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The article focuses on developments relevant to education in Great Britain as of October 1973. Nigel Grant, reader in education at the University of Edinburgh, joined the Editorial Board of "Comparative Education" magazine. The eight session of the Standing Conference of European Ministers of Education was held in June 1973, which focused on "The Educational Needs of the 16-19 Age Group." UNESCO released its latest publication "Present Problems in the Democratization of Secondary and Higher Education." The Schools Council and the Standing Conference on University Entrance published the Working Paper 46, entitled "16-19: Growth and Response, 2. Examination Structure" and Working Paper 47, "Preparation for Degree Courses."

The article reports on issues related to the decision to produce hydrogen weapon and the recently issued Statement on Defense which have sparked a series of parliamentary debates on atomic weapons and their social effects in Great Britain. The Statement on Defense in 1955, which was published as White Paper, has laid out the government's views and policy on nuclear and conventional forces. The said Defense White Paper has brought the differences in the Labour party. A large minority, led by Aneurin Bevan, insists that hydrogen bomb should be used only as a last resource, and objects to the implications in the White Paper. The rest of the party are seen to have split among extreme pacifists. The Conservative party, on the other hand, accept the hydrogen bomb as a deterrent.

The article focuses on crew lists, agreements and official logs of the British empire from 1863 to 1913. As a result of negotiations during the last five years, the Memorial University has now acquired a collection of some 22, 500 boxes of shipping records which were previously stored at Hayes, Middlesex, England, under the custody of the Registrar General of Shipping and Seamen. These records are of two types, the Crew Lists and Agreements submitted by the masters of all merchant ships registered under the British Flag, and the Official Log Books of British Vessels. The Crew Lists, which form by far the greatest part of the collection, are basically the descendants of the ancient Muster Rolles submitted after 1730 by merchant captains. However, as a result of various pieces of legislation passed between 1835 and 1854, the method of recording and maintaining the agreements made between the captain and the crew was modified and improved, above all by the establishment of a registrar to supervise and have custody of the agreements once they had been signed. In 1854 the Merchant Shipping Act greatly improved the system of registering merchant vessels by allotting a distinct official number for every British merchant ship.

The article presents the author's response to the comments made on his paper "A.F. Leach on the Reformation." According to the author, his own approach was that of one interested in sixteenth and seventeenth century schooling who found that Leach's interpretation of events at the Reformation did not tally with the later evidence. This led to a detailed examination of the case argued in English Schools at the Reformation; then, since this case depended directly on a reading of earlier ecclesiastical and educational history, it was necessary to look further back. According to the author, it was the main object of his paper to suggest a reassessment of developments at the Reformation, in the interests of clarifying the course of educational history. According to the author, he suggested that there was a prima facie case for questioning Leach's assessment of the Chantries Act because it is at variance with the general views of medieval historians and with the later evidence, dealing mainly with the latter.

The article presents the author's comparison of the patterns of publicity, privacy, and secrecy between the U.S. and Great Britain. In Great Britain, the equilibrium of publicity, privacy, and secrecy is more stable, and its deviations from the normal state are smaller than they are in the U.S. The British governmental papers which are not published at the time as part of government policy, are opened to scholarly inspection only after a very long lapse of time and even then with restrictions. On the other hand, in the U.S., government documents are made available to historians without long delay.

The article discusses the British view regarding safety issues in nuclear power plants, based from the paper presented to the Norwegian Atomic Energy Society. According to the author, all activities involve some risk of harm to people either through direct participation or indirectly. However, it is hoped that the risks will be minimized and more than compensated for by attendant advantages. Thus, minimum performance requirements for a large range of plant used may be able to reduce accident frequencies to levels below a pre-set target. Moreover, the British Atomic Energy Authority is sponsoring and developing techniques for the better understanding of reactor accidents and their consequences.

