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The distinction between formal and casual English as reflected in the lexicon, in phonology, and in syntax is studied. Formality is treated as separate from other categorizations of language such as geographical origin of the speaker, social class of the participants, or specific context of discourse. The study was restricted mainly to the use of two informats. A categorization of lexical entries and rules into three stylistic levels--formal, netural, and casual--is rejected as insufficiently detailed. Sentences exhibiting stylistically discordant elements are then used to get at fine distinctions in level. A more complex gradation model by which each linguistic element is assigned a value between -10 and +10 is outlined. The degree of stylistic deviance of a sentence is then calculated as the difference between the values of the most extreme elements in it. Within the framework given here, the linguist must determine which phonological and syntactic rules and lexical entries are stylistically marked and assign them values in a way that predicts the correct ordering of both elements and discords. Ways in which the more complex model could fail to be adequate are also discussed. (PP)

Very little cognitive development research has been done among African children, and most of the completed studies have relied on "translated" versions of Western test materials that are inappropriate to the African milieu. This paucity of research has had two affects: (1) rural African children have been represented as somewhat less advanced mentally than Western children; and (2) it has kept researchers from discerning whether the patterns of development discovered among Western children are truly universal or merely a product of Western cultural and educational systems. Described are methods developed to study how Kamba children in Kangundo, Machakos (Kenya), acquired adult semantic categories and to investigate the child's learning of certain aspects of logical thinking. Animals were chosen as a semantic domain familiar to Kamba children. The domain's structure was described, using Kikamba-speaking adults as informants who were asked to match "those which are alike" and to give their reasons for the groups they formed. Next, four sorting tests were administered to 30 Akamba children, ages 6, 7, 9, and 12. Some tentative findings were that not surprisingly, children learn more adult dimensions as they get older, and the younger child's sorting ability far exceeded his ability to verbalize the reasons, particularly with very familiar animals. (NQ)

The papers included in this volume are part of a programmatic investigation involving the evaluation of treatments for drug abuse. The studies are based on treatment outcome criteria for the patient sample representing all admissions during year 3 (June 1, 1971 to May 31, 1972) of the Drug Abuse Reporting Program (DARP). The overall strategy of the research program involves a series of studies which include: (1) descriptive and analytic studies of the DARP population; (2) taxonomic studies of patients, treatments, and outcomes; (3) evaluation studies, based on during-treatment outcomes; and (4) evaluation studies, based on post-treatment criteria. These studies represent the contributions of a large number of individuals from which group nine papers were selected for this major report. (Author/PC)

Much research and many publications have dealt with the concepts of rural-urban differences, but the controversy regarding the conceptual clarity of the variables remains. Assuming that these variables need clarification, this paper: (1) examines some of the conceptual and methodological problems involved in rural-urban differentiation, (2) proposes a multidimensional continuum and typology, and (3) tests the empirical utility of this continuum and typology. Using the Wirth-Redfield conceptual framework, these criteria were adopted within a given spatial-temporal context: an urban center, in contrast to a rural one, is characterized by larger size, greater density, and a preponderance of persons engaged in nonagricultural economic activities. In this definition, the demographic dimensions of size and density of population, and the occupational dimension indicating cultural differences are emphasized. There were 18 measures of urbanization employed--11 unidimensional and 7 multidimensional. All of these measures were then correlated with four dependent variables--fertitlity ratio, average number of persons per household, divorce rate, and income differences between professionals and laborers. A rural-urban typology was then developed, based on three major variables--size, density, and heterogeneity. The typological method of analysis compared favorably with the contimuum analysis of rural-urban variations. Additional testing with a Profile of Types of Rural Counties gave further evidence of the empirical utility of a typological analysis of rural-urban differences. (KM)

There are two distinct but related purposes for carrying out a "discriminant analysis": (1) discrimination, and (2) classification. The primary objective of this paper was to review the outputs of selected computer programs often used to carry out a "discriminant analysis" with respect to these two purposes. Information provided by the programs on requisite date conditions for each type of analysis is discussed. The evidence indicates that to say one has carried out a "discriminant analysis" when using any of the selected programs would be misleading. The information obtained from any of the program is quite inadequate for either of the two purposes mentioned above. (Author)

The similarities between major organizational typologies have been noted in recent years, but thus far no one has shown how these typologies can be interpreted within a single theoretical framework. This paper aims to remedy this problem by illustrating how four major organizational typologies can be interpreted within a composite, four-fold, polythetic typology. The result of this theoretical scheme is the identification of four synthetic types of organizations (utilitarian, political, ideational, and solidary). This second stage typology -- a typology of typologies -- is further extended by using additional typologies drawn from the relevant organizational literature for defining salient characteristics of these four synthetic organizational types. The potential utilization of the synthetic organizational types for interorganizational analysis is then outlined. (Author)

