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A grain bait treated with an anticoagulant rodenticide (Prolin) and attached by an edible glue to the inside of water repellent paper tubes was tested for the control of meadow mice (Microtus pennsylvanicus) at Sturgeon Bay, Wisconsin, during fall, winter, and spring, 1964-65. In the laboratory, seven of eight mice that could choose other food ate an average of 9.7 g of Prolin-treated bait in 10 days and survived from 4-10 days. Eight mice given no choice ate an average of 8.2 g of bait and survived from 3-7 days. When eight mice were placed in baited caged areas around apple trees all activity ceased in 5 days. In orchard plot tests all trees escaped mouse damage in an area baited for 2 months. In an area baited 18 days, 11 percent of trees were damaged, compared to 39 percent in the unbaited control area. This study was conducted to determine the feasibility and effectiveness of using 5x 1?-inch water repellent paper tubes with an inner lining of bait treated with the anticoagulant rodenticide Prolin (0.05 percent warfarin and 0.05 percent sulfaquinoxaline) to control meadow mice in Wisconsin apple orchards. Wisconsin orchardists estimate they lose an average of 2 percent of their trees to meadow mouse injury each year. In some years entire new plantings of young apple trees are girdled by meadow mice during the winter. Grain or cut apple baits with zinc phosphide and strychnine, or endrin ground sprays have been used in recent years to combat meadow mice. According to the literature, these methods have shown varying degrees of success, but with questionable safety to wildlife populations (Garl ugh and Spencer 1944, Eadie 1950, Horsfall 1951:13, Spencer 1959:25, Mohr 1959, Fitzwater 1961, Wolfe and Durham 1963). This content downloaded from 157.55.39.243 on Thu, 06 Oct 2016 04:44:32 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms RODENTICIDE FOR MEADOW MICE Libby and Abrams 513 Although the anticoagulants have been effective and have achieved a commendable record of safety in commensal rat and mouse control, they have not been used to control meadow mice outdoors. Because a single feeding of anticoagulant rodenticides is rarely lethal to mice, the use of such baits outdoors would require that the bait be applied repeatedly or that protected bait stations be set up and maintained to keep the bait fresh and palatable throughout the baiting period. To establish and service such stations has been considered impracticable in commercial orchards. The development of a water repellent paper tube provides a disposable "bait station" that makes it feasible to use anticoagulant baits in the field. The writers wish to acknowledge the helpful comments and suggestions made during this study by Donald A. Spencer, Chief Staff Officer, Animal Biology, Pesticides Regulation Division, USDA; Walter Dykstra, Research Staff Specialist, U. S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife; William Gusey, Pesticides Regulation Division, USDA, and thank R. S. Ellarson, Department of Wildlife Management, University of Wisconsin, for reviewing the manuscript. LABORATORY FEEDING TESTS Sixteen meadow mice trapped at the Gordon Orchard, Sturgeon Bay, Wisconsin, were received at the laboratories of the Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation, Madison, on November 11, 1964. These mice were then individually housed in cages and fed whole kernel yellow corn, apples, and alfalfa hay. On November 23, eight mice were continued on this diet plus a Prolin tube on a free choice basis. The other eight mice received the Prolin tube only. The results of the laboratory feeding studies are presented in Table 1. Fig. 1. Caged tree at the University of Wisconsin Experiment Station, Sturgeon Bay.

