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Consistent with typical behavior in times of perceived crisis, commentary concerning the current unrest within American colleges and universities is turning increasingly to the topic of leadership. Some groups are highly critical of formal administrative leadership even to the point of questioning its traditional legitimacy. Others, including many professors, are engaging in the self-illusory practice of scapegoating incumbent officials, thereby providing simplistic but anxiety-reducing explanations for any and all internal disorders or problems. Still others, increasing in numbers in direct proportion to the escalation of campus crises, are crying out for law and order leadership to return higher education to normalcy. Another level of leadership concern is reflected by the on-going debate as to what group or groups should exert leadership for higher education. Some suggest that the prerogative of leadership has shifted historically from the trustees to the faculty, then to the administration, and now is in the process of shifting to student groups (1). Others claim the universities belong to the students and faculty; while still others regard institutions of higher education as creatures of the state, thus concluding that they should be controlled primarily by the electorate through their chosen representatives. The presence of such a widespread concern about university leadership and the diversity of viewpoints about and expectations for its legitimacy, performance, and source has stimulated a plethora of printed reactions. Most reactions are long on criticism of current leadership and short on functional proposals for improving it. Those offering proposals typically stress idealized views of what would be "better" behavior on the part of individual leaders and ignore the situational variables within which the better behavior must be acted out. All in all, the current litera

standing of leadership has been to describe and identify leadership in terms of the personal traits of the leader. This approach seems to imply that leadership is some kind of rare gift possessed by a small group of people and that this small group of people is able to control a larger group who is not gifted. Biographical and historical studies of famous people frequently attempt to discover traits that distinguish leaders from nonleaders. Analyses of this kind come up with numerous lists of traits which have

(1927). Leadership in Educational Research. The Journal of Educational Research: Vol. 15, No. 4, pp. 239-245.

The purpose of this study was to assess the performance of Ss who were given instruction in transformational geometry as compared with Ss who received minimal introductory instruction on transformational geometry terminology and concepts. The criterion measures were geometry achievement and spatial ability. 63 second- and third-grade Ss were randomly assigned to experimental and control groups. The experimental Ss received a 12 lesson treatment and the control Ss a 1 lesson treatment concerning rigid motion and congruence concepts. Results indicated that after instruction the experimental Ss performed significantly better than the control Ss on the achievement test, but not on the space test. The results imply that children can learn transformational geometry skills, but the evidence also suggests they have difficulty in applying these skills to a more general task.

We investigate the effects of placing various restrictions on the base component of a transformational grammar as defined by Chomsky (1965) . It is shown that by utilizing the so-called filter function of transformations the descriptive power of transformational grammars can be preserved unreduced even when their base components are subjected to drastic restrictions.

The.procedure included the assembly of measurements of 485 grad uates of a large military school on fifteen variables, including lead ership. Measurement of each group was spread over a four-year per iod; five class groups contributed to the total number. Side studies of various types were employed to ascertain the reliability and validity of the leadership criterion as well as that of the other variables. While the experimental design was rigid in the fact that instruments of meas urement were not under the writer's control, it was considered that this fact, plus the strict objectivity of data, precluded the introduction of personal bias or subjective judgment. The fifteen variables were as follows

A paradign for the analysis of leadership is presented. The model stresses the fact that the group and individual variable commonly examined in leadership studies may be viewed in five ways: as results of the leader's behavior; as concomitants, determiners, or conditioners of the leader's behavior; and as criteria for evaluation. Ten major questions about leadership are stated in the paradigm, and their application to research is illustrated.

