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The network concept, as applied to the assessment of media effectiveness, provides a rigorous mathematical tool for relating pertinent variables to a goodness criteria, without sacrificing a desired simplicity in the model. Judgmental weighting to input parameters are presented to the model in the form of proportions of an audience that possess, or will possess, attributes consistent with an ideal target audience. These proportions are then associated by means of a network model resulting in an index in the form of a proportion of an input audience, for each media being considered. The selection of a media can then be considered as a determination of the media reaching the largest, ideal target audience, for a fixed dollar budget. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Most of the recent work on meaning (often labeled structural semantics) has been based upon the assumption that there is a semantic structure of English (or any other language) and that this structure is static enough to be described and to serve as a predictive device in language use settings. However, a consideration of certain dynamic or flexible aspects of language --namely context and figurative language use--makes structural interpretations of meaning and communication untenable. Certain theoretical arguments and empirical data suggest that there is no semantic structure per se, but that structures are created and dissolved in particular language and communication situations--i.e., that there is structuring but no ubiquitous structure. Implications for psychology and advertising are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article focuses on the relevance of creativity in advertising. The author notes that creativity plays a major role in the persuasiveness of advertising and is the x factor in advertising communication theory. The author examines how the creative process works, noting that it is a very difficult task to understand. He provides an outline of several steps used by advertising executives for developing creative messages that begins with the gathering of materials and ends with the shaping and development of the idea. Another aspect of effective advertising is effective communication and the author discusses how presenting the audience with something unexpected is one way to achieve this effectiveness.

The paper gives a qualitative treatment of a new approach to the synthesis of sequential control systems. Complex sequential control systems can be assembled from a relatively small number of standard sequence packages. These have useful sequential properties in their own right, but the methods for coupling them together to form larger sequential systems are described by the authors. Additional benefit is gained by using the machine actuators alone as memory devices. This removes any possibility of unintentional disturbance of the state of the memory function in the control system. Three examples are chosen to illustrate the design process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

“Geocoding” includes a broad array of activities associated with systems of referencing data spatially. Urban geocoding has rapidly in response to preparations for and utilizations of the United States 1970 Census of opulation and Housing. Geographic Base Files which represent the street system as a dual network, Street segments and areas, are a powerful tool with which to relate data. Current work is directed at making geocoding available to planners, managers, and scholars, and at exploring applications of geocoding to the land parcel and natural resource inventories and analyses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

National geocoding has lagged far behind urban geocoding. Semantic confusion is endemic to both, but macrolevel geocoding has more diversity and specialization than microlevel geocoding because of the lack of geographic building block units for national geocoding. National systems can be classified by principal application into four categories, but information exchange, even more those of the same class, is not necessarily possible. A converter has been designed to permit association of variously coded data sets based on the country as a common unit, and some standardization and convertibility among systems has been implented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

By the technique of factor analysis, students of communication theory have compiled considerable support for the notion that ethos is a multidimensional concept. Although the exact number and appropriate names for the dimensions may vary depending upon source, situation and audience research clearly indicates that ethos is a complex of attitudes toward a source. Attribution theory seeks to explain how one person evaluates another. Circumstances mediate the informational value of actions as a guide to the actor's attitudes and abilities.

Concepts find expression only through patterns of symbols, thus models provide researchers with handles on reality. But most conflict analysts would insist that a useful model is more than a conceptual framework for organizing physical phenomena, it is also a theoretical formulation for postulating relationships and predicting observable events. And for quantitative purposes, it is also desirable for the model to utilize a closed symbol system which preserves the important relationships among the referents. Such models are termed analytic and are commonplace in the physical sciences. Because the purpose of a model is to simplify complex phenomena, it is inevitable that certain elements of conflict are omitted.

Discusses developments in communication theory and rhetoric which contribute to oral communication studies. Purpose of communication theory; Trends in the scientific study of speech; Description of symbolic or rhetorical behavior.

