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Using survey data collected in predominantly lower- and middle-income neighborhoods of San Juan, Puerto Rico, the author tests three propositions. (1) Participation in the labor force is associated with increased influence by the wife in family decision-making, particularly with respect to having additional children. (2) This increased influence in decision-making is associated with lower fertility among working women. (3) The negative relationship between labor-force status and fertility is stronger among wife-dominant and egalitarian families than among husband-dominant couples. Empirical support is present for each proposition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents documents and publications of the United Nations and Specialized Agencies that appeared in the 1971 issue of the periodical "International Social Science Journal." On the issue of population, Economic Commission for Africa, presents population trends in African countries, in the Report of the Working Group on Fertility Studies and Evaluation of Population Programmes, at Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, from January 26-30, 1970. "World Health Statistics Report" vol. 23, also presents health related issues. "Report of the Second World Food Congress," vol. 1, presents population forecasts, probable economic growth, development of food production and forms of consumption. "Production Year Book, 1969," vol. 23, reports on annual statistical data on all important aspects of food and agriculture. Labor conditions, employment, professional relations is highlighted in "Bibliography on Women Workers: 1861-1965."

This paper presents a reprint of the article Women Are Different, by Herbert E. Fleming, which appeared in the December 1942 issue of Commerce magazine. Many plant managements are showing signs of perplexity as they face the certainty that women must be hired to replace men taken for military service. This attitude is unnecessarily apprehensive, and yet it is a healthy sign, for it reveals an awareness that there are many important considerations to face when women workers are introduced into jobs and plants where previously there were men only. While accepting the idea that women must have equal pay for equal work, these managements have held that the practical course to follow is to look at things from the woman's point of view, to take account of women's differences from men, and to adjust practices to those differences in handling human relations, selection, training, supervision and working conditions. A basic difference in the woman worker is found in her attitude toward staying on the job. Before women are brought into a plant its engineers should go as far as possible in adapting machines for easy operation by women novices. The main objection to women for men's work, as every gentleman has always recognized, is that they have less physical strength than men. In the automotive industry, whose transformation to war work has been a near miracle, this problem has been solved by the installation of much more than the normal number of load lifters, roller conveyers, pedestal lifts, and automatic chain hoists.

This article compares self-reported reasons given by male and female trainees for leaving air traffic control (ATC) work. This comparison is of particular current interest since the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), like other organizations throughout the country, has been actively seeking to increase the number of women in all of its occupations and particularly in those where grades and pay levels are high. Of 119 women who entered initial ATC training at the FAA Academy from December 1968 to November 1970, 56 had left work by June 1972; all of these female attributions were included in the study. Each female was matched with a male with respect to age, pay, previous experience, whether attributes at the Academy or in subsequent training, and other variables. The present study indicates that the reasons, which an employee specifies for leaving a job at the time of job exit may not be the same as reasons presented later. Moreover, men report a greater variety of primary reasons for changing jobs and leave one position expressly for another position in greater frequencies than do women.

Discusses the problems in urban unemployment and employment of women, and other economic factors in Ethiopia. Contention on how to address urban unemployment in the country; Result of income-substitution growth policies; Recommendations.

This study was designed to determine whether significant rural-urban differences among selected characteristics of women still existed in 1960. The findings indicate that the fertility of women in 208 sample counties increased directly with distance from the nearest metropolitan center, and that the formal education and proportionate number of employed women declined as distance from the metropolitan center increased. The number of children born per 1,000 women (ever-married) 35–44 years declined as the population size of the urbanized area of SMSAs increased; moreover, the proportionate number of employed females and of those completing 12 or more years of formal education in the sample counties increased directly with the population size of the urbanized area of the SMSAs, even though the upward slopes were not quite steep enough to be significant. Most relationships between distance, population size, and each of the three dependent variables were in the expected direction. Also, women in the southern counties had more children and proportionately fewer had completed 12 or more years of formal education. The gradient principle of ecological theory was found relevant and useful in interpreting rural-urban differences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents discussions on various research bulletins. The bulletins are as follows: "Factors Related to Employment of Wives in a Rural Iowa County" by researcher Lee G. Burchinal; "An Evaluation of the Farm and Home Development approach to Agricultural Extension Work in North Carolina" by researcher C. Paul Marsh; "The Michigan Township Extension Experiment: The Farm Families . . . Their Attitudes, Goals and Goal Achievement" by researcher James Nielson; "Expellees As Farmers in Western Germany" by researcher Peter Schilke and Friedrich Riemann; "Population Changes and Prospects in Southern Illinois" by researcher Ray E. Wakeley; "Growth and Decline of Farms and Cities in Southern Illinois" by researcher Ray E. Wakeley; and "Types of Rural and Urban Community Centers in Southern Illinois" by researcher Ray E. Wakeley. The bulletin, "An Evaluation of the Farm and Home Development approach to Agricultural Extension Work in North Carolina," determines what effect, if any, the additional intensive educational assistance by county agents had in bringing about certain types of changes among the experimental group of families as compared with a control group which presumably was exposed to general Extension programs in the seven counties.