The paper draws attention to the profound changes that are taking place in the proportions of the population of Great Britain that are single, married and widowed at various ages. These changes are the net result of a number of demographic, economic and sociological developments, such as the decrease in mortality rates and the changing balance of the sexes. After discussing an abortive attempt to forecast the future progress of the proportions, based on changes that have taken place in the recent past, the paper describes a method of estimating the pro- portions of each sex that are likely to be found in each marital status at the various attained ages in future years if the experience of the years 1950-52 in Great Britain as regards rates of marriage, divorce, widowhood and re-marriage continue indefinitely, subject to minor modifications to ensure that the numbers of marriages, etc., for the two sexes are consistent, and that the total number of married men equals that of married women. The variations in the proportions in each marital status in Great Britain during the past thirty years and those to be expected during the next thirty years, and ultimately, if the experience of the years 1950-52 persists, are set out and analysed. It is shown that, whereas the proportion of men never marrying has up to the present been about half the proportion of women never marrying, the continuance of present trends would result in the proportion of men never marrying becoming double that for women. This notable change is to be attributed, in the main, to the effect of improved vitality in childhood in replacing the excess of women at the younger adult ages by an excess of men. It is pointed out that, in the event, this change may not be fully realised, because a net emigration of men or a net immigration of women may mitigate the relative dearth of potential brides in future; but the proportions never marrying set out in the paper show the directions towards which current conditions are tending. The consequential changes for other marital statuses are also set out and discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on John English who was a member of a family of needle manufacturer in Feckenham village. English was the most remarkable member of a family whose needle-making business survived at Feckenham, a village near Redditch, Worcestershire, for over 170 years. English had personal charge of it for more than half a century until his death on January 31, 1876 at the age of 88. The article is based on the original, unpublished source material in the English Collection at Redditch Public Library and the Gutch Archives, at Worcester Record Office. Together these form a vast collection of personal papers, deeds, business ledgers, correspondence, bills and many other items. Job English founded the business about 1750, at a time when the Needle District of East Worcestershire and West Warwickshire was becoming the most important centre of production in Great Britain for needles and fishhooks. London, England and subsequently Long Crendon in Buckinghamshire had been the important centres of needle making in earlier times.

This article focuses on the new proposed changes in the conditions of awarding the Scottish Leaving Certificate in the filed of education. According to the author, the proposed changes in the conditions of award of the Scottish Leaving Certificate would at once bring it more closely into line with the recommendations of the Advisory Council on Education in Scotland and with the General Certificate of Education in England. The changes, reportedly, involve the issue of a certificate to pupils who leave school around the age of sixteen after completing four years of secondary education, by the institution of papers at a lower level than those taken usually in the fifth year. Scotland, like England, is faced with the problem of early leaving. Recent figures published by the Secretary of State show that 56% of pupils leaving five-year courses of senior secondary education do so before reaching the age of sixteen, without completing even four years of the course. It is proposed to institute advanced level papers designed for pupils who have completed the university requirements in their fifth year, and who remain for a sixth year at school. The effect of the new proposals would, supposedly, be to encourage the extension of Sixth Form work, which has never flowered so freely in Scotland and England.

The article discusses issues concerning the agreement on the cessation of nuclear tests. The cessation of nuclear weapons tests has attracted wide public attention around the world. Negotiations on test cessation between the U.S. and Great Britain has started in autumn of 1959. At the course of the negotiations, it is cited that the representatives of the Western powers systematically procrastinating the negotiations and trying to divert them from the real purpose of the conference. It is believed that the proposals of the U.S. government to stop test explosions on the surface of the ground and in the atmosphere, are meant to avoid agreement on nuclear test cessation.

The article focuses on the changes in the British defense policy that would include nuclear weapons such as hydrogen bomb in its policy. Prime Minister Sir Winston Churchill was the main proponents of the changes of the policy. Churchill has expressed his concern about the dominance of Soviet Union and its communist satellites in the nuclear warfare. He has suggested a universal agreement of disarmament of nuclear weapons as a solution to the problem. The agreement on cessation of nuclear bomb test would decrease the threat from radioactive contamination.

The article focuses on an aspect of confederate finance during the American Civil War. The attitudes of France and Great Britain toward the American Civil War were important to both the South and the North; and these attitudes also had a bearing on any European financial operations involving the disunited states. At the beginning of the war, the ruling classes of both France and Great Britain were in sympathy with the Confederacy. Because of his colonial plans in the western hemisphere, French President Louis Napoleon was in favour of intervening on the side of the South, but he could not do so without the concurrence of Great Britain with whom France was joined in an entente. Great Britain was unwilling to undertake such an overt action, partly because a large segment of English liberals and English working men saw the Civil War as a struggle of free versus slave labour and hence supported the North even though southern cotton was wanted for English mills. Although France and Great Britain both issued proclamations of neutrality, thus according to the South, the status of a belligerent nation rather than an internal territory in rebellion, neither they nor any European nation ultimately took the further step of granting diplomatic recognition to the Confederacy.