The purpose of this article is to initiate a discussion of the 'parts of speech' within the framework of generative grammar.1 The present writer has long been of the opinion that the traditional, 'notional' theory of the 'parts of speech' merits a rather more sympathetic consideration than it has received from most linguists in recent years and feels, with Chomsky (I965: Ii8), that 'although modern work has, indeed, shown a great diversity in the surface structures of languages . . ., the deep structures for which universality is claimed may be quite distinct from the surface structures of sentences as they actually appear', and that 'the findings of modern linguistics are thus not inconsistent with the hypotheses of universal grammarians'. The distinction that is drawn by Chomsky between 'deep' and 'surface' structure was implicit in traditional grammatical theory and has been reasserted by a number of modern scholars (cf. also Hockett, I958: Lamb, I964; Halliday, I966: 57; etc.). This distinction will be taken for granted throughout the paper.It will also be taken for granted that any satisfactory general theory of syntactic structure must be 'transformational'. (in the sense of Chomsky, I957; etc.). Towards the end of the paper, however, it will be suggested, on the basis of the arguments presented below, that current theories of transformational grammar stand in need of radical revision; in particular, that the rules of the base component should operate upon two different kinds of elements, 'constituents' (bracketed categories) and 'features' (for the most part, the traditional 'secondary grammatical

This paper studies the so-called strict subcategorization rules, and the theory associated with them, in the transformational grammar of. Erigl·ish as proposed by Noarn Chomsky in his Aspects. The syntactic component of English transformational grammar consists of two mutually ordered parts, viz., the base and the transformational subcomponents. The initial part of the base are the so-called categorial rules, which are of almost exclusive interest to us here. Their primary task is to generate what are usually called basic sentence patterns, and will here, with Chomsky (Aspects, p.ll3), be designated with the expression, frames of category symbols.- The rules of the transformational subcomponent modify, in various ways, the frames generated by the base. For several reasons - one of them being that the correct work of the transformational subcomponent quite often depends on the kind of lexical items with which the syntactic positions in the frames of category symbols have been filled, the lexical items must be introduced from the lexicon into the empty positions in the frames before the rules of the transformational subcomponent can be allowed to modify the frames.

0. The striking similarity between Grimes's Huichol Syntax and my Navaho Syntax (reviewed by Mary L. Foster and Kalon Kelley, IJAL 32.290-91, 291-94) results not simply from the rather obvious influence that Hockett's work has had on both. It results also in no small measure from efforts to explore the relationship of pattern analysis (hierarchies of immediate constituents) to transformational analysis. Grimes regards transformational theory as a tool in 'the linguist's toolbox' (p. 5). He describes Huichol immediate constituents without assigning cut numbers to indicate hierarchical rankings, and he interprets as transformations certain combinations of con

serious methodological question in social science. It arises in a number of forms. It has recently been prominent in discussions of componential analysis and generative grammar but has also been of some interest in more general social theory (for example, Does a clan need to be a named group? Is there class structure in a society without class consciousness-and, of course, the much larger problems of the relationship beteen stated norms and observed practices). The attribution of more fundamental "truth" to the native's structuring than to the analyst's structuring often goes unquestioned. The more fundamental truth, then, quite naturally, becomes the criterion of validity for the analyst's work. Consideration of all the ontological and epistemological assumptions underlying this approach would be a very large undertaking; but it may be worthwhile to consider the implications of a few of these assumptions, with particular reference to two somewhat related areas of work in which they seem currently to be especially relevant. To focus the discussion, major attention will be given to specific works by Wallace (1962) on semantic or componential analysis, and Chomsky (1957) on transformational or generative grammar. The main issue hinges on the distinction between open and closed systems, and the relationship between empirical and formal analysis. Related to this are questions about the appropriateness of formal and empirical criteria of adequacy for structural analysis, about the nature of change and how it relates

A transformational model of syntactic structures was used to describe children's grammar from under 3 years of age to over 7 years as a self-contained system and to indicate developmental trends. It was found that almost all the basic structures used by adults to generate their sentences are in the grammar of the below 3-yearold children, an indication of how early language is categorized and used in terms of grammatical rules. However, one developmental trend noted was an almost steady rise in the percentages of children using transformations as an increasingly older population was observed. The youngest children excluded rules at the phrase structure and transformational levels of the grammar and alternated more restricted and nonrestricted rules at all three levels of the grammar. The addition of these excluded rules and a change in the number and nature of the restricted forms used seem to be developmental trends.

