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Traces the evolution of paper money in England. Circulation of fiduciary orders; Carolean paper orders; Promissory notes; Bills of exchange; Emergence of assignability; Earliest checks; Printing of money by the Bank of England.

This study of the 1973 Local Government Election in England and Wales shows that the position of a canal/date's name on the ballot paper can have an important effect in terms of the number of votes which he receives. In particular the lower-placed members of each party are quite seriously disadvantaged. Investigation into the relationship between this positional effect and other aspects of the election show that it occurs quite generally. A simple model is formulated which attempts to explain the phenomenon. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on various publications of research institutes and educational societies in Durham and Newcastle in England. The publication of educational writing at all levels is regarded by the Durham Institute of Education as an important aspect of its work. Three periodicals are edited by members of the Institute staff. Research Review, an annual publication started in 1950, is the only one that aspires to be a national journal. It is intended to supplement the inadequate number devoted to educational research. From the Education Society of King's College, Newcastle, came the "Education Papers," an annual miscellany of mature reflection on educational topics, statements on method of teaching subjects or age groups by the Institute staff and descriptive articles by local teachers giving a picture of some facet of their work. The standard of most of these contributions is high enough to make them generally relevant although their setting is mainly regional. The Journal of the Institute of Education is a domestic affair. Appearing five times a year, it clearly provides a point of exchange for all concerned with local education. Here Institute staff teachers, examiners, administrators and youth workers exchange views in the vernacular as it were.

Focuses on the historical significance of the "Sunday Advertiser" in London, England. Entrance of the newspaper into the weekend market of journalism; The role of Elizabeth Johnson in the pioneering of English Sunday papers; The activities of the Friendly Society of Licensed Victuallers in opening a school and funding it with a newspaper; Discussion of content and circulation of the "Sunday Advertiser" in the early 19th century; Management of operating costs and profits; The committee system of management; Sale of the newspaper to William J. Clement.

The article discusses the highlights of the 50th Annual General Meeting of the British Ecological Society held at the Botany Lecture Room at the University of London in England on January 3, 1969. The minutes of the 49th Annual General Meeting were taken as read, approved and signed. The report of the Honorary Secretaries was presented for discussion of the members present.

The article discusses the highlights of the 37th Annual General Meeting of the British Ecological Society held in the University of Oxford in Oxford, England on January 5 to 7, 1956. A soirée was held at the university's Department of Botany at which exhibits illustrating the ecological work in progress at Oxford were shown. A series of coloured slides of New Zealand vegetation were shown by professor Gordon of New Zealand. Some of the topics of the papers read at the meeting, include field populations of Calliphorine flies.

Information about the autumn meeting of the British Ecological Society is presented. The meeting was held at the Department of Botany of the University of Manchester in England from September 28-29, 1951. Papers discussed at the meeting include problems in the ecology of the lejeuneaceae, geographical affinities of the bryophytes and habitat preferences of mosses.

Information about several papers discussed in the 9th and 10th of the Pugwash Conferences in Science and World Affairs which were held in Cambridge on August 25-30, and in London, England on September 3-7, 1962. The conference gathered 60 scientists from 18 countries. The papers presented by Western scientists and the statements emanating from the conferences have shown no evidence of partisan inspiration.

The article focuses on the initiative of scientist Leo Szilard to encourage physicists in America, England, France and Denmark to deter publication of papers related to atomic energy. It is indicated that his paper on the possibility of keeping a chain reaction in a system consisted of graphite and uranium was the first one withheld, as requested by the government. After the war, he was the one of the people who interfered with the publication of the Symth Report, since he felt that it will risk national security.

Information about several papers discussed at the Easter meeting of the British Ecological Society held in London, England from April 3-4, 1951 is presented. Topics include the ecology of Hydropsychideae, or Tricoptera, the localization of Cladocera in lakes and ponds and the relationship between the natural habitat preferences of a particular animal and the choice of alternative ones' in towns. A topic on nature conservation was also discussed.