In a previous paper [12], an attempt was made to show how spectral techniques could be used to compare the effects of two seasonal adjustment procedures on the series to which they were applied. The two procedures compared were: (a) the technique currently used by the Bureau of Labor Statistics for seasonally adjusting employment, unemployment, and labor force monthly statistics, and (b) the so-called "residual" method, proposed by Brittain [2], Samuelson [16], and others. Spectra of the original and the seasonally adjusted series and the cross spectrum of the two were used to aid in the assessment of whether either procedure removed more than could be considered seasonal, introduced spurious regularities, and/or distorted temporal relationships. It was concluded that both techniques removed more than seasonal effects from, and produced some temporal distortion in, the series to which they were applied. Neither method appeared to be superior to the other. It is the purpose of this paper to carry the previous analysis one step further and to compare the BLS procedure with a modified version of the regression method of seasonal adjustment suggested by Cowden [3] and Mendershausen [11], and recently revived by Harman [9, 10] in an exceptionally sophisticated form. In addition to Hannan's work along the lines suggested, Nettheim [13] and Rosenblatt [15] have made studies. Rosenblatt [15] has carried out analyses similar to those reported here. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article provides on the planning of the Education Bill of 1902 in Great Britain. The three people who were mainly responsible for planning the Bill, during the eight months before it was introduced to Parliament in March, 1902, were Sir John Gorst, A.J. Balfour and Sir Robert Morant. One of Gorst's main objects had been to help the voluntary schools and he did bring them some assistance by the Voluntary Schools Act, 1897. In December 1900, however, the way for a real revolution in education seemed to be open. The so-called Cockerton Judgment of that month showed that there was no legal foundation for some of the higher education given by the great school boards. Morant might not check the evidence for his prejudices; but he did not make the mistake of making positive proposals without carefully ascertaining the facts which supported them. By March 1901, one finds him drawing Gorst's attention to the implications of the figures for secondary education. The immediate problem was still whether the Bill was to be for secondary education only, or for both secondary and elementary. Moreover, argued Morant, the varying nature of the different types of institutions for secondary education suggested a complex pattern of organization.

This article briefly reports on some research papers and other resources revealing the history of scientific education in Great Britain. The contribution of studies in the history of science teaching towards contemporary problems in science education, reportedly, is suggested by professor H. Butterfield in his book "Man on His Past." According to the author, one of the most useful single study is Dorothy M. Turner's article "History of Science Teaching in England" which in the early part considers the beginnings of science instruction from the thirteenth century. Scientific societies have played their most notable and influential part in the spread of scientific knowledge during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The importance of all scientific societies from the learned bodies to the multiplicity of provincial and parochial associations in relation to the progress of science was emphasized in the "Annual Report of the British Association, 1879." Several studies reveal that the history of universities and in particular the impact of the scientific revolution and the subsequent development of science courses have been fully explored. The decline in effectiveness of the institutes and the middle class invasion resulted from deficiencies in both primary and secondary education.

This article presents some evidence and sources revealing the history of educational periodicals in England. Many educational periodicals in Great Britain were short lived and limited in circulation. The recent publication of the first three volumes of the book "British Union-Catalogue of Periodicals" has, reportedly, made it possible to trace the whereabouts of any periodical in a British library. The value of educational periodicals to the historian of education lies largely in their correcting of any over-simplified views of the growth of the educational system or the development of educational practices. The earliest educational periodicals to appear, in the first forty years of the nineteenth century, were edited by clergymen and contained articles on religious, scientific and literary topics, book reviews and sermons as well as model lessons. They were directed at both the teachers and their employers. The most influential of these periodicals were: "The Educational Magazine" and "The English Journal of Education." The British and Foreign School Society published "Quarterly Extracts From the Correspondence" during 1825-45 and "The Educational Record" during 1848-1929. The next group of periodicals were general teachers' magazines.