N April 1, 1948, an adult female Batrachoseps (=Plethopsis) wrighti, heavily laden with eggs, was obtained at the type locality, 8.7 miles southeast of Sandy, Clackamas County, Oregon. Since the eggs of this salamander were unknown, she was brought into the laboratory in the hope that oviposition could be observed. She was placed in a gallon glass container with a metal screw lid. A single paper towel, wetted with distilled water, was put into the bottom of the jar. The container with the salamander was kept in a dark room where the temperature was maintained continuously at approximately 12? C. Thermal data on field animals suggested that this temperature might be commonly experienced under natural conditions. After nearly one month in captivity, the salamander still retained her eggs. Dispairing of obtaining them without stimulation, I employed the pituitary implantation technique described by Noble and Richards (1930) and thereby oviposition was initiated. Implantation was done as follows. On May 25, 1948, at 3:40 P.M., I implanted a single whole pituitary gland freshly removed from an adult male Hyla regilla. The salamander was anesthetized in chlorotone (1 part saturated solution to 3 parts water), whereupon a small incision was made in the skin of the gular area. The Hyla pituitary was removed with forceps and was transferred directly to the site of the incision. A dissecting needle was used to force the gland into place beneath the the skin. By the time the salamander recovered from the chlorotone, several hours later, coagulation of blood and lymph at the site of the operation prevented displacement of the implant. About 42 hours later, a second Hyla pituitary was implanted. On June 1, 1948, at 9:00 A.M. the first egg was laid. Laying was completed June 2 at around 9:00 P.M., approximately 36 hours after the beginning of oviposition. Eleven eggs were deposited. Their chronology was as follows: June 1-3 eggs laid at approximately 21/2 hour intervals, around 9:00 A.M., 11:30 A.M., and 2:00 P.M.; June 2-8:40 A.M., 7 eggs present with the 8th emerging; 1:30 P.M., 9th egg emerging; 7:15 P.M., 10 eggs; 9:00 P.M., 11 eggs. The brief description of the eggs (Stebbins and Lowe, 1949), may now be supplemented [see Fig. 1, (1)]. The most striking characteristic of the eggs is their size. After some hours on the wet paper towel of the container, the jelly layers had swelled enormously, measuring, to their outer surfaces, 9 to 10 mm. The female salamander, only about 5 mm. in greatest width, seemed incredibly small to have deposited such large eggs (see Fig. 2, A). When laid, the jelly layers were thin and the vitellus was elastic, permitting its passage, with some temporary distortion, through the cloacal aperture. The vitellus, or egg proper, was unpigmented, between Cream Color and Pale Ochraceous-Buff.1 It rotated with the animal pole uppermost when the egg

designated a control animal and the feces of these animals were examined frequently for helminth ova. They were consistently found to be free of ova except for a few Strongyloides sp. Twenty-seven to 30 days following the administration of the larvae, feces were collected from all of the lambs. The feces of each of the control lambs was crushed by hand, mixed with charcoal and placed, several millimeters thick, on two thicknesses of moistened filter paper in Petri dishes. The feces from each of the infected lambs were crushed and placed in saturated sodium chloride solution in large centrifuge tubes. With the aid of centrifugation the eggs were separated from the fecal material and were gathered from the surface of the solution. The eggs were then washed once with 0.9 percent sodium chloride solution and three times with tap water. Aliquots of the resulting samples were removed and the number of eggs counted. Approximately 8,000 fertilized eggs were placed on each control lamb's feces in the Petri dishes. The scheme for culturing was as follows

Whole and dressed body weights were obtained from 1,009 white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) from Crab Orchard National Wildlife Refuge, Williamson County, Illinois. Chest girths, hindfoot lengths, lower mandible lengths, and antler dimensions were taken from somewhat smaller samples. The data were analyzed by sex and age, and relationships with body weight were established. Males generally were larger than like-aged females with respect to all measurements. Both sexes reached near-maximum size at 4.5 years of age but females matured earlier than males, especially with regard to body weight. Indices of condition (body weight and antler size) indicated that the previously unharvested Crab Orchard herd compared favorably with nearby hunted populations with the possible exception of yearling males. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 39(1):48-58 This paper describes certain morphological features of a large sample of whitetailed deer from a previously unharvested herd. Body weights, chest girths, hindfoot lengths, lower mandible lengths, and antler measurements are analyzed by sex and age classes and growth patterns are discussed. Body weights and antler measurements are used to compare general condition of the herd with that of deer in nearby hunted range. The sample was obtained during a controlled harvest to reduce herd size on Crab Orchard National Wildlife Refuge (CONWR), Williamson County, Illinois (Roseberry et al. 1969). All deer were taken from a 7,285-ha (18,000-acre) portion of the Refuge that normally is closed to hunting. The herd was first established in 1942 and has been under intensive study since 1960 by the Cooperative Wildlife Research Laboratory (CWRL) of Southern Illinois University at Carbondale. The habitat, which is considered ideal for deer (Hawkins et al. 1971), has been described previously (Autry 1967, Hawkins and Klimstra 1970). Population density prior to the January 1966 special harvest was estimated to be 1 deer/3.2 ha (1 deer/8 acres) (Autry 1967). The authors are indebted to the many graduate and undergraduate workers of the Cooperative Wildlife Research Laboratory who aided in the collection of data. We also acknowledge officials of the Crab Orchard National Wildlife Refuge and personnel of the Illinois Department of Conservation for assistance. This paper is a contribution from Project No. 15 of the Laboratory: Big Game Investigations. METHODS AND MATERIALS All harvested deer were processed at one of two check stations operated by Laboratory personnel. The animals initially were weighed 0.45 kg (1 pound) with a Viking spring balance, eviscerated, then reweighed. The maximum chest girth of all deer with rib cage intact was measured ? 