published in the May 1972 issue of the periodical "Informatique et Gestion." A brief recall of the most recent concepts on the functioning of organizations will allow the potential implications of informatics for the distribution of power in a company to be better understood and will clarify the reactions of the cadres in this regard. Specialists on business administration and sociologists specializing in organizations have conducted studies in the United States and in Western Europe that have led to a company no longer being considered as a supra-individual entity, having an existence and a behavior independent of that of its members and capable to this extent of being explained and governed by referring to purely formal models. They have likewise demonstrated that a company can no longer be conceived of only as the network of interpersonal relationships--irrational and charged with affectivity--to which the theoreticians of human relations thought it could be reduced. Instead, an organization can more realistically be considered the resultant of strategic games carried out as a function of multiple, divergent, and indeed contradictory goals by the organizational actors and as a function of their adherence to a minimum of common norms.

[Few experiments in participation have taken place, and even fewer have been controlled in a scientific manner. One of the exceptions is the "industrial democracy" project undertaken in several Norwegian enterprises by Professor Finar Thorsrud of Oslo, Norway, with the assistance of the Tavistock Institute of London. This project represents an especially interesting attempt to reconcile the economic objectives of creativity and efficiency with the human objectives of development, responsibility, and free initiative. When viewed in such a perspective, participation can acquire its most concrete and undoubtedly most dynamic dimensions. The following paper presents the problems to which the experiments relate, as well as a summary of Professor Thorsrud's presentation before the Belgian Productivity Board (OBAP - Office Beige pour l'Accroissement de la Productivité) in December 1968.] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this paper is to focus attention on the problems of report writing and to attempt to increase interest in the experimental study of clinical reports. With these objectives, the approaches to the improvement of clinical writing which have already been used will be reviewed. In the conduct of his diagnostic duties the clinical psychologist invests a substantial portion of his time in the preparation of psychological reports. Whether such investment of time, and indeed whether the time spent in diagnostic testing is justified, depends upon the effectiveness with which the psychologist is able to communicate his findings.

Adopting Professor Henry Rand Hatfield's broad statement of the function of accounting, the possible objectives of accounting research are almost unlimited. Professor Hatfield once stated that the function of accounting is "to place responsibility, to prevent fraud, to guide industry, to determine equities, to solve the all essential conundrum of business. In order to perform this function adequately it is essential for accountants to take full cognizance of the outstanding characteristics of modern business life, to develop and to use effectively available tools of analysis and to recognize in all respects their social responsibilities. The author in this papers confines himself to a series of observations regarding the weakness of present-day accountancy, which will readily bring to mind certain desirable objectives to be attained through accounting research. According to the author, with accountants becoming business advisers, exponents of good financial practice, and fiscal agents of stockholders, the objectives which he had suggested to be attained through accounting research, in view of certain shortcomings of present-day accountancy, may even be too narrow rather than too broad.

This article presents information on the functions of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching (NARST) and its committees. New committees should be established to encourage and guide the listing of science education research, the reviewing of such research, and the promotion of science education research. NARST with the help of the U. S. Office of Education has made plans to list the present and future research in science education. The proposals which follow are intended to implement these functions. The various special committees of the Association now in existence should be reorganized and more committees established to achieve various objectives. The article further states that each special research committee shall be expected to prepare a written report for presentation at the annual meeting of the Association. This report shall outline the activities of the committee and its recommendations for the future.

The article presents information about a report on higher education in the Southern region of the U.S. The report has been titled Within Our Reach. It has been prepared by the Commission on Goals for Higher Education in the South. The report is the product of nearly a year's study of higher education by members and staff in the 16-state area served by the Southern Regional Education Board. The more than 40 research papers prepared on specific questions put forth proposals for improving and strengthening higher education at the state and institutional level.

The article informs that a note on norms for scatter analysis on the psychologist D. Wechsler's intelligence scales. In 1951, this Wechsler described a method of determining norms for the analysis of scatter on the Wechsler Scales. The revision of the adult scale, however, seems to make these norms obsolete. Wechsler in recognizing the basic limitations in the scoring system of the earlier Bellevue scales for the study of scatter, constructed an alternate scoring system which may be utilized for this purpose in that the "scale score equivalents" are comparable throughout the entire scale. This alternate scoring system achieves one of the major objectives of the earlier paper. The comparability of scale scores allows one to apply normal curve functions to the deviations of sub-test scores from the subject's general level of ability in order to evaluate their statistical significance. The table of norms may be applied to both the WISC and the WAIS for this purpose.