Task analysis is a procedure having the purpose of identifying different kinds of performances which are outcomes of learning, in order to make possible the specification of optimal instructional conditions for each kind of outcome. Task analysis may be related to content analysis in two different ways: (1) it may be used to identify the probably intended outcomes of existing content; and (2) it may be employed to design effective instruction, and thus to determine instructional content. When used for the latter purpose, the distinction is important between content which has a purely mathemagenic function, and content which is itself to be learned. When the intended outcome is an intellectual skill, verbal propositions provide cues for retrieval and other learning processes. In contrast, when the intended outcome is information, verbal statements must be learned as propositions, so that they can later be recalled and stated by the learner. (Author/RC)

The study examined: (1) the effects of rural-urban background and social class on scholastic performance in college, and (2) the rural-urban differences in scholastic performance when controlled for social class, sex, and measured intelligence. Data originally collected by students' self-reports and administrative records for panel-designed researches at Stanford University (1958-1965) and the University of Oregon (1961-1967) were pooled for this study. The sample consisted of 645 students from "urban" backgrounds and 84 students from "rural-small town" backgrounds selected from all full-time, first-year, unmarried, native-born, Caucasian freshmen males and females between the ages of 17 and 20 attending Stanford University, the University of Oregon, or the Oregon Honors College. Major variables were rural-urban background, social class, measured intelligence, and academic performance. Results indicated that: (1) there are very slight rural-urban differences in high school and college performance regardless of sex and/or social class; (2) while neither rural-urban nor social class background is more important it is the combination of rural-urban background, social class, and sex that has more predictive potential; (3) the top one-third of the 12 types of achievers consists mostly of urban non-middle class female students while the lower one-third is composed of rural, middle class males; and (4) since college performance is influenced by college potential (which is affected by sex, class, and rural-urban background) selection effects are operative. (NQ)

Reconstructing media research so that generalizable knowledge can be produced requires an increased emphasis on attributes of media which interact with individual differences to effect learning. In order to accomplish this, media researchers must make a distinction between research "with" media and research "on" media. Privious efforts to systematize the selection of media for instruction by developing taxonomies generally have not been derived from previous research; they also do not draw on previous efforts to organize or conceptualize individual differences in learners. An alternative approach to the structuring and testing of media attribute taxonomies might list attributes to be validated by forming a three-dimensional matrix of subjects, behaviors, and attributes. The matrix is then collapsed across each of the three factors in turn and intercorrelations factored. By collapsing across subjects, for example, it is possible to compute the correlations between all the pairs of media attributes on specific behaviors and factor analyze the intercorrelation matrix. Factors would represent functionally similar media attributes; i.e., clusters of attributes which tend to elicit the same behavior. The result would form the basis of a media taxonomy for research purposes. (Author/WCM)

The problem which this study addresses is the effects of cognitive style and variations in the free sort procedures on the sorting outcome of sorting time and number and quality of manifest partitions. This experiment was designed to look at the effects of the cognitive styles of field dependence, category width and equivalence range, initially-presented homogeneous, heterogeneous or completely randomized stimuli, an explicit sorting cue and resorting versus no resorting on total sorting time, and the number and quality of manifest categorization. Based on a review of the literature and results of a pilot study, a conceptual model of sorting was generated to predict the results. Subjects for the study were 12th grade, male students drawn from two schools within the same district of white middle class communities. On the basis of this research it would seem that some cognitive styles and variations in sorting procedure do affect sorting outcomes. Specific results are presented. (Author/RC)

A study was conducted to suggest an answer to questions in nursing education concerning what educational changes are necessary, which directions those changes should take, and what type of approach should be used to introduce them. The study investigated the extent to which scientifically obtained knowledge is utilized in the process of change in nursing education, using selected innovations as the focus for the study. Information was obtained through a national survey of current curricular innovations in nursing as was determined by questionnaire and through a small number of case studies. The case studies indicated that there were various stages in each innovation process for each curriculum change. Several different modes of identifying the knowledge needed were determined in an attempt to classify the approaches used for deriving knowledge. The quality of the evidence was not assessed, however. A literature review pertaining to sources and methods of obtaining knowledge was utilized. (A 36-item bibliography and a classification scheme for the approaches used in deriving knowledge are also included.) (KP)