Death rate variations for the United Kingdom and the United States are spatially compared by means of maps. The data mapped include death rates from all causes, and infant mortality. In the United Kingdom, the association between high death rates and areas of industrialization, exploitation, and dense population is very marked. Such an association is somewhat less definite in the United States where the high rates associate more easily with areas of poor socio-economic circumstances such as Indian reservations, Spanish-American districts, and most particularly, the high-proportion Negro areas of the South. In both countries, however, longevity in rural areas and in urban places of limited industry is likely to be greater than in areas not having these attributes. The quality, of biostatistics in the United Kingdom has been superior to the United States. The recently launched National Health Survey, however, promises to greatly improve the biostatistic position of the United States. The special contribution of medical geography is the mapping technique and the interpretations which potentially it allows. At the national scale the sensitivity limits of such an approach must be recognized and there can be no simple explanation of apparent mortality patterns. Such maps as these are designed to focus on areas where detailed studies may be of benefit in substantiating cause-and-effect relationships. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Criticisms of the author's previous work on the estimation of illegal abortions in Britain before the 1967 Abortion Act, contained in a paper by Dr. W. H. James (Population Studies, 25, 2, 327, July 1971), under the four headings of maternal mortality, hospital in-patient statistics, N.O.P. Sample survey in 1966, and the Aberdeen data, are examined in detail and for the most part rejected. A comparison of legitimate and illegitimate birth rates before and after 1968, together with what is known of the incidence of legal abortion, strengthens the conclusion that estimates of 60,000-100,000 or more criminal abortions in Britain each year before 1967, as favoured by Dr. James and many other commentators, mast be grossly exaggerated, and that the true rate could not have exceeded 20,000 and was probably nearer 15,000 a year. The demographic and medical implications of this are briefly discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years several writers have drawn attention to the dangers of relying upon "calendar year" reproduction rates, such as the conventional net reproduction rate, as indicators of future population prospects. The synthesis considered in the present paper is of the births to generations of women, and is thus free from these objections. In brief the defence of an analysis limited to females in England and Wales today is based on the shrinking proportions of females to males at the younger ages in the unmarried population and one may suppose, the decreasing dependence of the proportions of women marrying on the availability of potential husbands. In the simplest case, the definition was in terms of mortality and fertility rates, progressing to mortality, marriage and legitimate and illegitimate fertility rates and, if the pendulum had not swung away from this approach, no doubt further complexity would have been added introducing considerations of widowhood, divorce and re-marriage and distinguishing duration of marriage as an additional factor in fertility rates.

This paper describes the results obtained in administering a modified Terman intelligence test to 327 Greek children aged from 7 to 12 years. A negative correlation between intelligence and family size was obtained. The results are compared with those obtained in similar inquiries in Britain and the U.S.A. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present paper on social class differences in mortality and morbidity during the first two years of life is based on the results of a survey on the health and development of a sample of children drawn from all parts of Great Britain and from all social classes. The 1946 survey provided a unique opportunity to keep the health and development of a national sample of children under review. In 1948, therefore, the Joint Committee, with the addition of representatives from the Institute of Child Health, made a further study of the babies enrolled in the 1946 survey. The completion of the 1948 survey was made easier by the fact that illegitimate children were excluded from the survey as also were twins. It would have been difficult, and embarrassing to trace unmarried mothers, many of whom had been confined away from home, sometimes without the knowledge of their relatives. Twins were excluded because it was felt that the small number in the sample would yield little useful information, but greatly complicate the analysis.

This article focuses on the need for establishing voluntary responsible bodies for adult education in Great Britain. Several recent articles and research papers have advised that consideration should be given to the question whether voluntary organizations should continue to be allowed to exercise the powers of Responsible Bodies under the Further Education Grant Regulations of the Ministry of Education. The term "Responsible Body" came into general use in relation to adult education after the publication of the "Adult Education Regulations of the Board of Education" in 1924. Those Regulations governed the payment of grants to bodies, not being Local Education Authorities, in aid of the liberal education of adults. They prescribed that each course must be under the control and direction of a Responsible Body, which will be held responsible by the British Board of Education for the efficiency of the instruction given in the course and for the observance of the regulations applicable to it. Responsible Bodies might, suggestively, be of two types: first, universities and university colleges for courses under Chapter 2 of the Regulations, which related to Preparatory, Three-Year, and Advanced Tutorial Classes, Tutorial Class Vacation Courses and University Extension Courses; and second, "Approved Associations" for courses under Chapter 3, which dealt with Terminal and One Year Courses, and Vacation Courses for selected students organized in connection with such classes.

Melrose Ltd., Tea and Coffee Merchants, are one of the oldest Scottish firms in the trade. How the firm was first founded by Andrew Melrose is a story that goes back to the early nineteenth century. Studies of specific industries have described the period as one full of entrepreneurial innovation, but the changes occurring within the distributive trade have received little systematic study for the period before 1850. This paper aims to describe Melrose's business as a specific example of the entrepreneurial skill which characterized a small group of tea dealers in Great Britain, who managed, in less than twenty years after "Waterloo," to break up the quasi-monopoly of the old-established London wholesale dealers. In the 1833 parliamentary investigation of commerce and manufacturing, witnesses for the wholesale and retail trade agreed that during the previous ten or twenty years trade had improved as a result of better business methods. Melrose's surviving records show that he was well able to keep track of his multifarious activities and to assess his financial position. The accounts are clear and, in some ways, give a far more vivid picture of his business, than is possible under modem accounting methods.