This article presents the author's reply to Edwin B. Parker on his observations regarding the study conducted by the author towards the effects of television on magazine and newspaper reading in London, England. According to the author, while the process of matching in terms of the correlates of both dependent and independent variables has been used before, Parker has suggested, under the term "covariance procedure," a more formal and systematic use of the technique, a distinct contribution, practical development of which is more than likely. In addition to this, Parker is quite right in reminding a basic weakness in the use of matching as a means of isolating effects. One can and must build checks into the matching process but in the end some degree of doubt must remain about the efficiency of the matching achieved. If Parker had argued from this position in presenting his covariance method as a means of reducing uncertainty, there would have been no point of difference between him and the author.

This article focuses on a study designed to determine effects of television on the reading of newspapers and magazines in London, England. According to the author, the methodological problem involved in this and similar studies of the effects of mass communication is that there was no available alternative to an ex post facto "experimental" design in which respondents themselves selected whether they were to be viewers or non-viewers. Moreover, since respondents could not be randomly assigned to the two conditions by the investigator, differences between the two groups on the dependent variable, frequency of newspaper reading, could be attributed either to the effects of television or to initial differences between the two groups. With regard to all these observations, it can be concluded that television may have had the effect of increasing the reading and buying of papers of popular press with their lighter, shorter material and of decreasing the reading and buying of the more serious papers.

The article examines a group of secular accounts, dating between 1434 and 1446, kept during the building of Tattershall Castle in Lincolnshire, England. To explain and illustrate the methods shown in this group, reference will be made to other building accounts with dates ranging from 1237 to 1538. The accounts are compotus rolls, designed to provide annual statements of receipts and expenditure. Each Tattershall account consists of a series of paragraphs. In the first is stated the name of the person rendering the account, three of the accounts being attributed to Thomas Croxby, overseer or supervisor of the works of Ralph, Lord Cromwell, and the fourth to John Southell, clerk of the works. In the rolls for 1438-40 and 1445-46, which appear to be fair copies of a final account, the sum of the items in each paragraph is put at the end of it, in the centre of the page, in an orderly fashion. A closer examination of separate paragraphs leads to the deduction that the compotus rolls have been drawn up by reference to other, more detailed, books and papers and provides some indication of their nature. However, the accounts are too fragmentary to do more than sketch the stages in rendering an account.

The article discusses the highlights of the summer meeting on freshwater ecology at Exeter held by the British Ecological Society on July 3-7, 1964. It was held at the University of Exeter in Devon, England, by invitation of Professor L. A. Harvey and the university authorities. H. Gruffydd's paper entitled "The Population Biology of Chaetogaster limnaei" pointed out there were morphological and behavioral differences between a form of Chaetogaster limnaei living in the kidney of Lymnaea pereger and a form living on the outer surface of this snail.

The article highlights a joint meeting of the British Ecological Society's Tropical Ecology Group with the Royal Entomological Society, held at Imperial College in London, England on March 30, 1962. The meeting opened with a paper by P. M. Symmons who spoke on the effect of climate and weather on numbers of the red locust in its outbreak areas. J. P. Glasgow then spoke on the interrelations of tsetse with their habitat. The last paper in the morning session was by Gordon Surtees on the factors limiting mosquito distribution.

The article discusses the highlights of the winter and annual general meeting of the British Ecological Society in the Botany School in Cambridge, England from January 4-5, 1961. In the first paper, titled "Aquatic and Swamp Vegetation in Scotland," D. H. N. Spence discussed the results of a study of lochs. In his presentation, titled "Dormancy in the Freshwater Copepoda," J. P. Smyly explored the function of resting-stages as an ecological adaptation to allow species to survive.

The article offers information about the British Ecological Society' spring meeting held in Cambridge, England from March 27-29, 1957. The section reports on various papers presented at the event, including information on several sessions held during the meeting. Nearly fifty members and guests gathered for the meeting.

The article discusses the highlights of the autumn meeting of the British Ecological Society held in the Department of Botany at Bedford College in London, England on September 19 and 20, 1955. Several papers dealing with various aspects of the ecology of Calluna vulgaris were presented on the 19th, including a paper on experimental work to determine the effect of grazing wether sheep on enclosed areas of Calluneta. A discussion of the effects of burning heather is provided.

The article reports on the highlights of the annual general meeting of the British Ecological Society that was held at the Department of Zoology of the Imperial College of Science and Technology in South Kensington, England on January 7-8, 1955. Exhibits have been featured during the event, including two actinometers for solar radiation, illustrations of the ecology of a rock pool and the breeding of Atlantic seals.