0.32 cm (1 inch) with a flexible tape measure. Length of the hindfoot from hock to the tip of the longest claw was measured by the same procedure (Brohn and Robb 1955, Park and Day 1942). Antler beam diameter was measured to the nearest 1.0 mm with a vernier caliper. The beam diameter was taken 2.54 cm (1 inch) above the burr and, when possible, did not include bony protuberances (Anderson and Medin 1969). Antler length was measured ? 0.32 cm 48 J. Wildl. Manage. 39(1):1975 This content downloaded from 40.77.167.54 on Sat, 14 May 2016 06:18:18 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF DEER * Roseberry and Klimstra 49 ('s inch) with a flexible steel tape measure along the outside of the main beam from burr to tip. Length and diameter were recorded from the left beam, but the undamaged right beam was measured when the left was damaged. All antler protuberances over 2.54 cm long, excluding brow tines, were counted (as the number of antler points) on both beams. A lower mandible was removed from most animals for purposes of age determination. Age classes in this study were established on the basis of tooth eruption and wear (Severinghaus 1949). Total length of the mandible, from its most anterior point to the posterior rim of the angle of ramus (dentary length) was measured to the nearest 1.0 mm with a modified meter rule. The distance between the alveola of the anterior premolar and the corner incisor (diastema length) was measured to the nearest 0.1 mm with a vernier caliper (Bergerud 1964). All data were placed on 80-column IBM cards and processed with an IBM 370/155 computer at the data processing facilities of Southern Illinois University at Carbondale.

In 1968 and 1969, single capsules containing lactose or lactose and dieldrin were given weekly to pheasants (Phasianus colchicus); hens received 0, 6, or 10 mg and cocks received 0, 4, or 6 mg. Offspring of these birds were bred in 1969 and 1970, and offspring of second generation birds were bred in 1970 and 1971. Direct mortality occurred in breeders at all levels of dieldrin administered, but weights of breeders were not affected by dieldrin. Egg production, fertility, hatchability, viability of chicks at hatching, and weights of chicks from 4 to 6 weeks of age exhibited no relationship to treatment, and were erratic among groups and years. Survival of chicks to 4, 5, or 6 weeks of age was affected (P 0.05). Offspring of parents given dieldrin chose the deep side of a visual cliff more often than control chicks (P < 0.05), as did their progeny in the second and third generations. Offspring of parents given dieldrin were more easily caught by hand (P < 0.01); this effect was also found in the second and third generation. Behavior, both on the visual cliff and in response to hand catching, was generally most affected where both parents or ancestors had been given dieldrin, and less, but still affected, where either parent or ancestor had been given dieldrin. A genetic mechanism may have been involved in effecting aberrant behavior patterns. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 38(2):320-330 Previous research on effects of dieldrin in hen pheasants was reported by Lamb et al. (1967) and Atkins and Linder (1967). Limited work on firstand second-generation hens was reported by Baxter et al. (1969). In order to elucidate possible effects of dieldrin on second and third generations, to continue work through the third generation, and to determine the role of the cock in reproductive and behavioral effects, we initiated the treatment of both cocks and hens with measured doses of dieldrin in 1968. Behavioral effects in first-generation birds have been reported (Dahlgren et al. 1970). This paper reports effects of dieldrin on reproduction, behavior, and survival through the third generation. We are grateful to W. L. Tucker, Agricultural Experiment Station Statistician, for statistical advice, and to C. W. Carlson, Animal Science Department, South Dakota State University, for use of incubator faciliti s. Use of trade names in this paper does not imply endorsement. MATERIALS AND METHODS Breeding stock was purchased from the Ringneck Ranch, Frederick, South Dakota, in the fall of 1967; other stock was purchased from the South Dakota Pheasant Co., Canton, for research in 1969. Breeding hens about 1 year of age were kept in individual cages and pool-mated to cocks kept in larger breeding cages (Atkins and Linder 1967). Birds were placed on 16 hours of artificial light in late January. Treatment was begun in February and eggs were collected beginning in early March. Technical-grade dieldrin, supplied by Shell Chemical Co., was ground, mixed with lactose, and administered in No. 5 gelatin 1 Funds for this study were supplied to the South Dakota Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit by the U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife. The Unit is supported jointly by the South Dakota Department of Game, Fish and Parks, U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, South Dakota State University, and the Wildlife Management Institute. 2 Present address: Iowa Coop. Wildlife Res. Unit, I.S.U., Ames 50010. 320 J. Wildl. Manage. 