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The article focuses on the periodical literature on techniques of psychotherapy. In spite of the considerable number of articles and books which are now being published on the subject of psychotherapy, it is often difficult to determine exactly what therapists do, or think they do, to help their clients overcome psychological and psychosomatic difficulties. In the article, the authors have surveyed only recent periodical literature on psychotherapy, since the authors do not consider broad conception of psychotherapy novel to the article.

This article discusses research in the field of clinical psychology. In view of the great need for knowledge of a factual nature in the field of psychotherapy, it is encouraging to find that the frequency of research reports concerned with objective evaluation of the effects of psychotherapy remains high. H.J. Eysenck's recent provocative summary should prove challenging rather than discouraging to clinicians and should operate to enhance collaborative investigation by psychologists and psychiatrists who need to demonstrate the evidence which underlies their subjective convictions that psychotherapy is a socially useful function in which to be engaged.

This article presents information of various books and journals related to psychology. The paper "Notes on the psychotherapy of infantile autism" by Micheal Fordham is an account of his work and research with autism in children. "Psicologia della lettura" by Mario Trevi is a thought-provoking paper, which presents some intriguing comparisons between reading and play. The paper "Working with a family in a Child Guidance setting" by P. Parsloe and D. Howell presents therapeutic work of psychiatrist and psychiatric social worker on psychotherapy of closely interdependent immature people.

The article reports that in the field of psychotherapy, there has been practically no progress in the matter of evaluating the relative efficacy of various methods because of failure to quantify the nature and malignancy of the clinical case materials under study. Adherents of various schools of psychotherapy have made a large number of claims and counter claims which cannot be proved or disproved until the exact nature of the clinical material on which the findings are based has been established. It is the purpose of this paper to outline a method for quantifying the malignancy of case materials by the use of a rating scale which has been called the prognostic index.

This article discusses directive psychotherapy. The purpose of, this paper is to discuss the nature, indications and contraindications of methods of therapy involving pressure or coercion. Pressure is defined as the bringing to bear upon the client of stimulation tending to direct action toward specific goals. Coercion involves restraint or regulation by force, usually by law or authority, compelling or constraining the! client to comply with directions. Pressure will usually involve influences which leave ultimate responsibility for conformance up to the client himself, while coercion requires mandatory conformance.

The article attempts to demonstrate the un-spontaneous basis for what heretofore has been termed "spontaneous" remission. Evidence is presented that a combination of favorable patient expectancies and such nonspecific professional intervention as the intake interview and psychological testing are sufficient for inducing symptomatic change in individuals waiting to participate in formal psychotherapy. Finally, it is suggested that "non-specific therapy remission" be substituted for "spontaneous remission" as a means of describing improvement in wait-list patients not participating in formal psychotherapy.

The article describes the application of a scale for the objective assessment of process or movement in psychotherapy and reports the degree of reliability and validity found in a preliminary investigation. The present scale represents a refinement of the original scale based upon further analysis and study of additional therapy protocols. It seems apparent that satisfactory interjudge reliability can be obtained in using the process scale in its present form, and that ratings derived from it bear a meaningful relationship to other measures of successful change in therapy.

The article cites a survey that presents a general critique of techniques of psychotherapy. Of the many psychotherapeutic techniques, which are endorsed today by some reputable therapists, there is virtually none, which is not also skeptically viewed or seriously questioned by other therapists. If one therapist insists that a certain technique, such as the use of free association, is invaluable for effective psychotherapy and another therapist insists that it is usually a wasteful, inefficient technique, the chances are that both are right and both are wrong.

The article illustrates the usefulness of employing human figure drawings as an adjunct in the course of psychotherapy. In this study, a twenty-year-old male began an extended series of psychotherapeutic interviews in the middle of his junior year in college. Perhaps the most immediately arresting characteristic of the drawings made by the subject in this study is that, in the words of the patient, they both seem sexiest. The patient's subsequent admissions offer strong evidence for the diagnostic meaning of the drawing of figures in which there is essentially no sexual differentiation.