This paper first presents a framework of psychological and sociological research on careers. It then describes a model for describing a phenomenon largely unexplored in the psychological career literature—identity changes during the course of a person's occupational career experiences. In this model the individual's total identity is viewed as a number of subidentities, with each subidentity representing the person's image of himself in a particular social role (Miller, 1963). The model examines the development of the career subidentity, the person's conception of himself in his career role. Growth in the career subidentity and career commitment is seen as a series of cycles of challenging goal setting, independent effort, success, subidentity growth, and increased career self-esteem and commitment, leading, in turn, to further goal setting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper develops a model of organizational participative decision making (PDM) which emphasizes equilibrium and social change. Using attitudes as a mediating variable, the analysis explores organizational homeostatic reactions to an experimental PDM program. Various mechanisms are described by which PDM may contribute to motive satisfaction of managers and subordinates and to organizational goal attainment. Using this approach, the effects of several mediating variables on PDM are entertained. The PDM literature is summarized briefly and criticized in depth. Research in nonorganizational settings is not relevant, for the central issues in organizational PDM are ignored. Although less at fault, observational studies of organizations offer insufficient support for the PDM hypothesis. Experimental studies in organizations could provide the best support, but the data are mixed (yet suggestive). It is suggested that future research focus on mediating factors in PDM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents comments of the author on the paper "Scientism and Sociology," by W. Dain Oliver. There are several assumptions about the requirements or nature of scientific sociology which, though not necessarily a part of this discipline either historically or logically, are implicit in those definitions of sociology presently enjoying widespread popularity. I summarize them briefly as follows. It is widely assumed that, one's roles as citizen and sociologist must be kept "analytically distinguished," which means, in effect, that one's moral and political concerns should not be allowed to influence one's sociological concepts, findings and policy recommendations, objectivity or value-neutrality is a crucial component of scientific sociology, that social phenomena are so complex as to necessitate the training of objective researchers who alone can understand sociological data and that the only acceptable moral commitment in sociology is therefore to strive for objectivity as the summum bonum of the discipline and the two fore mentioned mandates for scientific sociology are necessary for the preservation of high standards of scholarship within the discipline itself and that they alone can ensure improvement In the quality and quantity of reliable knowledge about the complexity and variability of the human condition.

This paper is not a learned discussion of American police procedures and techniques; neither is it a treatise on police administration. It is intended to be a provocative treatment of some of the more serious and resistant problems confronting the police. Its objectives will have been attained if it stimulates productive thought and provides a foundation upon which there can be a fruitful discussion leading to sound recommendations for future treatment of these and other police problems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the changes on the editorial staff in the journal. The changes were made to provide a medium for the exchange of scientific information which arises in and contributes to the several disciplines concerned with the mental retardation. It was emphasized that the editorial policy of the journal remains unchanged and it is inevitable that some changes on the emphasis of the goals of the journal will occur. It was also announced that the journal will publish theoretical papers.

Because of the rapidly rising cost of research and the limited supply of textile chemists, Improvements in creativity and scientific productivity in textile finishing research are of great value. The author suggests techniques for more efficient research and describes a systematic and practical approach to the solution of research problems. Creative problem solving is discussed and includes the definition of the problem, information retrieval, creative thinking and methods of ideation. It is shown that a problem must be well-defined. The desirability of having a choice of several alternative solutions is reemphasized. Two methods of devising possible solutions—brainstorming and forced ideation—are described. Techniques for improved research efficiency are taken from the author's professional experience. Methods to improve personal and personnel efficiency are suggested. Listing jobs and setting goals are helpful in avoiding waste of time and limited objectives are strongly recommended. The chemist should always be alert to take advantage of unexpected (serendipitous) results. Finally, the responsibility of the supervisor to encourage creative thinking in those who work for him is pointed out. Employee suggestions are usually the primary source of new research projects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents a discussion on the measurement techniques in evaluation. Educational evaluation is broadening in scope and is truly becoming an activity concerned with value. The increased comprehensiveness of evaluation efforts and a recognition of what is being evaluated has required an expansion of the number of type of measurements included in the evaluation. Observation systems, interaction analysis, matrix sampling, generalizability theory, computer-controlled testing, and mastery testing are all relatively new developments that have important potential for improvement of evaluation. The objectives of an educational effort are still an important component of evaluation. Evaluation theorists indicate that evaluation should attend to outcomes other than specified objectives, to inputs or antecedent conditions, and to processes and transactions. Measurement strategies were also discussed in this article.

The relationship of psychopathology and such social and psychological factors as social status, social mobility, and mobility orientation is examined. A distinction is made between incidence and prevalence studies, and the research findings reviewed are evaluated accordingly. Although studies on social status and social mobility suggest trends, there are conflicting data. The research on mobility orientation, however, shows that psychopathological groups usually have larger discrepancies between achievement and aspiration than "normal" control groups. The findings on mobility orientation introduce the possibility of using social-psychological variables to account for (1) correlations between sociological variables and mental illness, and (2) apparently contradictory results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A post factum analysis leads to a single generalization, namely, that anomia results when individuals lack access to means for the achievement of life goals. Lack of opportunity to achieve life goals follows mainly as a result of the individual's position in the social structure as determined by numerous factors: occupation, education, income, age, class identification, participation in formal organizations and in informal groups, social mobility, marital status, and religious preference. Each of these factors is related to anomia. A multidimensional Index of Access to Means for the Achievement of Life Goals was constructed by using the above variables. Of those individuals receiving an index score of 7 (high access) only 10 per cent have high anomia scores; whereas, of those persons receiving an index score of 0 (low access) 100 per cent have high anomia scores. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper gives empirical content to the concept of an organization set and tests two related hypotheses: (1) organization sets defined in terms of competitive relations are more likely to name functionally similar than dissimilar organizations as competitors; (2) other things equal, the greater the similarity of functions between a focal organization and the members of its organization set, the greater the likelihood that it will compete with them. These hypotheses are tested on data concerning the competition of colleges and universities for new students and only the first is given support. The results are explained in terms of the nature of the market for new students. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]