38 (2):1974 This content downloaded from 157.55.39.153 on Mon, 19 Sep 2016 04:59:40 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms EFFECTS OF DIELDRIN IN PHEASANTS * Dahlgren and Linder 321 capsules via a glass tube inserted into the esophagus. Pure lactose was given to control birds. For 17 weeks, in 1968, 0, 4, or 6 mg dieldrin was administered in single weekly doses to cocks and 0, 6, or 10 mg was given to hens. Progeny of these cocks and hens were designated as 0-0, 0-6, 0-10, 4-0, 4-6, 4-10, 6-0, 6-6, and 6-10. (The first number is the weekly dieldrin level given to the cock, and the second is that given to the hen.) In 1969, newly purchased breeding stock was treated in a similar fashion, but for only 16 weeks. Also, in 1969, progeny of birds treated the previous year were either bred without further treatment or were given 6 mg dieldrin once a week for 16 weeks so that progeny were produced as follows: 0-0/0-0, 0-0/6-0, 0-0/6-6, 0-0/10-0, 6-0/0-0, 6-0/6-0, 6-0/6-6, 6-6/0-0, 6-6/6-0, and 6-6/ 6-6. (The first number to the left of the slash indicates the level given to both parents of the cocks in the previous year, and the second number the level of dieldrin currently given the cock, while the first number to the right of the slash indicates the level given to both parents of the hen the year previous except that hens in the 0-0/ 10-0 group were offspring of cocks given 6 mg and hens given 10 mg and the last number the level given to the hen the second or current year.) Second-generation work was similar in 1970 except that progeny of parents given 10 mg dieldrin did not survive to breeding age. For third-generation work in 1970, only controls and offspring of ancestors given 6 mg dieldrin were available as breeders. Part of the birds that had both parents given 6 mg dieldrin for 2 years previous were again given 6 mg dieldrin for 16 weeks so offspring produced were designated 0-0-0/0-0-0, 6-6-0/6-6-0, and 6-6-6/ 6-6-6. In 1971 no dieldrin was administered and offspring in the third generation were designated 0-0-0/0-0-0, 0-0-0/6-6-0, 6-6-0/ 0-0-0, and 6-6-0/6-6-0. Adult cocks and hens were weighed weekly to the nearest gram at the time capsules were administered. Cock breeding groups ranged from 2 to 5 individuals, so that each cock would not have to service more than 4 hens per season. Hen groups were from 4 to 10 for any category of treat

The many factors affecting the growth and feeding of fishes have been reviewed by Brown (1957), Ivlev (1961), Paloheimo & Dickie (1965, 1966a, b) and Phillips (1969). These reviews include the relevant work on salmonids and the only important addition is the work on sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka Walbaum) by Brett, Shelbourn & Shoop (1969) and Brett (1971). The present paper is one of a series dealing with feeding and growth in brown trout (Salmo trutta L.). From the results of previous work, it is now possible to estimate the rate and time for the gastric evacuation of different meals (Elliott 1972), the maximum weight of food consumed in a meal (satiation amount) and the time taken to eat this meal (Elliott 1975a), the maximum weight of food consumed in a day and the maximum rate of feeding (Elliott 1975b). These estimates are applicable to trout of different weights (approximate range 10-350 g live weight) at different water temperatures (range 3-821-6? C). The next stage was to examine the growth rates of trout fed on maximum rations. These experiments are described in the present paper and a mathematical model is developed to estimate maximum growth rates of different sized trout at different temperatures.

Information on the exact time of the daily resting and feeding periods of incubating ring-necked pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) hens and the daily time of egg laying is rather meager. Leopold (1933) gave dawn and 4:00 p.m. as the times at which incubating pheasant hens leave the nest. Baskett (1947) found no definite time at which he could predict with accuracy that any individual hen would be away from the nest. He states that eggs were generally laid in the interval from about two hours after sunrise to two hours before sunset, or between the two daily feeding periods. Difficulty in obtaining accurate data is largely responsible for this lack of information. Direct observation of the nest can be carried on only during daylight hours and may cause desertion of the nest or abnormal behavior by the hen. The need for a method of automatically recording the daily movements of nesting pheasant hens was evident. A number of methods have been devised for recording nesting activities of song birds. Baldwin and Kendeigh (1927) described the use of a thermocouple and recording potentiometer to record nesting activities. The application of heat to the eggs registered the presence of the bird, and a drop in temperature depicted its departure. The thermograph could be placed in the nest with little difficulty, but the recording potentiometer required an electric current, a limiting factor in its use. Kendeigh and Baldwin (1930) detailed the use of an itograph, an electromagnetic device particularly adapted for use at nests with but one approach. Another electromagnetic instrument, the terragraph, was invented by a German, Count von Hegendorf, for studying the habits of foxes and badgers, and was applied to bird activities by Bussman (1933). The apparatus consisted of a paper dial-plate marked at half-hour intervals on a revolving disk, with a carbon paper on top. A pencil attached to a telegraph magnet pressed on the carbon paper when the circuit was made, making a short line on the paper dialplate below. Two small pieces of wood fastened at one end by a flat steel spring comprised the nest contact. The contact was placed in circuit by means of an insulated copper wire with two pocket batteries and the telegraph magnet. Kuusisto (1941) used a glass tube containing mercury and with one end expanded like a thermometer as a thermo-contact.