The article focuses on the Sentence Composition test. In the test, the subject is asked to write 20 sentences, each containing the word "because." Protocols can be qualitatively analyzed by the use of established psychodiagnostic principles. The test has one distinctive feature which justifies its appearance among the perennial burgeonings of new projective techniques. It taps the same free-associative function as does psychotherapy, with minimal intrusion of stimuli which exert their own specific influences on responses. The use of the word "because" helps to prevent repetitiousness and stereotypy, and makes for conciseness and personalized meaningfulness in the subject's responses.

The article presents the study that investigates the use of vicarious behavior induction and training psychiatric aides for therapists. The study is administered to a class of 33 psychiatric aide trainees in a Midwestern state hospital who have no prior psychiatric work experience and from a predominant rural areas. They are assigned in three special training sessions including group discussion, a didactic and group discussion, and vicarious induction. The results show that videotaped-modeled behavior is a suitable training device for facilitating positive interpersonal behavior in psychiatric aides.

This article will begin with a few general comments on theory. Then some of the main points in the commentary will be illustrated by an example of the development and testing of a theory of approach avoidance conflict behavior. Finally, the discussion will include a brief resume of recent extensions of the theory to displacement, psychotherapy, and psychological effects of certain drugs. References will also be made to new experimental evidence relevant to these extensions. A theoretical model can be created as an intellectual game without any reference to specific phenomena in the real world. In order for a theory to be useful, the scientist must have some relatively unambiguous way of relating the terms in the theory to the phenomena that interest him. Some of the greatest difficulties of applying theory to phenomena of practical importance arise at the point of linking the antecedent conditions in the practical situation with those specified in the theoretical model. It may be difficult to measure the conditions in the practical situation, they may vary in unknown ways or be too complex for the theory to handle.

The history of modern psychotherapy can be viewed as an unsuccessful struggle to evaluate the role of social values The existence of social values has been denied, some values have been castigated as baneful to personality development. Psychiatry, by remaining close to a biological frame of reference, has of course solved the problem radically. But psychoanalysts, clinical psychologists, therapists with moral and social programs, all are dealing directly with social values. Social values comprise the matrix relating the acts of individuals. Psychologically, social values are the shaft to the spearhead of individual behavior, which combines self-goals, self-roles, and self-conception. Modem psychotherapy has failed to make any systematic appraisal of the values held by the client's associates. A therapist who altogether rejects any consideration of values once told the writer that his only concern was aiding a self-determined integrative process in the client. The therapist has the obligation of pointing out to such a client exactly what threats and dangers, both to the emotions and the physical person, a persistence in such conduct may very well lead.

Studies the psychological treatment of Roman Catholics. Elements of paranoia with regard to analysis in general and non-Catholic analysts in particular; True, living faith that may underlie superstitious beliefs; Need for the tendencies to be understood and uncovered by analyst and patient alike for the analysis of the parent archetype to be effective and for treatment to proceed satisfactorily.

The article discusses frequency and duration characteristics of speech and silence behavior during interviews. As a means of obtaining information for personality and other forms of assessment, and as the vehicle for attempting to facilitate personality change during psychotherapy, the interview has had a long history in psychology and allied disciplines. In order to better understand the frequency and duration characteristics of interviewee speech and silence behavior, the single units of speech behavior of one interviewer and 20 interviewees were analyzed. The findings indicate that both speech and silence behavior of interviewees is composed of many units of short durations and relatively fewer units of long durations.

This article focuses on the effects of two methods of response in a quasi-therapeutic situation. In the initial experiment 8 therapists, all second and third year psychiatric residents, viewed two films which were reproductions of actual initial interviews with patients seeking psychotherapy. Both of the films had eight 30-second stopping places where the viewer was asked either, under Procedure W, to write what he would say to the patient at this time if he were interviewing him, or, under Procedure S, to speak his comment into a tape recorder.

This article describes, and attempts a preliminary assessment of, a new approach to the treatment of underachieving adolescent boys who resist needed psychotherapy. It would appear most economical to briefly describe the remedial clinic setting in which this investigation took place, and then to proceed to a consideration of method and results. The Clinic School, established in 1921, on the campus of the University of California, Los Angeles, is a remedial center providing facilities for: the diagnostic psychological assessment of children with severe learning disorders, the treatment of a limited number of such children, either in the full-day remedial school program or in the part-time tutoring program, and training and research.

