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The two essays that make up this discussion paper explore the cultural implications for non-formal education. "Modes of Intervention" examines the typical fashion in which nations have aided the development of other nations through technical assistance. This mode comes from the assumption that a modern nation has special knowledge to assist a developing one. A different mode for intervention is suggested, however, one that requires the intervening nation to explore the institutions that already function within a society and build on them toward development goals. "Educational History and Non-Formal Education: A Methodological Strategy" sets out to articulate an historical study of education and to organize the inquiry along the lines of a search for similarities between educational arrangments and extra-educational variables. Education is cast as a dependent variable in a system where change in techno-economic arrangements generates change in social organization and in ideology. A typology is developed that matches primitive, modern, and traditional social units with techno-economic arrangements, social organization, and ideology, and with educational activities (enculturation, skill transfer, and knowledge transfer). This typology, delineated as a format for a cultural history of education or as a step toward an anthropology of education, is considered remarkable in that it does not automatically reveal a particular categorization for non-formal educational activities. (JH)

The major contention of this paper is that the emphasis in developing countries on non-formal alternatives to formal schooling can be related to a major reconstruction now underway of the concept of economic development. The earlier concept of development is defined as economic growth reflected in increased gross national product, principally through industrialization. A number of variables which need to be incorporated, however, are left out of this economically based model: humanitarian and survival needs, nationalism, the growing aspirations of people in developing nations, the limits of industrialization, the role of rural development, employment as a problem and goal in its own right, and an imperative for decentralized planning. In the midst of crisis characterized by greater demand, higher costs, wastage in sequential schooling, and a growing educated unemployed, education must cater to the demands of modernization: basic literacy, manpower training, and a professional elite. The shortcomings that have required a new look at development and the shortcomings in education suggest a way of establishing priorities for implementing non-formal education. Special attention should be given to low-cost, short-duration, need-based, aspiration-accommodating, employment-linked, decentralized, and highly distributive education. Further, wider use of local resources, established oral traditions, and an immediate reward structure are features to consider. (JH)

The three essays in this discussion paper present ways of structuring the concept of non-formal education. "Toward a Contextual Definition of Non-Formal Education" isolates three primary sub-systems: organizational, human, and curricular. Within these subsets non-formal education is differentiated from formal education by a more loosely integrated structure capable of accommodating the three subsets. "Non-Formal Education: Problems and Promises" looks at institutions anthropologically and defines non-formal education as a planned instructional design using both overt and convert procedures in a more flexible environment to teach goals determined by regulated policy. Using this definition the essay discusses non-formal education's implications for development aid, its potential for achieving developmental goals, and its inherent problems. "An Operational Approach to the Definition of Non-Formal Education" reviews the following contextual elements: changing development goals, limited resources, underdeveloped populations, government and accounting agencies, formal schooling, accepted reward structures, and communications media. A pragmatic definition reflecting the needs posed by these elements is that non-formal efforts are outside the formalized, hierarchical structure of the graded school system, yet, are deliberately planned. Their "non-formality" resides in their locational and organizational aspects rather than their purposes, pedogogy, or status. (JH)

This resource paper on spatial allocation analysis is part of a series designed to supplement undergraduate geography courses. Spatial allocation analysis is the study of the distribution of economic flows and transactions over geographical space. This account represents a general introduction to the process and its application in geographical inquiry. It proceeds by examining a series of models of spatial allocation systems, where the term "model" signifies an idealized representation. Under examination is a transportation problem model that includes (1) a set of geographically distinct points or regions which produce some commodity, (2) a set of geographically distinct points or regions which consume the same commodity, and (3) a given unit cost for transportation of the commodity from any producer to any consumer. In examining the flow of commodities, constraints are observed so that no supplier's total productive capacity is exceeded and all consumers' demands are met. Attention is focused first on the purely computational properties of the simple transportation model, then on the theoretical underpinnings of the model, and lastly on a variety of important, formal generalizations from the model. (Author/DE)

This paper discusses recent histories of labor shortages in Singapore, Japan, and several western European countries. Emphasis is upon the economic effects of severe shortages of labor. Fearing that these shortages would seriously handicap further economic progress, many people in these countries have advocated large-scale immigration or increased population growth or both. It is the author's conclusion that the existence of a labor shortage is not a valid ground for encouraging either population growth or immigration. The series of which this publication is a part is intended to increase understanding of the interrelationships between population growth and socioeconomic and cultural patterns throughout the world, and to communicate this understanding to scholars and policy makers. (Author/RM)

This volume of papers is based upon a lecture series given at Western Michigan University in the winter of 1973 by eminent economists concerning economic theory and policy as they relate to providing public education. Papers cover: the evaluation of manpower programs; the integration of higher education into the wage-board system; how much and what kinds of education for economic development; the educational investment process; and methods of finance, and the organization and administration of local schools. (MJM)

Helping undergraduate college geography students understand the processes and forces which, in the name of modernization, continue to intensify a world spatial disequilibrium in the relations of people and resources is the purpose of this resource paper. It presents current ideas in social science research on modernization and development with particular reference to underdeveloped countries, especially the characteristics of underdevelopment and the geography of modernization. Part I deals with characteristics of underdevelopment and some frequently propounded views of the nature of underdevelopment and development. Part II examines causes and consequences of underdevelopment, especially external and internal causes and urban and national development in the postindependence era. Part III describes research about modernization in the underdeveloped world carried out by geographers. The paper ends with a review of findings and suggestions for kinds of research and research institutions that will aid, not hinder, Third World development. Many illustrative figures and tables and a comprehensive bibliography are included. (Author/ND)

The first paper aims to give a certain relativity to the significance of education and to indicate the limitations of any educational effort. The thinking underlying the current approach to the economic development of native communities and reserves is discussed as well as the implications and consequences of such thinking. It is argued that the success of any educational effort depends on the overall employment situation at the level of the reserve or at any level for that matter. Utilizing the concept of a "natural resource system", which combines the analysis of ecological, economic, and social variables into a coherent framework, the second article delineates the process that changed wild rice from a subsistence staple crop to what will be a heavily capitalized agricultural industry. It is shown that the Indians, who were the original exploiters of this natural resource, have lost more and more of their control over the economic activity, and that this diminishing control is not due to any cultural inabilities on the part of the Indians. Rather it is shown that the Euro-Americans have assumed more and more control over wild rice because of the vast financial institutions which have encouraged this development, from the Hudson's Bay Company in earlier days to major food industries today. It is argued that the "developments" in the wild rice industry are in fact detrimental to the interests of the Indian population, and that the changes in this industry in effect contribute to the development of underdevelopment on Indian reserves. (AUTHOR/NQ)

This resource paper on economic geography is part of a series designed to supplement undergraduate geography courses. It interprets regional economic development in terms of geographic spatial patterns of production, income, and physical or economic distance. Chapter two outlines some selected characteristics of spatial disparities of economic development at the regional and interurban levels in the United States and in developing countries. Chapter three briefly discusses two major theories of spatial development. The export-base theory explains the development of a region through external demand for its natural resources. The sector theory explains development through the specialization of agricultural activities and the formation of an intraregional transport system which permits the exchange of products. Chapter four reviews several models of differential mobility to explain in conceptual terms the emergence of the urban-regional structure in the United States. Chapter five analyzes selected flow of variables such as labor, capital, innovation, and decision-making power between developing and developed nations. Chapter six suggests five alternative national strategies of urban development. (Author/DE)