Discusses French trade history during the American war for independence, 1776-1783, in light of the Boulton and Watt papers in Great Britain. The hazards challenging 18th century merchants trading overseas; Entry of the 'Steam Engine Parliament' into the shipping business; The business of Bouton and Wattt, selling steam pumping engines to Cornish mine proprietors, in collaboration with John Wilkinson, the chief supplier of heavy castings, operating at Bersham iron works; The issue of Wilkinson supplying canons to France; The problem of shipping equipment to French industrialists during war-time controls; Watt's contact in government, William the second earl of Dartmouth; Vessels used to transport engines; Influence of brothers Jacques Constantin Perier and Augustin Charles Perier.

The article provides information related to international defense and strategy. A written agreement on missile bases was signed by the U.S. and Great Britain in Washington on February 22, 1958. The British government has issued an annual White Paper on Defense on February 13, 1958, which states that Great Britain would use nuclear weapons if any attack occurs in the country. John A. Wheeler, professor of physics, urged the Advanced Projects of the Defense Department to form a national defense research center which would pool the best talent working on the service's missile programs, nuclear weapons, and electronic programs.

It is one of the ironies of history that while businessman William Wood's attempt to mint £100, 000 worth of copper halfpence is the best known project of the eighteenth century, his attempt to revolutionize the British iron industry through the erection of the first £1000,000 industrial corporation remains practically unknown. The notoriety of the coinage project is due, of course, to the genius of Jonathan Swift, but there is still no justification for the obscurity into which Wood's iron schemes have fallen. At the time they occupied the pamphleteers, filled the public press and wasted the time of the very highest branches of the administration. The principal law officers of the Crown spent six months on hearings and a report, the Privy Council itself suffered appeals and discussed the matter at no less than sixteen meetings over two years; and distinguished committees sat through several public trials. The background to the last and greatest of Wood's projects is a story of extravagant ambition and financial disaster. The failure of the Irish coinage scheme is well known, but the extent of Wood's losses and liabilities is not, and nothing has previously been known of the collapse of his earlier iron partnership.

\This article presents a study, which is part of a series of projects at the London School of Economics, London, England, exploring aspects of organizational change. A particular concern has been to understand the ways by which innovation is introduced and carried through in highly bureaucratic organizations, where it could be hypothesized that resistance to change is likely to be very important. For this reason, a study has been developed of a number of building maintenance organizations whose function is to maintain the structures and services of public housing estates in Great Britain. This study has dealt with the problems and organization of estates for Local Authority tenants and for members of the families of the Armed Services. The research leads the article author to the conclusion that many of the methods of data collection should be refined and modified if the data are to be really useful. In particular structured questionnaires are of little value in catching the meanings behind many of the actions of tenants, operatives, and foremen--what seems necessary is to develop semi-structured tape-recorded interviews combined with observation.

The article focuses on the impact of the 1870 Education Act in Great Britain on trade unionists and artisans. The advanced sections of the working class--the trade unionists and skilled artisans and their representatives--took a deep interest in education and played an active part in both the campaigns and the debates that accompanied the passing of Forster's Bill. In addition to purely economic issues, the trade unionists of the period interested themselves in a range of social questions, including the extension of the franchise (achieved by the great majority of the urban workers in 1867), legal security and a recognized position for trade unionism and an extended and improved system of popular education. This desire for improved instruction reflected the low level of education among the working class as a whole. According to Thomas Wright, who had extensive experience of workshop life, the educated working man was in a small minority in any place of work. Looked up to as a "scholard" by his fellow workers, he was constantly in demand to read or write letters, settle disputes, draw up petitions or addresses and act as spokesman in putting forward demands or grievances to the employer.

The article presents information on some published sources for the study of contemporary British further education. It is first necessary to define the term British further education. British means concerning Great Britain, that is England, Wales and Scotland, but not Northern Ireland, the Isle of Man nor the Channel Islands. In one sense further education could mean any education undergone by someone who had left school, or was over a certain age, or both; but such a broad usage would cover activities conducted in a heterogeneous lot of establishments or in none at all. Because of this it is more useful to limit the term to a specifically-defined part of the statutory education system. In this article British further education is therefore defined as the education intended primarily for persons who have left school, through provision secured either by the British Minister of Education, by the Secretary of State for Education and Science acting in the capacity of the former Minister of Education, by the Secretary of State for Scotland or by local education authorities in accordance with appropriate Schemes or Plans approved by one of these ministers. Besides, the word sources is used loosely here; it means mainly government publications, reports of committees and conferences, and studies by individuals in published form.