The article informs that personality change during psychotherapy is held to involve many brief periods during which the individual refers his attention directly, these immediately felt data of experiencing. The theory considers experiencing to be an aspect of the physiological life of a unitary organism. Therefore, if periods of continuous reference to experiencing are therapeutic, physiological tension-reduction should be measurable during them. The present study attempts to define and produce "continuous reference to experiencing" in the laboratory, and to contrast its autonomic correlates with those found during other modes of attention.

The article reports on the difference between clinical psychology and psychotherapy. The process of psychotherapy does not seem to be essentially different from the process of evaluation, in that both make inferences from the patient's behavior about such things as his conflicts, dynamics, defenses, etc. The basic difference is that treatment aims to help the patient to change, while evaluation is primarily concerned with assessing the patient and his potential for change. By restricting the term clinical to the subject matter of personality, one narrows considerably the range of variables which may reasonably be predicted. In many instances there may well be no accurate external criterion possible, and one will be thrown back upon the use of construct validity as two researchers point out.

This article reports on a homosexual who was treated with rational psychotherapy. The client was a thirty-five year old male, living in Brooklyn with his parents, and operating his disabled father's toy factory. He had been raised as a Catholic, but no longer considered himself a believer. He was the only son of what he described as a "very religious and very neurotic" mother and an "exceptionally weak, dome mated father" who had been disabled by a serious stroke two years before the client came for treatment. He had always been quite close to his mother, and usually did her bidding, even though he bitterly resented her persistent attempts to control himself and his father.

The article presents a clinical evaluation of the method of direct analysis in the treatment of psychosis. Psychoanalyst J.N. Rosen has developed the method. The uniqueness of Rosen's method is the rapidity with which he can communicate with psychotic patients, arouse their awareness of him, an object in the outer world, and cause an interference with their autistic preoccupations. Rosen has been willing to subject to reality testing his conviction that verbal communication can be established relatively quickly with a psychotic patient by giving lecture demonstrations in various mental hospitals.

The article cites a study, which attempts to develop a self-administering inventory for selecting the individuals among a drug-addict population who are most acceptable for psychotherapy. The article also includes normative data based on a large number of subjects and presents correlations between the scale and other variables. Validity generalization tests of the predictive efficiency of the 46-item scale were then made on a group of 136 subjects. Differences were found between the two groups in responses to items designed to measure sensitivity to pain, kind and degree of hostility and aggression, as well as between items concerning preferred drug effects.

This article discusses outcome of employing three techniques of psychotherapy. Since it has been the writer's custom, for the last several years, to keep summary records on all clients seen, including information relating to diagnosis, number of sessions, and therapeutic outcome, 78 closed cases were taken from the therapist's files, consisting of individuals who had been treated for at least ten sessions with rational analysis. These were matched with 78 cases of individuals who had been treated for at least ten sessions with psychoanalytically oriented psychotherapy.

This article focuses on social class and the acceptance of psychotherapy. The patient source was the Out-patient Department of the Henry Phipps Psychiatric Clinic, Johns Hopkins Hospital, a training institution and community clinic offering various types of psychotherapy. A total of 57 patients who met the qualifications specified below were included in the study. All patients were between the age of 18 and 55 years and their diagnoses were either psychoneurosis or some form of personality disorder. Specifically excluded were patients with a diagnosis of organic brain disease, anti-social character disorder, alcoholism, overt psychosis, or mental deficiency.

The article discusses a methodology for measuring personality changes in psychotherapy. Psychotherapy has existed and flourished during the past five decades in spite of the fact that it remains almost completely unvalidated by scientific standards. Psychotherapy is, in some respects, an implausible procedure offering to the individual the opportunity to learn those things about himself which by definition he does not wish to know. The methodology for measuring changes before and after psychotherapy is based on the Interpersonal System. This system involving a complex combination of formal and empirical operations has been described elsewhere.

The article presents a study that examines the relationship between a patient's social class and the duration of his psychiatric treatment. The purpose of the study was to determine whether the postulated relationship between class position and duration of treatment is tenable when the experience and training level of therapists is held constant and is beyond a minimum level; selection of patients by therapists is eliminated; and therapists and patients are under administrative pressure to remain in psychotherapeutic contact.

The article cites psychotherapist W. Schofield's annual analysis of research trends in clinical psychology that was based upon a sampling of the journal literature. In the article, Schofield's definitions, sampling procedures and tabular outline have been applied without modification. Methods adopted by Schofield do not involve standardized test materials, but rather are an extension to clinical populations of the standard experimental procedures for perceptual research.