Early mention of bats in Iowa is found in publications by Allen (1869), Goding (1883), Osborn (1890, 1892), Van Hyning and Pellet (1910), Cory (1912), and Ruthven and Wood (1912). The occurrence in the state of some species listed in these early accounts evidently was not substantiated by specimens. Scott (1937) in his "Mammals of Iowa" reviewed the status of chiropterans in the state. In this paper, six species (Myotis keenii, Myotis lucifugus, Eptesicus u.rcus, Lasiurus horealis, Lasiurus cinereus, and Tadarida macrotis) were authenticated by actual specimens. Scott (1939) later added Pipistrellus subfiavus to the list of Iowa bats, and also identified as Myotis subulatus the one specimen assigned to M. keenii in 1937. This bat was incorrectly identified by Scott and is discussed in the account of Myotis lucifugus. In the past decade, Muir and Polder (1960) recorded Myotis sodalis from Iowa, Kunz (1966) reported Nycticeius humeralis, and Easterla and Watkins (1967) mentioned the first actual specimens of Lasionycteris noctivagans from the state. The first authentic record of Myotis keenii septentrionalis is reported in this paper. Thus, at this writing, a total of 10 species of bats is known certainly to occur in Iowa. In the past few years there has been increased interest in the study of bats in Iowa. We began investigations independently in the state in 1965 and combined our efforts in 1966. One of us (Kunz) is continuing research on the natural history of several species. In the course of recent work, many bats have been banded and released in an attempt to learn more of movements and longevity. Additionally, workers in adjacent states have banded thousands of bats, some of which already have been recaptured in Iowa. Persons finding banded bats are requested to read the band number carefully, and, if possible, release the bat unharmed. Band numbers should be reported to the Bird and Mammal Laboratories, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C. 20560, along with the exact date and place of capture. This paper represents a progress report of our studies and includes specimens obtained by us, those deposited in other institutions, records of

In an earlier paper (1944) we corroborated and extended the work of one of us (Chandler, 1943) showing that Hymenolepis diminuta grows in a normal manner in the absence of any vitamins in the diet of the host except something associated with the G complex, absence of which causes a marked stunting in growth in female but not in male rats. This stunting becomes intensified as the depletion period in the host prior to infection is increased. In the present paper are reported a series of experiments designed to determine, if possible, what factor or factors in the G complex is responsible for the stunting effect. The hosts used were female white rats three to four months old, weighing between 150 and 200 gm at the beginning of the experiments. The rats were infected by oral administration of artificially reared cysticercoids as described in our earlier paper. The complete diet for control animals was the same as described in that paper. The basic vitamin-deficient diet was also the same except that the fat-soluble vitamins were added in the manner previously described, for the benefit of the host animals. The G complex, when used, was provided in the form of 9 gm of autoclaved brewer's yeast per rat per day. Other vitamins or nutritional factors, added in synthetic or concentrated form, were dissolved in 20% alcohol, and the proper amount added to the basic diet each day. Riboflavin (B2), pyridoxine hydrochloride (B6), calcium pantothenate, nicotinic acid, p-aminobenzoic acid, inositol, and choline were used in pure synthetic form and provided at the rate of 100 micrograms per day per rat. Biotin was used in the form of a concentrate containing 20 micrograms per cc, and provided at the rate of 30 micrograms per day per rat. Folic acid was provided in the form of a concentrate at the rate of 90 micrograms per day per rat.