The article discusses the relationship between entropy, market risk and the selection of efficient portfolios. The mode of justification for the utilization of mean-entropy diversification is questioned along with the more general results of analytical and empirical research undertaken during the last twenty-five years. The issue is taken with a series of statements that were intended to place the new methodology in perspective and provide a generalization of its applicability to a variety of dynamic economic processes. Questions have been raised on five specific points. The first exception is taken on the statement that since entropy is independent of the mean for all types of distributions, it satisfies the first order conditions that have here restricted analysis to the case of normality. The final argument takes exception to the statement the measure of uncertainty or entropy has not been integrated philosophically into the economic disciplines although it has been partially integrated into theories of choice, conflict and general behavior that are typically explored by social scientists.

Six frameworks for information systems are reviewed. Each framework is evaluated on a series of criteria describing its usefulness for academicians and practitioners. The evaluation demonstrates that each of the frameworks is best suited for certain purposes. An example is presented to illustrate the use of two of the frameworks in analysing an actual information systems problem. It is suggested that frameworks serve an important function, in organizing ideas and approaches to problem solving in the emerging information systems field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Analysis of metaphor in the wake of controversy toward a resolution of generative semantics according to classical theory. Dispute between Classical and Generative Semantics theorists; Factors responsible for inadequacy of analysis based on Generative Semantics; Need of sets of rules to explain metaphor; Details of metaphors used in the analysis.

The problem of finding a single defective item from an infinite binomial population is considered when group-testing is possible, i.e., when we can test any number of units x simultaneously and find out in one test if oil x are good or if at least one of the x is defective. An optimal procedure is obtained in the sense that it minimizes the expected number of tests required to find one defective. Upper and lower bounds are derived using information theory and the relation of our procedure to the Huffman algorithm and the corresponding cost is studied. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

n an information-processing chain, only the initial inputs ("environment") and the terminal outputs ("actions") affect directly the benefit to the user who maximizes its expected excess over cost. All intermediate flows ("symbols") affect directly only costs and delays. Delays affect benefit non-additively, through "impatience"and, possibly, "obsolescence." Traditionally, statistical theory disregards delays,and communication theory treats them as costs. A more complete, unifying approach is proposed, and it is asked whether convexity conditions (e.g., "decreasing marginal returns") required for competitive market equilibrium are satisfied. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A lower bound is derived concerning a special form of the entropy function of information theory. It is applied to Hoeffding's bound for the probability of the deviation of the sample mean from its expected value and for the corresponding problem concerning the sample variance. Furthermore, applying the bound one can obtain a discard function for a binary symmetric channel, a lower bound for the total error probability in testing two simple hypotheses, given the number of observations, and a lower bound for the deviation of the empirical distribution from the true distribution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A similarity between artistic and scientific patterning is postulated. Three factors are emphasized to be involved in this similarity: The common material substrate; the "Zeitgeist" as a common motivating influence; and a common expressive tool of art and science, the human brain. Attention is called to the changing quality and extended dimensions (through instruments) of the common material substrate. "Zeitgeist" is considered as a collective abstract term for the spatio-temporal pattern of neuronal activity occurring in the brain of our species. Brain activity is dealt with in terms of contemporary information theory to account for the parallel methodological procedure by which artists and scientists create their patterns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on attitudes and cognitive discrimination. Interest in the "own categories" technique of attitude assessment is continuing to generate a large number of empirical studies on attitude functioning. The contributions of information theory to attitude functioning seem direct and highly meaningful. The connections between cognition and judgment are close, both conceptually and empirically. Conceptually, attitudinal judgment has traditionally been considered in terminology similar to that of judgment, so that information about one of the topics is relevant to the other. Empirically, psychologists have treated both of them in the same ways in their experiments; the data are handled similarly and the empirical connections with other topics are similarly handled. The information theory measurement of data gathered by the own categories method is a powerful and precise measure. It is relatively simple to calculate, creates more information about the behavioral processes involved, and promises to create a methodological linkage between these two major areas of research. Its further usage thus can be encouraged.