Examines the implicit economic assumptions that should be made in order to explain sex-related pay differences. Principles of women employment; Contentions on the labor costs of men and women employees; Basic assumptions of the economic discrimination hypothesis; Alternative explanation to economic discrimination hypothesis based on sex differences; High probability of turnover in women employees.

Explores how economic growth, ideology and structure affect female labor force. Classification of countries by feminist ideology, wealth and job opportunity for women; Characteristics of jobs with higher concentration of women workers; Impact of economic growth on job opportunity for women; Ideals of equality of sexes; Childrearing activities.

Outlines some of the reasons behind the development and persistence of female jobs in the United States. Range of jobs which are predominantly female jobs; Labor costs and availability; Sex-linked characteristics; Mixed work groups and women supervisors; Career continuity; Geographical mobility.

Examines the status of women's employment in Ghana as of February 1971. Occupational distribution of women; Entry of women into wage-earning employment; Opportunities for education and training.

Provides information on a study that examined the main demographic factors influencing the rate of female economic participation in Eastern Europe and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republic. Discussion on sustaining the contribution of women to the growth of the labor force.

Focuses on the employment of women in Japan in a period of rapid technological change. Discussion on the redistribution of women's employment in Japan during the period 1955-66; Consideration of socio-economic factors that have contributed to softening the impact of change; Effects of traditional practices on the employment of women.

Examines the extent of the participation of women in the labor force in Pakistan. Potential role of Pakistani women as an important human resource; Changes in the structure of female employment in the country; Comparison on the extent of female participation in the labor force in Pakistan and in other predominantly Moslem societies.

Focuses on the employment of women in Scandinavia. Independence of women; Dissatisfaction over the social position of women; Division of labor between sexes.

Focuses on the unsatisfactory state of knowledge on different attitudes of men and women towards work. Discussion on the need for research in a world where women are called upon to participate ever more actively in economic life; Findings of a study which examined the various aspects of the problem of women's attitudes towards work in Poland.

The article discusses the acknowledgement of the participation of women in science and their significant contribution to scientific manpower resources in the U.S. The effort of the government in attracting talented young women into the fields of scientific research and teaching. An argumentation involving the continuing increased in the rate of attrition for women. It also identifies history which suggests in the most advanced and sophisticated civilizations women who have enjoyed intellectual equality with men regardless of their economic or legal status.