Field parties from the University Museum of Vertebrate Paleontology worked in Meade County, Kansas in the summers of 1940 and 1941. During July and August of these two years there was so much rainfall at times that it was impossible to work on fossils. Consequently, a considerable amount of time was spent collecting and studying the recent mammals of that area. Part of the data thus obtained is presented in this paper. A general discussion of the mammals of the Meade County State Park was presented by Joe A. Tihen and James M. Sprague in "Amphibians, Reptiles and Mammals of the Meade County State Park," Trans. Kans. Acad. Sci., 42:499-511, 1939. Claude W. Hibbard and George C. Rinker published a more specific paper on "A New Bog-lemming (Synaptomys) from Meade County, Kansas," Univ. Kans. Sci. Bull., Vol. 28, Pt. 1, pp. 25-35. 1942. References have been drawn from both of these papers in the following discussion. Cryptotis parva (Say). One female of this species with three embryos was taken on July 22, 1941, and a second, with five embryos, on July 25, 1941. In each case, the embryos measured approximately 10 mm. in length. Citellus spilosoma major (Merriam). In all, five adult females of C. s. major were taken, three on August 3, 1941, one on August 4, 1941, and one on August 9, 1941. Of the three taken on August 3, two were carry.ng embryos. One of them had 8 embryos and the other 6. The female taken August 9 was captured after being ploughed up in a wheat field. With her were 4 young, two of which were captured and proved to be about two-thirds grown. Evidently two litters of young are born during the summer. Onychomys leucogaster arcticeps (Rhoads). Only one female with embryos was taken. This specimen, taken August 9, 1941, had five embryos. A number of immature and sub-adults were taken at the same time as the female mentioned above, which indicates that that litter represented at least the second and possibly the third litter of the season. This is in accordance with the conclusion of Tihen and Sprague (op. cit.) who wrote of this species, "The grasshopper mouse in Kansas has at least two litters a season, for females bearing full time fetuses were taken June 18, and 30, 1938, and July 20, 1938, while a female bearing fetuses approximately one-fifth grown was taken July 16, 1938. Four to five young is the common number." Reithrodontomys megalotis (Baird). One female of this species, with embryos, was taken July 19, 1941. The number of embryos in this specimen was four. They were five mm. in length. The total number of females taken was five.

The relative infestation of small mammals by fleas was studied in northwestern Illinois. Eleven host species numbering 718 individuals were collected from February to October in 1958. Three hundred eighty-six fleas of 11 species were taken from these hosts. More fleas per host were collected in the cooler months than in the warmer months. Orchopeas leucopus, a flea often considered to infest Peromyscus without exhibiting an apparent preference as to species, may actually be more common on species which occupy woodland habitats. Mean numbers of fleas of each of three species on Peromyscus leucopus, a host species taken in all seasons, indicated that peak populations of the three species do not coincide. A relatively large number of shrews and associated small mammals were trapped during a survey for rabies in shrews between February 14 and October 3, 1958. Fleas were removed from these specimens and submitted for identification to the Section of Faunistic Surveys and Insect Identification, Illinois Natural History Survey. Because relatively little is known about fleas in this section of the Midwest these records are believed to represent a contribution. Acknowledgment.-These observations were supplementary to an investigation of sylvan rabies which was supported by a grant (No. E-1349) from the Division of Research Grants, U. S. Public Health Service, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. Thanks are due Dr. C. 0. Mohr for suggesting the study and for a critical reading of the manuscript and to Dr. L. J. Stannard for identifying the fleas. Also, Drs. T. G. Scott and R. E. Yeatter, and Mr. G. C. Sanderson gave help and advice which is gratefully acknowledged. METHODS Ninety-five trap lines, each consisting of 20 stations 10 yards apart with two break-back traps per station, were set along secondary road rights-of-way in Jo Daviess, Carroll, and Whiteside counties. The traps, baited with liver sausage to attract shrews, were allowed to remain in place for two consecutive nights. The traps were examined each morning, captured animals removed, and the bait replaced when necessary. Specimens obtained were placed in individual No. 1 paper bags. In the laboratory, the contents of each bag were dumped into the center of a piece of brown wrapping paper. The sack was torn apart, and fleas clinging to the bag or to debris were collected with forceps and placed in a vial of 70 per cent alcohol. The mammal carcass was then brushed and combed thoroughly with the points of the forceps, and additional fleas clinging to the host were collected. Mammals which were badly deteriorated or partially eaten by other animals were not examined for fleas.