The article reports on the highlights of the Easter Meeting of the British Ecological Society that was held in London, England on April 2-3, 1954. A. R. Clapham, a professor and president of the British Ecological Society, commenced the morning session on April 2, 1954. Several research papers were presented during the meeting, including those from Dr. Eville Gorham, Professor W. H. Pearsall and J. Brereton. On behalf of the Honorary Treasurer, the auditors' account was discussed by E. D. Le Cren during the meeting.

Information about several papers discussed at the Easter Meeting of the British Ecological Society held in Burlington House in London, England on April 7-8, 1952 is presented. Topics include the impact of rabbit to the agriculture in West Wales discussed by Prof. A. N. Worden and Ms. Winifred M. Phillips, the physiology of plants and plant ecology. Furthermore, the meeting was headed by Dr. C. B. Williams, president of the society and was attended by nearly one hundred members.

Information about several papers discussed at the Annual General Meeting of the British Ecological Society held at University College London in England on January 6, 1953 is presented. The author cited the presentations of different researchers during the event including the Chemical aspects of humus type natural conditions by E. Gorham and C. C. Dadd and the Bird migration by J. Fisher. Furthermore, the meeting was chaired by Dr. C. B. Williams, and was attended by over 100 members.

Information on several papers discussed at the 27th annual meeting of the British Ecological Society that was held in 1941 at the Botany School in Cambridge, England, is presented. Topics include the secretaries' report for the year 1940, the recent expansion in the research staffs of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, and the recent observations of the soils of lowland topical regions. The symposium featured notable persons including P. W. Richards, G. E. Blackman and M. F. Mare.

On November 26, 1936, the Popular Front Ministry of France, of which Leon Blum was President of the Council, submitted to the Chamber of Deputies a series of proposed laws which would have completely changed the regulations regarding the press. With only slight modifications the Chamber accepted the proposals, but Senate amendments removed the bill's teeth, and a deadlock ensued between the two houses of the French parliament. This deadlock remained unbroken until establishment of government by decree. Subsequently several attempts were made to secure passage of bills which embodied certain features of the Blum proposals, or which in some other manner suggested changes in the existing press regulations, but they too were either rejected or postponed. To a considerable extent, press susceptibility to venality results from the fact that it is very difficult for a French journal to be a paying concern by using merely ordinary channels of revenue. Low prices for daily papers have become traditional in France, but, more important than that, advertising has never developed into the gold mine for the press that it has become in the United States and in England.

Responds to the comment made by economist Paul A. David on the author's paper on agricultural labor productivity in rural England from 1850 to 1914. Attempt of the author to demonstrate the existence of regional variations in farm labour productivity; Factors influencing the pattern of regional differences in productivity; Comment of the author on the analytical style of David.

The article presents information on the 1973 Conference on Education held in the University of London Institute of Education, in England, on December 13-14, 1973. The conference was presided by professor Roger Webster. The Conference focused on Professor R.S. Peters paper on "Education as an Academic Discipline." Discussion was introduced by papers considering the topic with regard to undergraduate studies, in-service training, educational research. The first speaker, Kenneth Green found much to agree with in Peters's paper. Education could be an undergraduate study with as little practical content as the study of Politics; but he disliked one-subject degrees and a sole emphasis on "disinterested" study. Professor Malcolm Skilbeck, dealing with Advanced Courses also expressed liking for the practical problem-oriented approach. He noted the difficulty of trying to convince colleagues that the study of Education is respectable and believed that there is indeed such a thing as the "university study" of a subject.

The article presents the author's response to a commentary made by economist F.W. Taussig on issues concerning international trade. According to the author, Taussig in his commentary states that the U.S. and England are two nations with paper money and in consequence of a loan of England to the U.S., English paper money suddenly depreciates relatively to American paper. According to the author, the diversification of value between two national currencies change in the same proportion the price of the wares imported to the two nations, but do not change the price of the home-made products. The author claims that if English exporters to the U.S. acquire, in exchange of the constant quantity of dollars immediately received for the exported products they will raise in the same ratio the price of these products in the British market; but then even the price of all other English. Moreover, according to the author the prices raised in the English market will be in exact proportion to the diminution of the external value of English money, while all prices will remain unchanged in the American market.