Schools of thought concerning the study of language in anthropology and in linguistics proper have developed historically along lines that are sometimes convergent, but too often divergent because of a certain gap in communication between the two disciplines. It is the purpose of this paper to suggest the existence of an area of common interest which is at present unrecognized in the literature. I submit that recent work in what anthropologists refer to as ‘formal’ semantic analysis, when considered in the light of transformational linguistics, provides a potentially fruitful point of interdisciplinary interaction which should result in the formulation of a more adequate theory of meaning in the study of language than exists at the moment.

Speech and writing samples from 90 children (30 in each of grades 3, 5, and 7) were analyzed to identify differences in syntactic complexity of grammatical structures. Various constructions were compared for significant differences (.05 level) by mode of discourse, grade, and sex. Syntactic complexity, as reflected in length of minimal terminable syntactic unit and number of sentence-combining transfor mations per unit, was found to be greater in speech than in writing for grade 3 and greater in writing than speech for grades 5 and 7. These measures of complexity show significant increases with advance in grade but show no consistent pattern of significant differences by sex. OF THE several studies concerned with analysis of the language of children only a few give comparisons of oral and written grammatical structures, and apparently no detailed comparison of oral and written structures based on modern linguistics has been published to date. There is an evident need, therefore, for a comparison of the de velopment of oral and written structures in the light of recently developed techniques of linguistic analysis. The present study represents an attempt to meet this need. The Problem

"California has gone transformational!" my English teacher friend announced in tones reserved for the coming of Deity or the departure of superintendents. She was referring to the latest triumph of the new English, significant because occupancy of the Golden Land clearly promises national conquest. My response was less than enthusiastic, for lately I've begun to feel that English teachers are distracted from their main business by the seductive promise that the new linguistics alone will deliver them from the old English. As if, you see, grammar were our main business and that transforming the study of grammar accomplished the necessary transformation of English teachers and teaching. I oppose both notions. Our main business as regards language can be nothing less than "language in action," to use Hayakawa's phrase, and our main business as regards English is to act as if we hear what this particular time is saying to many of our students: Literature is where it's at. Rightly considered, literature has always been where it's at. It rubs against life, brings us to that place the crazy priest in F. Scott Fitzgerald's "Absolution" warns us against, where past the glimmering we see "the heat and sweat and the life." It is and always has been that way of going beneath our own skin and getting into the skin of someone else. It is the prime gift of the imagination, the capacity to make real a life beyond one's individual life. Its larger social utility is that of making the appalling experiences of our time shared experiences, an intensely imagined reality which brings the many of us up close to the awful reality pressing on the few. Within the setting provided by formal education, literature today may be able to fill some of the void being created by a growing disaffection for science and technology. Five years ago, Robert Jastrow of NASA's Goddard Institute of Space Studies, expressed the fear that high school students regarded the modem scientist as "gray, colorless and unaware of what's going on around him." At the last meeting of tlle American Physical Society, the decline of interest in physics was a major subject of discussion. Dr. Harvey Brooks of Harvard observed, 'There seems to be a revulsion against science by the whole society, but especially among young people." Although English in the university has shown few signs of capturing young minds in search of a commitment, there are good arguments that it should and some encouraging signs that it has that power. Consider the position of poetry today. Neither now, nor in any recent time, can it be said to flourish, but surely more poets are writing poems and many more are reading poems to audiences than ever before. Link this with the dominance of a popular music which calls forth poetry of a very traditional kind. Little of this is poetry in a high sense, but is very much

The transformational model of linguistics has proven illuminating in understanding certain aspects of language. With the hope that a comparable model of analysis for other cultural systems may also prove useful, I discuss in this paper a theoretical model for an ethnology of religion that is analogous to the transformational model of linguistics in its assumptions, goals, and structure. Such a theoretical model is applied to analyze a part of Jainism. [India, religion, Jainism, ethnoscience, transformational theory]