This article discusses the problems in the use of educationist A.F. Leach's work by educationists and historians. General historians of the Middle Ages have not used Leach's work, but writers of educational history and of innumerable histories of individual schools' have. This poses the dilemma which faces the student of the history of mediaeval schools. If he wants information he must go to Leach's work, yet there is this doubt about Leach's reliability. Its the author's contention that the reason for this doubt is a mistaken interpretation of the review of "The Schools of Medieval England" by A.G. Little in "The English Historical Review." Scholar Joan Simon's criticism of the author's contention throws some light on this dilemma. She asserts that all subsequent critics have referred to the review. But there have not been any subsequent critics. She considers that the author has been unjust to these critics, and that every historian who has not used Leach's work has conducted some sort of independent inquiry into it but kept silent. Yet she says that criticisms were never followed up.

This article explores the origin of the general certificate of education in Great Britain. It is just over a hundred years since the University of Oxford held its first examination "for candidates who are not members of the University." Thus was born the system of University Local Examinations destined to grow into the General Certificate of Education. The initiation and success of the scheme is primarily dedicated to the works of educators Frederick Temple and Thomas Acland. Temple had started his professional career in the Examinations Section of the Education Department. He stressed the necessity of considering how to organize the education of the middle class. Acland, landowner and gentleman farmer, was also at this time being brought face to face with the problem of the improvement of the education of the middle class. As early as 1838 he had written a pamphlet entitled "National Education: The Present State of the Question Elucidated." Acland had strongly supported the claims of the National Society for the education of the poor under a religious rather than a secular aegis. The first idea that suggested itself to Acland for the conduct of the proposed examination was the establishment of self-constituted county boards.

This article focuses on the sources for the history of the British grammar schools. The most famous of all the girls' grammar schools of charity school origin are Red Maids' School, Bristol; Burlington School, Westminster; and the Grey Coat Hospital, Westminster. Usually a girls' grammar school incorporating or connected with an ancient foundation falls into one of two classes: it may be based on a charity school, or it was established in Victorian times, with a scheme under the Endowed School Act, for allotting it a cash endowment of its own. Parish records--even more varied in their content than are those of the counties--often throw light on the history of an ancient school. At the least, if a schoolmaster dwelt in the parish, the parish register should give the dates of birth of his children, and the date of his burial. Similarly a schoolmaster often served a parish office, and he may be found in the vestry minutes. Even before 1870 voluntary "higher grade" or "middle class" schools had developed among British and National School foundations. Of the rival institutions set up by the Boards, a very great number appear to this day in the list of recognized and grant-aided grammar schools. The movement for establishing them seems to have begun in Manchester.

This paper examines the Family Allowances Scheme in Great Britain. The Family Allowances Scheme covers all families with more than one child and is the only current source of statistics giving the dates of birth of each child in the family. The main deficiencies of the statistics from the point of view of demographic analysis are the exclusion from the family of children who have left school or apprenticeship or who are over age 18, and the absence of any particulars about the parents. Comparison of the dates available with the total numbers of children in the population throws some light on recent changes in family composition in Great Britain.

The first nationally representative study of attitudes to contraception and of birth control practices has been undertaken by the Population Investigation Committee in collaboration with Social Surveys Ltd. in Great Britain. This article presents some of the results obtained from interviews with about 2,350 men and women married since the first World War. Almost all of these people are prepared to talk freely about contraception, though some are initially reluctant to admit the use of non-appliance methods, and a few may have successfully concealed their practices altogether.

The article discusses a study on fertility of teachers in England and Wales, Great Britain. A sample of teachers differs from a population sample as it may be reduced not only by death but also by other factors which may have a direct bearing on fertility, such as health or change of occupation. In order to compare the fertility of teachers with other occupational groups, the Family Census material was used. The two samples are not entirely identical. The Family Census included divorced and widowed women provided they were divorced or widowed after their 45th birthday. The analysis which follows the pattern set by the Family census' of 1946 describes fertility in terms of numbers of live-born children per married male teacher by marriage cohort and duration of marriage. The data were collected partly by postal questionnaire and partly by personal interview. The postal and interview data were compared and showed no significant difference with respect to the factors under discussion in the present study and only minor differences for other factors.