Information about the several papers discussed at the European Federation Against Nuclear Arms which was held in Oxford, England on January 4-7, 1963 is presented. The delegates from the U.S. who are against nuclear weapons are reviewed. The conference tackled the pacifism issue and all non-aligned international organizations.

The article examines upward social mobility in England in the eighteenth century with reference to the Whitbread family of Bedfordshire, England. Among those families often cited as notably successful in using wealth from trade to found a landed family are the Whitbreads of Bedfordshire, who in the eighteenth century took the circuitous route from Bedfordshire lesser gentry, to London brewers, and finally back to Bedfordshire as great landowners. The Whitbreads provide a good opportunity for studying upward social mobility in the eighteenth century from the viewpoint of one family's experience over several generations. Their rise is analyzed by applying to eighteenth-century England the five scales of the social hierarchy: the ideological, economic, social status, legal, and political. The article examines both the particular combination of these scales that was important to the rise of the Whitbreads and the height to which they climbed each of them. By the seventeenth century the social status of the Whitbreads was already well advanced.

The article focuses on the London, England sugar merchants of the eighteenth century. Like many other spheres of economic life in the eighteenth century, the sugar trade has left comparatively few records for the historian to evaluate. The excellent history of the Pinney family by professor Richard Pares discusses much about the organization of the Bristol sugar market. Information about London sugar merchants is restricted very largely to the letter and account books of Messrs Lascelles and Maxwell covering the years 1740 to 1769 but unfortunately only one of the letter books survived the blitz. Nevertheless, Pares was able to work upon the manuscripts prior to their destruction and record some of results of his investigations before his premature death in 1958. The discovery of the Mills family papers has opened the way to a fresh look at the London sugar trade in the eighteenth century. Tobits Wall of Abchurch Lane, London, England originally owned the London sugarhouse. Upon his death in 1744, Wall left the business to his nephew, Mathew Mills and although the London directories for the years 1746 to 1748 are missing, the firm appears in the London directory of 1749 as Mathew and John Mills of New Broad Street.

It is now well recognized that in the century before 1670 English traders to the Mediterranean enjoyed remarkable success selling increasing quantities of textiles, with a growing proportion completely finished, downgrading Turkey and Italy to the position of raw material suppliers, and taking over a large part of the Mediterranean carrying trade. It is also clear that after 1700 it was the Mediterranean trade, especially that with Spain and Portugal, which redeemed England's very modest trading performance with Europe. The chief interest of the activities of businessman John Oldbury and his group of business associates is that they date from the generation, which separates these two periods and therefore shed some light on the main commodity trades in Anglo-Iberian commerce in the last thirty years of the seventeenth century. Spain and Portugal were two agricultural countries ruling large colonial empires, and yet lacking sufficient manufacturing capacity even to begin to meet metropolitan demands. The success of English textiles in the area is to be accounted for by the virtually total default of indigenous industry. All English exports were of central, if not crucial, importance to the receiving economies and their dependent colonies, and it was this basic fact, which underlay England's dominant position. Iberian trade to England, on the other hand, was not equally indispensable.

Information about the Winter and Annual General Meeting of the British Ecological Society held at the Science Lecture Theatre of Goldsmith College in London, England on January 3-5, 1966 is presented. Various papers regarding ecology were discussed in the event. Also, exhibits were conducted which showcased ecological dynamics.

The article discusses the highlights of the spring meeting of the British Ecological Society held at the Departments of Zoology and Botany in the University of Durham in Durham, England on March 29 to 31, 1955. A general account of zoological work in progress at Moor House was given by professor J. B. Cragg. J. A. Svendsen discussed the ecological studies on the earthworms associated with sheep dung at Moor House. It offers an overview of the group of papers on the ecology of litter fauna and flora.

Information about the annual general meeting of the British Ecological Society is presented. The meeting was held at the Department of Botany of the University of Oxford in England on January 5, 1952. It focused on the reporting of the honorary secretaries on the activities of the past year, which include the minutes of the previous annual meeting, the summer meeting and autumn meeting.