The article informs that the psychology of business communication has received increased attention in recent years. Prior to World War II the literature of industrial relations and personnel work made little or no mention of communication, as D.G. Paterson and J.J. Jenkins observed in 1948. Numerous practical difficulties present themselves in the establishment of effective communication. Employees have recognized that communication presents human adjustment problems in industry. But before any satisfactory program can be started, management must be willing to communicate with employees and with their unions. An effective communications program must provide for upward, downward, and horizontal communication. Human relations and communication are inseparable. If communication is not to be dehumanized it must consider not merely the mechanics of communication, such as the medium, the means, and the content, but the person to whom it is directed. Communication works with ideas, and in business communication ideas are principally transmitted orally or in writing through words. On that account semantics looms large as an interest and as a problem area. Words are symbols, which have different meanings for different people. In industry the same words may carry one connotation for management and another for employees.

Summarizes findings of the author regarding FIRO-B, the instrument of communications expert William Schutz and its implications on the theory of fundamental interpersonal relations. Discovery of inconsistencies in the theory at some circumstances; Assessment of efficiency of compatibility algorithms; Estimation of preferences for continued personal contact between individuals.

Examines the application of information theory in speech communication. Application of information theory to the measurement of meaning; Terminology; Relevant aspects of the theory.

Reports on the popular films that may be used to enhance student understanding of communication theory, to stimulate discussion and to serve as the basis for a variety of student assignments. Variety of communication events portrayed by the films; Description of the film 'The Poseidon Adventure' for the study of small group behavior; Aspects of group conflict and commitment to task exemplified by the film.

Focuses on the Information Theory. Details of the process of learning; Limitations of intra-human communication; Application of the Information Theory.

The article analyzes the determining tendencies of similarity and difference in the process of association, thinking, and judgment. In this context, it provides information about some of the experiments. The experiments required several sets of word lists for which reaction times were obtained. Free association times were obtained from 50 subjects on 70 words. Some of the words were: glad, heavy, happy, large, old, pretty, round, same, short, still, strong, sweet, sure, high, young; ask and others. For reaction times of judgments of similarity and difference, 40-paired associates of concrete nouns were used. Reaction times of free association to 70 common words were obtained from 50 college men. The free-association responses were classified into four broad categories, which were as follows: general identification, specific identification, contingent relation and essential contrast or opposition. The fastest time is for direct contrast, then general identification, contingent relation, and specific identification. The results of the experiments were discussed, broadly, in terms of their contribution to the psychology of thinking.

The present study proposes another measure of uncertainty known as entropy or expected information that has been widely used in information theory. It is argued that entropy is more *The Pennsylvania State University, U.S.A. Operations Research, Inc., Leasco Company. The authors are indebted to W. Beranek, J. L. Bicksler, K. Borch, N. Jacobs, and F. Renwick for very constructive comments on earlier drafts of this paper. 1See, for example, LEVY and SARNAT (1970), LEVY and HANOCH (1970), and OSTERGAARD (1971), for surveys on the relative effectiveness of efficiency criteria. 2The basic criticisms about the assumed quadratic utility function have been established in BORCH (1963), PRATT (1964), and ARROW (1965). Similarly the condition that portfolio returns be characterized by a symmetric two-parameter distribution has been analyzed by FELDSTEIN (1968) and HANOCH and LEVY (1969). 3See WHITE (1970) for an excellent review of the measures of collective uncertainty and their limitations. general and better suited for the selection of portfolios than variance. MCGILL (1954) and GARNER and MCGILL (1956), have shown that entropy and analysis of variance are analogous techniques for partitioning variability in metric data. Entropies can be estimated directly from variances when the form of the prior distribution is known. Since entropy can be computed from nonmetric data, entropy analysis is more general.
The construction of mean-entropy efficient portfolios is illustrated by the parallel development of similar portfolios based on the Markowitz full-covariance and the Sharpe single-index algorithms. After a brief review of the rudiments of information theory, a simple illustration of mean-entropy portfolio construction is followed by the comparison of the empirical results from three portfolio selection methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Proposes a computer solution for the discrete maximum entropy problem. Derivation of a method by means of successive approximations ideally suited for computer calculation; Applicability of the Zoutendijk's Method of Feasible Directions; Application of the standard Simplex method to minimize arbitrary linear expression.