Analysis of retrapped Canada geese (Branta canadensis maxima) at Seney National \Vildlife Refuge showed that only 30 percent of the birds retained flexible plastic collars after 6 years. Retention was higher among females than among males. Fading, brittleness, and loss of the number-letter combination of the collars are discussed. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 37(2):1 7S178 During a study of limiting factors and behavior of Canada geese at the Seney National Wildlife Refuge between 1963 and 1965, 518 geese were marked with flexible plastic collars (Sherwood 1966a). Although the study officially ended in 1965, many of the geese survived long past that date and some of the collars were retained for several more years. The purpose of this paper is to report on the long-term retention rates of these collars and to describe the condition of the collars after up to 6 years of use. The author thanks D. H. Johnson, of the Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center, for his assistance in the statistical analysis. MATERIALS AND METHODS Sherwood (1966b), who conducted the behavior study, designed the collars; their construction has been described in detail in an earlier paper. Each collar was 2.S inches tall and had a number-letter combination routed into the plastic and painted with black lacquer. Orange collars were used in 1963, white in 1964, and yellow in 1965. Ends of the collars were not bonded with adhesive, so a birds could pull the collar off if it became caught. Determination of retention rates was nlade through the analysis of retrap data 1 Present address: Lacreek National Wildlife Refuge, Martin, South Dakota 57551. for the years 1966-69. When a collared or otherwise color-marked goose was retrapped, the marking was recorded on a field sheet. A check of band numbers of all retrapped geese was made to determine those birds that had originally been lllarked with collars. Retention rates were determined by comparing collars still in place with collars lost for each age-group of collars. Only birds trapped were used in determining the retention rates. This has resulted in a smaller sample, but has eliminated the bias of field observations tovards marked birds. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION During the 4-year period, a total of 194 retraps was made, 105 with the collars in place and 89 with the collars missing. A breakdown of the recoveries by the number of years since collar placement and by sex is given in Table 1. The smaller number of retraps of the 1and 2-year-old collars is because orange collars were already 3 years old and white collars 2 years old during the first year of data collection in 1966. The same is true in the older groups where only orange collars were present in ffie 6-year-old group and orange and white collars in the 5-yearold group. The data in Table 1 were analyzed to determine whether the sex of the bird and nurnber of years after placement had an J. Wildl. Manage. 37(2):1973 176 LONG-TERM RETENTION OF PLASTIC OLLARS ON CANADA GEESE Table 1. Collar retention rates of Canada geese at Seney National Wildlife Refuge. YEARS NUMBER OF RETRAPS AFTER RETENTION COLLAR CO11aIS CO11arS RATE PL XCEMENT Sex On Off ( percent ) M 11 5 69 1 F 15 3 83 Total 26 8 76 M 12 6 67 2 F 19 8 70 Total 31 14 69 M 15 13 54 3 F 14 19 42 Total 29 32 48 M 4 9 31 4 F 7 9 44 Total 11 18 38 M 2 5 29 S F 3 5 38 Total 5 10 33 M 0 3 0 6 F 3 4 43 Total 3 7 30 PLASTIC OLLAR ETENTION ON GEESE * Fjetland 177 both their collars and their service bands would have also been overlooked in this study, but this number of birds is small and would not greatly affect the retention rates. The significantly higher retention of collars by females was supported by field observations of marked birds. Of the 518 collars placed, 262 were on males and 256 (49 percerlt) on females. Observations of 24 collared geese in 1969 revealed that 20 were females and only 4 were males. Similar observations in 1968 revealed that 21 out of 28 collars seen were on females. Part of this unbalance in field observations can be attributed to a higher mortality rate for males than females in the Seney flock. Sherwood ( 1966a ) found that of yearlings and older geese in the Seney flock 43 percent s^7ere males and S7 percent females. He offered evidence that males were being shot more heavily than fenlales as one possible explanation for the unbalanced sex ratio. Dispersal of males to other flocks would also account for some of the difference in field observations. An unbalanced mortality rate and dispersal do not explain the different retention rates by sex in Table 1, however, where the rates are independent of the sex ratio of the flock, of field observations, of mortality rates, and of the nulnber of collars originally placed. Sherwood (1966b) reported two principal causes of collar loss. The first, collars slipping over the smaller heads of goslings, was solved by marking the birds after they were 2 months old. The second, collars pulling off on wire duck traps, 11as largely disappeared. Wire duck traps are still used at Seney Refuge, but only one collar svas found on a trap in 1968 and none in 1969. Those birds that tend to feed under the traps have in large part already lost their