Secondary analysis of surveys and studies conducted in Israel during the period of 1930-1971 reveals that Israeli women have not achieved a higher degree of equality within the labor force than women in other industrial countries. Moreover the percentage of women in the Israeli Labor force is even somewhat lower. Israeli women, including Kibbutz members, are predominantly occupied in teaching, nursing, clerical work, and sales occupations. A large number of women are occupied in flexible part-time jobs, and except for medicine, Israeli women are underrepresented in all managerial and high status professional occupations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Primacy of home duties and a dependent relationship on her husband have been traditional role expectations for American wives. Two current trends challenge the image of dependent homemaker. First, the dual role of home and employment is increasingly popular among married women; for some this means career-commitment. Second, the new wave of feminism stresses autonomy (self-determination) for women. These two factors may be important in recasting or shattering the mold of American family life, especially through their impact on the marital relationship. Repeatedly, research has indicated how crucial the husband's attitude is for adjustments necessitated by the wife's employment. This research attempted to determine whether married women seek to make their role preference congruent with that of their husband. The study also examined the effect of wives' attitude to autonomy for women on their expectations as to which partner should adjust when there is tension or conflict over her role. Secord and Backman's theory of interpersonal congruency provided the theoretical model for the research. This theory suggests that behavioral stability and change are determined by one's desire for congruency in the interpersonal matrix formed by (S) self-concept, (B) relevant behavior, and (0) the perceived reaction of significant others. When incongruency threatens, adjustment is made among the components S, B, and/or O. A purposive selection of women's clubs was made, and members were given mail-back questionnaires for themselves and their husbands. The women surveyed covered a broad range in terms of commitment to employment and attitude to autonomy for women. Two hundred thirty-five questionnaires were returned; most included the husband's also. The hypothesis that shared husband-wife role preference leads to role continuity or change, depending on whether this preference was for her present role or a different one, was strongly supported. The hypothesis that women with a liberal attitude to autonomy expect their husbands to make more adjustments and those with a conservative attitude expect to make more adjustments themselves was supported in general interaction but not when wives occupied roles in defiance of their husbands. Women moderate in attitude to autonomy evidenced more ambiguity over their roles than either the conservative or liberal women. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was carried out on career women in high status positions in Israel. Factors of family structure related to women's occupational mobility chances were investigated. Women in high status positions were expected to originate predominantly from sibling groups composed solely of daughters, and to be, disproportionally, the youngest daughters in their family. Youngest daughters were, indeed, found to be significantly overrepresented among the study population, albeit only in large sibling groups of five or more children. Eldest daughters, though, were found to be overrepresented in small sibling groups, yet at an unsignificant level. Sibling groups' sex composition was found to be unrelated to women's career status. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Historically, vast rural-urban differences undoubtedly existed in the fertility and employment characteristics of women in this country. This study was designed to compare and contrast differences which existed in 1960 in a sample of homogeneous counties in the United States. The findings indicate that both city-size and distance from the selected metropolitan centers do affect the proportionate number of employed females; the percentage employed declines consistently with distance and increases consistently with city-size. The fertility of women increased consistently with distance from the metropolitan centers but fluctuated irregularly with increasing size of central city. Thus, the great rural-urban differences in the fertility and employment patterns of women that once existed have undoubtedly diminished, although they have not entirely vanished with the passage of time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article reports a study of married women social workers and their employment experience. A professional woman works about half the time available to her. The presence of children under six was found to be a very salient factor affecting the professional woman's work pattern, rather than the fact of marriage alone. Role conflict is reported by a minority of women. However, those women who had preprofessional undergraduate careers seem especially free of conflict. It is hypothesized that professional social work wives may take two analytically distinct views of work. Some may see it as an extension of the home role while others may see it as providing a fundamentally different type of gratification. Conflict would then appear only for the latter group. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Future manpower needs are notoriously difficult to estimate, not only because they depend on innumerable and unpredictable contingencies such as the increase or decline of the birthrate and of marriage rates, economic expansion or stagnation, technical innovations, changes in social policy and public attitudes, among others, but also because increases in supply in their turn generate increased demands. If more teachers became available, the size of classes could be reduced, nursery provision could be improved, a greater variety of courses can be introduced. An increase in the number of nurses would not only relieve existing shortages and reduce the burden on overworked staff but would lead to the expansion of much needed, but at present necessarily neglected specialist services for example, in geriatric and children's wards, in mental hospitals and in domiciliary nursing. More social workers would not only allow a proper manning of existing social services but would undoubtedly lead to their expansion into fields in which there are now unmet needs which, because of the overall shortage of trained workers, cannot be given due consideration. Thus, in the sector of professional services women are most sorely needed.

The number of married women workers has increased greatly in Scotland, as in England and Wales. It seems likely that this trend will be maintained and even be strengthened. This raises questions of policy for the government and practical difficulties for employers, who can no longer afford to ignore domestic responsibilities of their workers. It confronts society with the need to consider whether the employment of married women, especially mothers, is compatible with a satisfactory family life and with the healthy physical and psychological development of children. The relationship between employment of mothers and the quality of family life is not a simple one and the accumulated evidence suggests that the reasons why a mother goes out to work or stays at home may be more important than the fact that she does so. Mothers who go out to work do not form a homogeneous category. The decision to go out or to stay at home depends upon a complicated interplay within the family of economic, social and psychological factors, and this takes place in the wider context of local customs and industrial conditions.