The article informs that psychotherapy is the treatment of individuals with psychological problems. It is a process of emotional reeducation since it involves helping people to cope with problems which they developed or learned in the course of their interpersonal relations. Because psychotherapy attempts to discover why the individual became disturbed in his relations with himself and others, and how he may be helped to become emotionally adjusted and to live happily and effectively, it is practiced, to some extent, by all professional and lay people who importantly influence the individual's human relations-including teachers, clergymen, personnel counselors, jurists, probation officers, and parents.

The article reports that special problems do arise in psychotherapy, one of which, for example, relates to the independent-variable complex. Either it is true that more variables interact in individual therapeutic treatment than is customary in experimental psychology, or that we are at present unable to specify the independent variables which account for response to treatment. Thus a study of psychotherapy cannot rule out a host of disturbing variables in order to concentrate on the significance of one or two. There is no prospect of rising to the level of the rat psychologist's control, where he gets rid of a great deal of genetic variability, for example, by drawing his animals from one purified strain. One of our concerns will be to state how, if at all, such special problems modify the use of formal design in research on therapy.

The article reports that studies of the effectiveness of counseling and psychotherapy have used a variety of criteria as measures of success. Some researches have employed rating scales of differing degrees of elegance, others have relied upon psychological tests, while still others have emphasized physiological and environmental measurements. The behavior measured in such studies was sometimes quite specific, as changes in respiration or pulse rates, and sometimes very broad and elusive such as changes in sell concept. The therapeutic methods employed ranged from directive through eclectic and nondirective procedures. In every case the attempt was made in the approaches discussed here to measure the clients' status before therapy, after therapy, and in some studies, during therapy.

The article reports that before dealing critically with the present status of research in this field we may consider briefly certain of the difficulties facing a research worker in this area. The most obvious source of difficulty is the presence of various systematic approaches to psychotherapy psychoanalytic, nondirective and so on. Each of these points of view may become proliferated by defections from the ranks. In addition, there are the minor unorthodoxies and individual idiosyncracies within the fold which still further complicate the issue. One cannot speak of the "effects of psychotherapy" in a bald unqualified fashion, but research must be framed in terms of a particular approach to psychotherapy with attention to the particular individual nuances given by the specific practioners concerned.

The article presents several illustrations from clinical practice, which describe the use of specialized hypnotic techniques within a framework of psychotherapy or psychodiagnosis characterized by a nondirective orientation and not essentially hypnotic in nature. The use of a nondirective technique in taking a case history has many diagnostic advantages not found in more directive procedures. In psychotherapy, hypnosis and hypnotic techniques may be used systematically throughout the course of treatment or may be used at precise times for specific purposes.

The article presents a study which analyzes the usefulness of concepts of acceptance and rejection in describing the dynamics of non-directive psychotherapy and in evaluating non-directive techniques has been demonstrated in a previous theoretical discussion. The purpose of this investigation is to determine if any validity, significance, or reliability might be presumed from a classification of such subjective aspects of counselor responses. Four categories were used in the final study, namely, a category for responses which demonstrated acceptance of the client's position, a category for responses which demonstrated support of the client's position, another category for responses which demonstrated denial of the client's position or rejection and a final category for responses which were neutral.

This article discusses directive psychotherapy. Animal experiments have demonstrated that a breakdown in the individuals ability to utilize past experience and to differentiate between stimuli typically results in the development of neurotic behavior of various types. Similarly, human inability to solve problem situations on the basis of previous knowledge results in frustration and maladjustive behavior. In this situation, emotional instability is a secondary phenomena occurring as a reaction to failure to solve problems with intellectual resources.

This article focuses on directive psychotherapy. While the limitations of explicit meaning have been pointed out frequently, occasionally people still mean, know, intend, and attend what they say. Not to take communication at its face value may lead to clinical failure as well as success. A common therapeutic error, particularly among analytically-oriented clinicians, is to place such concentration upon overtones, such obvious speculation concerning motives, that he seems pre-occupied and inattentive; he fails to deal adequately, i.e., logically.