The effect on concept learning of requiring the memorization of either examples or nonexamples prior to going through a theoretically effective training program was compared to the performance of groups of seventh and eighth graders who either memorized nothing or memorized subconcepts of the concept definition. Correct classification scores and undergeneralization error scores were the primary dependent variables. With both a disjunctive and a conjunctive concept, no significant treatment differences were found with these variables. The three prior-memorization groups took significantly less time to reach criterion in the training program, but took significantly more total instructional time than did the no-prior-memorization groups. (Author)

A description of the current activities of the Far West Consortium for Development, Dissemination and Evaluation (DD&E) in developing a competency-based assessment system for educational research and development (R&D) professionals is presented. The taxonomy of competencies and the battery of assessment instruments being developed will initiate competency based education for R&D professionals. A problem faced by the consortium is the need for a concrete definition of what competencies are needed for specific levels of professionalization. One of the major design concepts of the assessment system is that it be decision oriented; that is, that the system be concerned with the utility and feasibility of competence based decision making. Four basic assessment methods have been selected: ratings, job knowledge tests, job sample tests, and product ratings. The reliability and validity of the assessment instruments are still being computed. In deriving the taxonomy of educational DD&E competence statements, the project worked with a small sample of subjects who may not be representative. The author hopes this work may serve as a stimulant to more research in this area of R&D competency assessment. (MLP)

This paper examines several recent lines of research concerning category clustering and describes an alternative to the standard category clustering procedure used to study recall organization in younger children. The specific issue considered is the age at which children first show evidence of spontaneous category clustering in their free-recall. Possible interpretations of the contrasting results presented in the literature focus on the types of organizational behaviors measured by the clustering index: (1) associative modes, or (2) conceptual modes. Examples from research are presented to illustrate the distinction between associative and conceptual clustering. It is concluded that there is no way to distinguish associative from conceptual modes of spontaneous organization at any age level when using traditional measures of clustering. An alternative clustering measure, which employs a sorting-recall procedure, is proposed and described. Results of using this procedure, which differ on several dimensions with previous results, are reported. The advantages of using this sorting-recall procedure include: (1) the determination of particularly meaningful age trends; (2) the provision of important information about the qualities of organizational processing; and (3) the opportunity to determine the category basis and criteria used in grouping items. (SDH)

The primary objective of this study was to determine the existence of a relationship between free-recall learning and breadth of categorization, an independent measure of conceptual organization. The relationship between breadth of categorization and more conventional measures of organization was also investigated. Two free-recall tasks (categorized and noncategorized) and two measures of breadth of categorization (band-width and equivalence range) were administered to 144 fifth grade subjects. The free-recall tasks consisted of lists of 30 high frequency words. One list was composed of six conceptual categories; the other list consisted of 30 unrelated words randomly selected from the 1,000 most frequent words in the English language. The Category Width Test was administered two days after the learning of the free-recall lists. Relationships were found between the average size of the groupings and the number of objects left ungrouped on the equivalence range task and the noncategorized free-recall task, whereas only the number of objects left ungrouped on the equivalence range task was found to be related to categorized free-recall. Band-width was related to observed-expected repetitions and the adjusted ratio of clustering. (WR)

In providing a general systems theory approach to the study of occupational choice two major goals are: (1) present a macro level framework in which extant theoretical approaches and concepts may be ordered; and (2) explicate the complexity of dealing with only one partially developed submodel derived from the broader model of relationships about status projections. Various approaches to the study of occupational choice include the adventitious versus the developmental approach, occupational choice theories, macro models of occupational choice, and certain conceptual considerations. There is a need for a broader framework, and a systems perspective could be applicable. A derived submodel illustrates at least one direction in which developmental occupational choice theory and status attainment theory can proceed. (A 57-item bibliography is included.) (Author/KP)

The computerized Painless Accountability System is a performance objective system from which instructional programs are developed. Three main simplified behavioral response levels characterize this system: (1) cognitive, (2) psychomotor, and (3) affective domains. Each of these objectives are classified by one of 16 descriptors. The second major characteristic of the system is that it is based on taxonomics (keyword indexes) of curriculum areas, which might appear in any K-12 curriculum. The third distinguishing feature is a coding procedure which allows an entire objective to be specified in a maximum of 30 characters. Coding of more than 100 objectives per hour is possible. Two of the significant outputs of the system are the performance objective chart, whose major function is to promote continuous curriculum development, and the Management By Objectives System (MBO) which is an economical data compiling aid for administrators in: (1) planning, (2) monitoring, and (3) evaluation. Two printouts from this processing are the Gantt Chart and the monitoring report. The cost for a school district to implement and maintain the computer program is also discussed. (BP)