Information about several papers discussed at the British Ecological Society's symposium on ash as a forest tree in the British Isles on February 25, 1950 at the University College in London, England is presented. E. W. Jones iniated a discussion titled "Some features of the biology of ash," differentiating the F. excelsior tree from other British trees. A. H. Popert gave a lecture titled "Sylviculture of ash in Great Britain." Other speakers included W. B. Turrill, Arthur Tansley and J. Chear.

Information about the annual general meeting of the British Ecological Society held at the University College in London on January 6-7, 1949 and its thirty-fourth annual meeting held at Bristol University in London on January 9, 1948 are presented. Various woods and rare plants in Great Britain were discussed in the 1949 event accompanied by exhibits of various photographs of species while the 1948 meeting was about hydrography and ecology.

Information about several papers discussed at the Annual General Meeting of the British Ecological Society held in the Department of Botany, University College in London, England on January 11, 1947. It was attended by Dr. A. S. Watt, chairman of the society, and approximately 100 members of the organization. During the event, the minutes of the previous meeting were presented and signed by the officers.

This article discusses a study on social status and clique formation among grammar school boys in London, England. This paper reports on another aspect of the inquiry into the effects of social class at adolescence, which has been carried out at the London School of Economics and Political Science in England under the direction of Doctor H. T. Himmelweit. Within the broad framework of the research project, an important place was allotted to problems of peer group selection. Moreover, the paper is based on information from three sources: a choice of friend questionnaire, a sociometric questionnaire and an open-ended question on the attributes of a good friend. The most interesting conclusion which has emerged from these data points to an important difference between this country and the U.S. In both countries, the adolescent's value system largely determines his friendship choices. In England, it has been shown that similar class stereotypes may be found and it is quite possibly true that such friendship criteria as are embodied in the choice of a friend questionnaire reflect parental values. It could also be argued, that the working class boys in the grammar school are exceptional, in that they come from homes where middle class values are prevalent. In England, it may be said in general that by having secondary grammar and secondary modern schools, the working class pupils are divided into those who will be given an opportunity for social ascent and those who will not. England deliberately segregates the new recruits to the higher social levels and gives them more advanced training in separate schools. Under these conditions, several factors combine to give the working class boy those attitudes, interests and motives which are concomitant with his future social position.

The article presents information on the 21st annual general meeting of the Standing Conference on Studies in Education held at King's College in London, England, on December 15, 1972. The new Chairman of the Conference, J.R. Webster, of the of the University College of North Wales, Bangor, was elected at the beginning of the business meeting and took the chair throughout the day. Margaret Sutherland, of the University of Leeds, and S.J. Eggleston, of the University of Keele, were elected to the Editorial Board. The meeting endorsed the change of Publisher that had been negotiated by the General Purposes Committee during the summer, from Messrs. Faber and Faber to Messrs. Basil Blackwell of Oxford, to begin with this first Number of Volume XXI. The afternoon session was a private meeting devoted to discussing the future function of the Standing Conference in the light of the James Report and the White Paper. The morning session, however, following the business meeting, was a public session to which representatives not only of the universities and colleges of education were invited as normally, but also of the polytechnics.

The article reports on the annual meeting of the Standing Conference on Studies in Education. The meeting took place on December 16, 1966, at the Institute of Education of the University of London in England, with chairman Professor Roger Wilson presiding. At the end of the business meeting the Conference turned to a discussion of "The Implications of Comprehensive Secondary Education." In the morning session professor Philip Taylor opened with a paper on "The Implications for the Schools." The opening paper in the afternoon, on "The Implications for Departments and Colleges of Education," was given by professor William Taylor. Professor Philip argued that if comprehensive schools are to share in the development of young people they will need to show that they can add something significant which cannot be obtained outside school. Schools offer training in the way of abstracted culture. These have a limited appeal in terms of social and moral explorations--they relate to abstractedness and not to a personal self.

Information about the 2nd Antarctic Biological Symposium that was held in Cambridge, England in 1968. The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR) and the International Union of Biological Sciences organized the symposium in collaboration with the Sub-Committee for the International Biological Program. The convention presented a massive research in the fields such as primary productivity, zooplankton, and the ecology of benthic fauna, benthic algae, and midwater fish fauna.