The article considers methods, indications and contraindications for making available psychological information in directive counseling and psychotherapy. The therapeutic efficacy of directive methods is limited by the same factors of clinical experience and judgment, which determine the therapeutic outcome of nondirective methods. One of the functions of the psychologist in counseling normal people is to impart reliable scientific in formation concerning the psychology of adjustment. It was found that irrespective of the causes for their maladjustment, most normal persons are able to utilize psychological information in making better adjustment to life.

The article outlines some theoretical and practical considerations concerning the use of palliative methods in psychotherapy. The general purpose of palliation is to reduce the severity or otherwise alleviate the client's complaints or symptoms, affording relief but not cure, and thereby facilitating normal reparative processes by providing optimum conditions for cure. Palliative methods are indicated in (a) major crises in adjustment where emotional instability or other distressing symptoms require immediate action to tide the client over his climax of troubles, (b) transient periods of instability where maladjustment is a direct reaction to environmental stress and the client is basically normal and healthy, (c) situations impossible of satisfactory solution, and (d) for the treatment and relief of distressing symptoms which must be attended to before more basic therapy can be effectively attempted.

The article focuses on non-directive psychotherapy, which is entirely new conception of the dynamics of psychotherapy. It does not rest upon the old conceptions that the counselor must secure enough information about the client to interpret the client to himself and finally force this interpretation upon the client in such a way that the client accepts this interpretation and acts upon it. Therapy is effected in a non-directive relationship by placing the client in an accepting environment, in a situation where he is permitted to make the beginnings of a new and better adjustment and it is from this seedling adjustment that his latter total readjustment eventuates. Hence, this theory of the dynamics of psychotherapy constitutes a definitely new system, not merely a new method of psychotherapy.

This article focuses on methods for rapid personality evaluation. More than four years have passed since the army induction boards were established in November, 1940, for the purpose of screening all selectees and eliminating those who were physically or mentally unfit for military service. Earlier in 1940 the War Department had recognized the importance of detecting neuropsychiatric defects and a medical circular was prepared describing the principal neuropsychiatric causes for rejection and amplifying upon the general criteria for acceptance outlined in the mobilization regulations.

This article focuses on directive psychotherapy. In terms of psychotherapy, reassurance means to restore confidence in another by assuring him of certain facts which were previously uncertain or unknown to him. The art of reassurance has been so extensively practiced by physicians, clergymen, teachers, friends and relatives that it hardly deserves designation as a special technique in guidance unless it is so skillfully utilized as to go beyond ordinary common sense. Historically, reassurance is one of the oldest psychotherapeutic methods, since men have attempted to reassure each other since time immemorial.

This article focuses on non-directive psychotherapy. While in the beginning or initial contact the structuring is verbal, the most significant aspect of this process is the subtle experiencing by the client of the counselor's permissiveness and complete acceptance. He experiences too the limits of the situation and of the relationship. As he is able to accept and assimilate these limits, he experiences growth in independence and ability to follow through in his role as a responsible participant in the counseling.

The article discusses authoritarianism in psychotherapy. The results support the hypothesis that the great majority of college students would state a preference for a therapist who is portrayed as a "Critic," and that subjects who depart from this position by favoring therapists described as "Nurturants" "Models" tend to be more authoritarian. The observed relationship between authoritarianism and therapist preference is more pronounced than is the relationship between degree of authoritarianism and attitude toward psychiatry.

This article discusses resistance and difficulties in psychotherapy of mental retardates. In the first place, since psychotherapy is largely based on verbal communication, it has been felt that with limited verbal understanding, especially at the interpretative level, no effective results can be achieved; the mental retardate would not understand what the score is, so that a change in his attitudes and his handling of his impulses could not be carried out. Psychotherapeutic specialties, particularly non-directive counseling and psychoanalysis, have reinforced the notion that the retarded, at least below the dull normal level, is not capable of profiting from techniques of reeducation and character change.

This article focuses on the book "Operational Values in Psychotherapy," by Donald D. Glad. This thoughtful book may well mark the beginning of a new era in the scientific study of psychotherapy since it makes the first systematic attempt to analyse the operations inherent in four major schools of psychiatric thought.

The article presents information on the book "Six Approaches to Psychotherapy," edited by J.L. McCary and D.E. Sheer. The book discusses recent developments in the whole field of psychotherapy and its evaluation.