S'il est un point que les réflexions contemporaines sur le temps ont mis en relief et inscrit profondément dans notre conscience, c'est que l'avenir qu'on espère dépend directement du présent qu'on réalise. Telle est notre attitude en face du présent, telle elle sera inéluctablement en face de l'avenir; et donc l'avenir lui-même, puisque ce dernier n'est rien sinon un présent caché encore, au cœur d'un présent déjà actuel, et explicite. Il est en effet de l'essence même de notre condition humaine d'avoir un présent structuré et comme stratifié. Certes on peut imaginer le présent comme un point sans épaisseur, comme la limite évanescente entre un segment de ligne qui marque le passé à jamais révolu, et l'avenir qui se meut vers nous pour basculer inexorablement vers le non-être en franchissant ce présent. Mais cette image, utile pour bien des tâches, ne correspond d'aucune manière à la réalité vivante de la conscience humaine et des activités qui lui sont propres. Nous sommes dans le présent ce que nous sommes et ce que, en un sens, nous croyons pouvoir dire que nous avons été. Une grande partie de ce que nous appelons le passé, notre passé personnel et sans doute notre passé spécifique, est présent, non seulement à titre de souvenir, pouvant être, ou non, évoqué, mais à titre de schéma dynamique modifiant notre être-au-monde, notre présente réaction au réel le plus réel, à la situation où nous avons à déployer notre activité.

This time is recognized as a crisis period for both our democracy and the Christan Church. The nation now emerging from a war of gigantic proportions faces difficult adjustments both here and abroad. Professor Kenneth Scott Latourette of Yale University, in the Nobel Lectures delivered at Harvard University, 1940, stated then that the Church faced the most crucial time it had known since the Moham

It is a lesser question for the partisans of democracy to find means of governing the people than to get the people to choose the men most capable of governing.Alexis de Tocqueville, in a letter to John Stuart Mill.Politics by leadership is one of the distinguishing features of the twentieth century. If the eighteenth century enunciated popular sovereignty and direct democracy as a major theme in democratic thought and the nineteenth century was concerned with the challenge of stratification and group conflict, then twentieth century trends have made us sensitive to the role of leadership. The search for the values of security and equality have led to changes in the character of politics. If one were to delineate this newer pattern of a politics by leadership, it would include the following: (1) the shift in the center of conflict resolution and initiative from parliamentary bodies and economic institutions to executive leadership; (2) the proliferation of the immediate office of the chief executive from its cabinet-restricted status to a collectivity of co-adjuting instrumentalities; (3) the tendency toward increased centralization of political parties, with the subordination of the victorious parties as instruments for the chief executive; (4) the calculated manipulation of irrationalities by political leadership through the vast power-potential of mass communications; (5) the displacement of the amateur by the professional politician and civil servant; (6) the growth of bureaucracy as a source and technique of executive power but also as a fulcrum which all contestants for power attempt to employ; (7) the growth of interest groups in size, number and influence, with the tendency toward bureaucratization of their internal structure; (8) the changing role of the public that finds its effective voice in a direct and an interactive relation with the chief executive.

With matched groups of students In grades 10 to 12 a test of ability to manipulate grammatical transformational revealed as low a significant correlation between this ability and ability in composition as did a test of ability in traditional grammar. The ability to manipulate transformations also appeared not to increase significantly between grades 10 and 12 although the ability to deal with the apparatus of traditional grammar did so increase. With both types of grammar significant differences were apparent when students were matched by innate ability.Student ability to manipulate grammatical transformations appears to be as closely, or looked at from the viewpoint of the low correlations which were revealed, as remotely correlated to student ability In composition as is student ability In traditional grammar. Since grammar Is usually taught to Improve composition ability, the transformational grammatical model proved to be at least as adequate as the traditional grammatical model In the senior ...