In their pioneer work "Social Mobility in Britain" the authors describe as one of their main objects "an assessment of the amount and direction of social mobility in Great Britain since the end of the nineteenth century." The authors define three points on the scale of intensity of association: "Complete association," which occurs when all sons have the same social status as their fathers; "perfect association," existing when all sons, whatever the status of their parents, have equal chance of reaching a given status category; and "complete dissociation," which occurs when all sons have a status different from their fathers. Neither perfect nor complete association are likely to occur in practice. Consequently, the authors of the symposium propose to assess and interpret social mobility with the aid of the three indices and the tests of significance based upon them. The conclusions reached in the symposium may be correct. They are, however, given no support by the heavy statistical framework, unless the authors choose to define association in terms of the index.

The article presents information on the studies in the recent marriage and fertility data of England and Wales. The article attempts to set forth the relevant particulars somewhat differently and, in illustrating the recent demographic history of England and Wales, to show ways in which this may with advantage be exhibited and to suggest methods for possible use in more advanced researches among marriage and fertility data. In January 1950 the inaugural meeting was held of a demographic Study Group formed by the Institute of Actuaries Students' Society. Many of the ideas in the article are based on the fruitful suggestions that were made at that time by members of the actuarial profession as to the objects to which attention should be devoted. Legitimate fertility data have been sub-divided according to such factors as age of parent, duration of marriage and size of family, but in spite of diligent search it has not been possible to find significant characteristics according to which the experience has been consistent year by year since 1938 within the limits of random variation.

The mail service between the West Indies and Great Britain had, since 1842, been maintained by the Royal Mail Steam Packet Co. under successive contracts with Her Majesty's Government. The existing agreement, due to expire in June 1905, embraced a fortnightly trunk time to Barbados, Trinidad and Jamaica and branches to the remaining British colonies in the West Indies. The service had recently proved unremunerative. Royal Mail enjoyed a small surplus in 1896 and 1897 but by 1903 the annual loss was over 75,000 pounds. In March 1905, as a result of twice calling for tenders, the government provisionally awarded the forthcoming West Indian mail contract to Elder Dempster. Royal Mail's tenders had proved unacceptable in terms of cost and through a disinclination to agree to certain restrictive conditions. Elder Dempster on the other hand, submitted offers some 3,000 pounds lower, conforming exactly to the government's requirements. The government now awaited the approval of a preponderance of the West Indian colonies before ratifying the contract with Elder Dempster. The alternative was no contract.

Several attempts have now been made to chart and explain the retardation in British growth rates in the latter part of the nineteenth century. Statistics relating to the growth of national income, exports and industrial productivity all show a distinct tendency to decelerate in the period from 1875-1914. The growth rates in Great Britain compare unfavourably with those registered abroad especially in the United States and Germany. Perhaps the most alarming feature was the lag in British manufacturing productivity; the rate of growth of output per worker fell continuously throughout this period. The reaction of British businessmen, to the less favourable market conditions was an unhappy one and merely served to accentuate their difficulties in the long run. They failed to recognize the significance of the challenge to their monopoly and instead of making adjustments along the technical front, they searched for the easiest escape routes in the insured markets of imperialism, in tariffs, restrictive practices, employers associations and wage cost reductions.

The present study attempts to analyze the broad features of commercial letterpress printing between 1850 and 1914, paying particular attention to last forty years or so of the period. The business records used in this analysis are those of firms that were originally located in London, but this in no way inhibits a general account for Great Britain. The under-developed state of the industry was certainly not due to an inability to devise new techniques. But despite these major advances the industry changed very little before 1860, because these new machines could be economically employed only by those having a reasonably assured demand, and the organization of the market meant that this condition applied to only a small number. Moreover, the introduction of new techniques demanded the re-organization of production, and the enterprise necessary for this naturally took some time to develop. The pattern set by large printers was followed on a more modest scale by the growing number of printers serving specialized branches of the market, especially in the jobbing section. Equipment was purchased when capital was available, rather than in accordance with a detailed plan of investment. The introduction of more convenient forms of power equipment accelerated the expansion of medium-size firms, and the gap between this group and large firms was narrowed. However, this trend was reversed when mechanical composing became available, as the bulk of installations were in large firms.

Presents the economic background on the first successful use of coke in iron smelting in eighteenth century Britain. Significance of water communications and markets in understanding the iron trade; Coke production in the Midland region; Overview of the iron industry; Trade patterns; Processes; Iron consumers; Role of water power; Transport costs; Economic significance of Abraham Darby's discovery at Coalbrookdale.