In Great Britain today, more married women are going out to work, first of all because of earlier marriage and, secondly, because of smaller families. Assuming that these trends continue, managers will find that more of their women workers will be married, and probably that their average age will be higher. Married women owe their first duty to their home and family. They therefore constitute a risk from managements point of view since they are liable to go absent or to leave altogether at very short notice in response to their family needs. However, the study presented in the article shows that in a factory which has become mainly dependent on such workers, latitude is allowed. If it were not, the firm would not survive. In a world in which more married women are ready to work and more employers need them, this is likely to be the principal lesson which managers will have to learn.

This article shows how the numbers of married women in employment in Great Britain have been changing and how it seems they are likely to change in future. Fewer women are remaining unmarried and that those who marry are doing so at an earlier age than before. As regards women of working age, this is resulting in a fall in the numbers of single women, the large majority of whom go out to work, with a corresponding increase in the numbers married, of whom currently about one-third go out to work. Since the total number of women of working age is not changing, this must lead either to a fall in the total number of women at work, or else to an increase in the proportion of married women at work above the present one-third. Another factor having the same effect would be an increase in the school-leaving age as is intended. Data available from the 1951 census confirm that earlier marriage is followed by an earlier return to work for a proportion of married women.

Two hundred and ninety female shop floor workers and sixty-five female shop floor ex-workers of a large electrical/electronic engineering company were given a multiple choice questionnaire and unstructured interview. Thirty per cent of the total sample expressed general dissatisfaction with their job. An analysis of their responses indicated the over-riding importance of the work itself as a determinant of job satisfaction and dissatisfaction. An analysis of reasons for leaving the company indicated that 'voluntary' labour turnover resulted mainly from dissatisfaction with the work. No evidence was gained to support Herzberg's principle of duality, although the practical implications from the study are very similar to those evident in the motivation/hygiene theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the earning movements and regressive labor situation in a company. A regressive spiral is defined as a situation in which organizations become increasingly less able to adapt to environmental pressures and eventually enter a state of progressively aggravated disequilibrium. The author notes that this can apply to any factor of production. A company's supply of capital, labor, or managerial skill can diminish when the negative forces in of situation become self-perpetuating. To avoid regression, product market considerations and labor market considerations need to be held in equilibrium by management. Monetary awards sought by women workers are discussed. The author notes that the product market is considered to be too competitive to allow large increases in labor costs to be absorbed by large price increases.

The working wife as a factor in the determination of family status has been universally ignored by students of stratification. In this plea for investigation, it is suggested that the employment of married women could affect the system of stratification in the following ways: (1) making possible greater access to symbols of status; (2) implying that the husband has been unsuccessful in his own career; (3) identifying the wife with a particular occupation; and (4) identifying certain occupations with wives of high status. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents information related to a research related to the relation between the employment status of mothers and the attitude of family towards it in Hyderabad, India. The data for the research were selected from a larger project designed to study role conflict of employed mothers in Hyderabad. For the research 40 pairs of married sisters from Hyderabad were gathered and related to employment status of the respondents. One of the major limitation of this research was the inability to advance towards a multivariate analysis of the data.

This article presents information on books and articles related to industrial relations. In the book "More Effective Training for Overseas Management Through Projective Techniques," by John S. Ewing," some criticism is offered of conventional orientation programs for executives going overseas, and another method is suggested. The implications of the government trusteeship established over five unions to resolve the prolonged strife in Canadian maritime labor, is presented in the book "The Maritime Unions Trusteeship," by Allan A. Porter. The book "Married Women Working," by Pearl Jephcott, Nancy Sears and John H. Smith, presents a study of working women in a London working class borough. Both the conditions of work which were exceptionally good and the influence of employment on the workers and on their families are studied in depth. Also the relative effectiveness of married versus unmarried women workers is analysed. Provisions in France for preventing the sudden closing of industries and for providing income and job retraining for unemployed persons are described in the article "It Can't Happen in France."