To our readers: I close my editorial responsibilities with Teaching and Learning by implementing an editor’s prerogative to include in this issue selected passages from an article by Raven Sinclair. As an advocate for social justice within indigenous communities Raven continues to make strides within transformational challenge opportunities by implementing participatory action research in settings that require intervention and social change. I was introduced to this article by a friend of his at a conference I attended on aboriginal issues in education. The message contained therein has influenced my work as a teacher, counsellor, professor, researcher and storyteller. Unfortunately space does not permit a full reprint of Ravens article. I have tried to carefully select passages that do justice to the intent and message without disrupting the flow. In my life as a storyteller I borrow to share not claim to own. For the complete article and list of references refer to the web site described at the end.

Participants in an online doctoral seminar participated in the use of a writing strategy to explore the sociocultural contexts of their lived experience. Creating literary texts in three forms was an effective strategy in mediating participants' understanding. Each form provided a new lens through which to interpret experience. Participants functioned as an interpretive community. The final papers, autobiographical narratives, illuminated the complex relations among prediscursive experience, reflection on experience, distancing, and the iterative transformational quality of time. The online format embodied a virtual interpretive location which allowed participants to revisit texts and postings over time.

Teachers interested in Action Research Projects in schools should be aware that there is much speculation as to the transferability of the results to larger populations. But this should not necessarily detract teachers from in-class research because the primary purpose of the majority of teacher initiated research is most often directed at changing and improving what happens in the classroom or in a particular school rather than at a board or whole system level. Institutional constraints on what might be investigated and how the sharing of results might compromise existing policies regarding personal information sharing and confidentiality are always an issue within institutionalized contexts and could impede the novice researcher. Yet as Paula Friere argued action research, particularly that described as Participatory Action Research or (PAR) is best suited to those willing to critically analyze and make connections between learning and the act of transformational change within political realities. A paragraph taken from Theresa Thorkildsen book “Fundamentals of Measurement in Applied Research” Allyn and Bacon, 2005 pg. 423 sums up what is generally expected of those interested in pursuing action research projects.

In this paper, we will present a rather simplified description of an algorithm for transformational analysis (decomposition) of English sentences. Our purpose here is not to discuss the transformational theory, the full details of the theoretical formulations of the algorithm, or of the grammar. Rather, we will present a set of examples of the decomposition and some discussion of them with the hope that it will give enough insight into the capability of the algorithm and indicate to some extent the power of transformational analysis.

The concept of coding, which refers to what is stored in memory during learning, is defended, as an important and necessary conceptual advance in learning-memory theory during the last decade. It is maintained that the concept covers a wide variety of functionally different coding operations, with many specifics of its operation still to be experimentally determined, and that attempts to restrict its meaning to arbitrary transformational coding, as suggested by Restle, should be rejected. The paper comments on the empirical contributions to coding theory by Johnson, Wickens, Martin, and Postman and Bums in the symposium for which it served a discussant function.

HE PREMISES for this study are derived from the theories of communication, from neo-rhetoric, from axiological studies and content analysis, from the theory of cybernetics, from the transformational structuralism of Chomsky, and the genetic structuralism of Piaget. The theories of communication and neo-rhetoric allow us to disregard some empirical categories-such as "literature," "art," "spectacle," and so on-that are not particularly relevant to the point of view adopted here; axiological studies and content analysis, though with different means and for different purposes, face the problem of the semantic genesis of communication and supply us with useful principles and instruments for this investigation; the theory of cybernetics and structuralism are the sources of sets of rules which are fundamental elements in the present model. The theory of communication allows us to consider all kinds of messages as belonging to a single, undivided sphere; 1 the neo-rhetorical research distinguishes two types of communication in such a sphere: one aimed at persuading and moving to action (i.e., emotional communication of social rules), and the other at convincing and enriching knowledge (i.e., rational communication of scientific laws) .2 Thus