Focuses on Wilkins & Co., a private bank of South Wales during 1778-1890. History of banking functions and the types of banks that developed in Great Britain; Formation of the 'Old Bank' by four partners, including brothers Walter and Jeffreys Wilkins; The later membership of Wilkins & Co.; Financing of Wilkins & Co. through the Bank of England; The competition between country banks, which had districts in which their own notes were more acceptable; Disparity between the amount of notes issued by the Old Bank and the size of Wilkins' reserves and deposits; Caution used by Wilkins' in issuing their notes in South Wales; Industries financed by Wilkins and Brecon Bank; Firms and ships given long-term loans; Relations between the Brecon Old Bank and the Bank of England branch at Swansea, according to John Parry Wilkins.

Presents an article for business people to persuade them to consult economic historians. The problems in writing any company's history, including placing the story in the economic context of the industry; The advantages of hiring an economic historian; Factors contributing to interest in business history in America; The influence of George Unwin in Great Britain; The purpose of the Council for the Preservation of Business Archives society in Britain.

The article presents the summary of the provisional plan of producing a substantial proportion of electricity needs through nuclear power by 1965 in Great Britain. This plan is set to produce twelve power reactors in the next ten years, and provides an indication of likely developments in the following ten years. The Calder Hall is the first attempt in the country to produce electric power from nuclear energy, and further development are projected to use the main nuclear fuel and reduce the capital cost per kilowatt-hour. Details about the probable cost of nuclear power, the provisional program, the capital cost, the long-term and international aspects, and the place of program in government's fuel policy are discussed.

The article reports on the implications of the advent of the Atomic Age on the policies and programs undertaken by the government in Great Britain. The discovery and development of nuclear energy has, in some measure, been influenced by the atomic technology. After the Second World War, Britain has established a sizeable organization concerned with atomic energy. The motive for starting this organization was to develop the experience necessary to exploit the applications of atomic energy. Government support for nuclear physics was deliberate policy. The provision of better financial support was by no means all that was necessary to build up nuclear physics research.

The article reports on the effort of the government to manage science and technology in Great Britain. These efforts were initiated in the context of the government's determination to enter the Common Market. According to experts, the development of institutional structures intended to organize science and technology for more purposeful application to national production assumes added importance. However, plausible obstacles to these objectives exist in industries, social values of a class-conscious society, and in the vast problems of manipulating an increasingly large government bureaucracy.

The article discusses the comparison of government organization of science in the U.S. and Great Britain. The science policy in Great Britain originated from the concept of general research organization and as an addition to any research organization existing in the government, while the U.S. government organization of science was later organized with emphasis on military purposes. The differing organizational patterns between the two countries lie on the level at which the highest policymaking committees operate and how their respective leaders react to the matters. Moreover, both countries are distinct in the way in which science policies are scrutinized in their respective legislative bodies.

The article focuses on the introduction of the civil supersonic transportation (SST) in Great Britain. The SST manufacturers have declared that the aircraft is safe because the aircraft designer created a great deal over minimizing foreseeable risks. The aircraft will operate at exceptional altitudes where pilots can no longer rely on eyesight to avoid hail and rain or other aircraft. The aircraft will normally have to follow preplanned along whole route. However, the decision whether the SST should fly is unbearable. suggested the SST should be prohibited from flying outside the SST-manufacturing countries because of the populated areas and there are also limits to the boom disturbances that can be accepted by ships.

The article discusses the development of atomic energy and its possible uses in the U.S. and Great Britain. According to the author, the blast of atomic explosions during the testing of new types of nuclear weapons has been questioned by those people who proposed on placing atomic energy at the service of the progress of human society. Meanwhile, scientists working on the military aspects of nuclear energy concentrate on its peaceful application to have a rational solution to the problem of waste. The author notes that the success achieved by science and engineering are the result of the joint efforts made by scientists from many countries.

The article talks about the issues that has been discussed in the "Non-Nuclear Club" debate in Great Britain. This "Non-Nuclear Club" debate was a labor government which has promoted the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. The club, which was proposed by the Labour Party leaders, has been conditional upon all nations agreeing to be apart from the U.S. and Russia, and this was a precondition to any renunciation by the country. The country had contracted out of nuclear weapons for purely military reasons, without even having made a virtue of necessity or acquired the political advantages of leading the uncommitted nations into the Non-Nuclear Club.