The binomial group-testing problem is extended to the case in which the common probability p of a unit being defective is unknown. A Bayes "non-mixing" procedure R[sup (1)] is derived and compared with other procedures, in particular with the corresponding procedure R[sub 1] that requires the knowledge of p and with another procedure based on continually revising the maximum likelihood estimate of ρ; the latter is called an empirical Bayes solution. Finally, a Bayes procedure derived in the Appendix allows "mixing" and this is conjectured to be the unrestricted Bayes solution; the improvements due to "mixing" are shown to be small in Table III. Several applications of the general problem of group-testing are discussed in the introduction and this virtually constitutes a general review of the subject. After the procedure R[sup (1)] is defined a detailed iltustration is given in section 2.1 showing how to carry out this procedure with the use of Tables I and II. Lower bounds for the Bayes risk associated with any group testing procedure for unknown p are given in Table III; one of these bounds, based on information theory, is derived in section 4. The binomial group-testing problem is extended to the case in which the common probability p of a unit being defective is unknown. A Bayes "non-mixing" procedure R[sup (1)] is derived and compared with other procedures, in particular with the corresponding procedure R[sub 1] that requires the knowledge of p and with another procedure based on continually revising the maximum likelihood estimate of ρ; the latter is called an empirical Bayes solution. Finally, a Bayes procedure derived in the Appendix allows "mixing" and this is conjectured to be the unrestricted Bayes solution; the improvements due to "mixing" are shown to be small in Table III. Several applications of the general problem of group-testing are discussed in the introduction and this virtually constitutes a general review of the subject. After the... [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Discusses classical rhetoric. Consideration of experimental study for a revised rhetoric; Analysis of communication theory for exploring rhetoric; Reasons why these two are useful sources of rhetoric.

Examines problems of communication in the disciplines of arts and sciences. Impact of intrapersonal systems of communication on the effectiveness of interpersonal communication; Transactional approach to the theory of communication; Importance of feedback in the process of communication.

In this, paper the authors use information theory to restate R.K. Merton's classification of deviant behavior in mathematical terms. Merton's classification scheme has been very widely used but does not appear to have been "mathematized" to any extent. In consequence the usefulness of the schema is somewhat diminished. For example, it is difficult to measure directly the amount of anomie prevalent in a situation, and it is difficult to decide Whether, one situation is. more anomic than another. The authors illustrate the usefulness of information theory as a descriptive tool by discussing a highly simplified situation; however, the measurement techniques to be developed are applicable to more complex and realistic situations. The authors restrict their attention to the set of all motorists with 9-5 weekday jobs who are at any intersection at 8:00 a.m. seven days a week, and one will consider the following to be an exhaustive list of the goals, norms, and actions of these motorists.

This note is concerned with the measurement of racial integration of schools in a way that permits a simple aggregation of the measure to sets of schools such as school districts. The procedure can be applied to institutions other than schools, but one prefers a more specific terminology. There are several standard procedures for measuring integration, but the dissimilarity index appears to be more popular than any other index. The objective of this note is to show that there are some simple measures derived from information theory which are superior in this respect, and to illustrate their use by means of data on the elementary schools of the Chicago public school system for the years 1963-1969. Write n for the total number of schools in the city and w1 for the number of white students of the ith school, measured as a fraction, of the total number, of students' of that school. Hence 1- wi is the nonwhite proportion of the school's student body.

The article comments on the relationship between entropy, market risk and the selection of efficient portfolios. While considering the factors which, in any risky situation, form a necessary and sufficient basis for choice, one can take one of two views, namely (a) particular decision makers do base their choices on the set specified; (b) particular decision makers should base their choices on the set specified. The attention is clearly directed to (b), but the mode of justification appears to be quite questionable. It has been stated that entropy, like variance in the case of the normal distribution, is independent of the mean and varies directly and linearly with the logarithm of the standard deviation. Since entropy is independent of the mean for all types if distributions, it satisfies the first order conditions that have heretofore restricted analysis to the case of normality. Among the disadvantages for financial theory of measures from information theory one is that the measure of uncertainty or entropy has not been integrated philosophically into the economic disciplines although it has been partially integrated into theories of choice.