Mandibles (plus teeth) of 68 white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) of various age-classes were collected in December, 1959, at Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland, to study strontium-90 distribution within a deer herd. No statistically significant difference was observed in the mean strontium90 accumulated by males and females, but there was a significant difference between age-classes. Further, there was no significant age-class-sex interaction, implying that the difference between age-classes was independent of sex. The amount of strontium-90 in the mandible was correlated with year of birth and the annual strontium-90 increment and total strontium-90 in the soil. There were no statistically significant differences between the variances of the age-classes of either sex. Considerable variation in the strontium-90 content of mandibles within age-classes was observed. Since the advent of the atomic age there has been concern about the accumulation of radionuclides by wildlife populations and the effect of such accumulation on wildlife and on persons consuming harvested game animals. Atmospheric nuclear testing and underground testing, where venting occurs, results in introduction of radionuclides into the biosphere. As a result of short physical half-lifes, many of these nuclides are transitory. Historically, major interest has been directed toward carbon-14, cesium-137, iodine-131, and strontium-90. With the exception of iodine-131, these radionuclides have relatively long physical half-lifes. Strontium-90 has a physical half-life of 27 years and a biological half-life in mammals of about 7.5 years (Hawthorn 1959: 1294). It emits only beta particles, has chemical properties similar to calcium, and is deposited in bone where it has a long residence time. This paper is a report on strontium-90 concentrations observed in deer mandibles (plus teeth) collected from a herd of whitetailed deer at Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland, December, 1959. The paper deals specifically with the concentration of strontium-90 in mandibles by sexes and ageclasses of this herd and with the variability in strontium-90 deposition observed. T Aberdeen Proving Ground herd is unique in Maryland. According to Flyger (1958), the herd is apparently at the limit the habitat can sustain. He has observed that it is not unusual to count 100-200 deer in one morning and that a distinct browse line is evident on the area. Instances of mass mortality have occurred in this herd and the average weight of the deer is 20 pounds less than for deer of the same age-class from western Maryland (Flyger 1958). The only published commentary on the past history of deer in this study area is that of Bullene (1949). He states that when the U. S. Government acquired the area in 1917 there were a few deer. We have received unconfirmed reports that deer were not present on the area at that time, that deer were released in 1932 and 1933, that the stock apparently came from Pennsylvania-probably Indian Town Gap Military Reservation -and consisted of one buck and three does. Regardless of the source of deer, it is quite evident that the initial population was very low and that, as a result of fencing, a mimimum influx into the area occurred, thus resulting in a highly inbred herd. The literature on strontium-90 accumulation in deer bone is rather limited. French (1960) analyzed a deer bone collected in the tropics of Ecuador in 1958 which contained

BETWEEN 1939 and 1948, the writer camped over four months on Big Black Mountain in Harlan County, Kentucky, making a survey of the amphibians, reptiles, and mammals of the region. Previously published reports deal with the reptiles (Barbour, 1950a) and the mammals (Barbour, 1951). For a general discussion of the area, reference is made to these papers. Big Black Mountain reaches a maximum elevation of 4150 feet above sea level, and is the highest point in Kentucky. It lies largely in Harlan County, Kentucky, but occupies a part of adjacent Wise County, Virginia. The majority of the collections discussed in this paper were made within a four-mile radius of the

Waletzky, Hughes, and Brandt (1949) reported that the continuous feeding of nitrophenide in the mash at a concentration of 0.05 per cent for eight to ten days, starting on the day of inoculation or one or two days before inoculation, checked mortality from severe cecal coccidiosis in chicks. They also referred to unpublished data by themselves which indicated that nitrophenide was effective in controlling Eimeria tenella infections when administered 48 to 96 hours after inoculation; the drug was ineffective, however, when administered at time of inoculation to 48 hours after inoculation. In the same paper they presented preliminary evidence to show that nitrophenide is also effective against Eimeria necatrix. Bottorff (1950) presented data from field tests to show that the feeding of nitrophenide in the mash to chicks, from one day of age through 11 weeks, reduced mortality from cecal coccidiosis. Seeger (1950) fed nitrophenide continuously in the mash at concentrations of 0.0125 and 0.00625 per cent and reported good results. Swales (1950) fed nitrophenide continuously in the mash at 0.0125 per cent concentration, starting 24 hours before exposure to contaminated litter, and obtained little protection from cecal coccidiosis. In continuous feeding at 0.05 per cent concentration, starting at time of exposure, he got widely varying results. However, he found that the feeding of 0.1 per cent concentration for four days, starting 48 hours after exposure, resulted in a definite reduction in mortality. In a more recent paper (1951), Swales reported a reduction in mortality among birds on field tests, treated continuously with 0.0125 per cent nitrophenide mash. Peterson and Hymas (1950) found that a concentration of 0.05 per cent was necessary to suppress mortality in experimental Eimeria necatrix infection. Brackett and Bliznick (1949) reported that chicks given nitrophenide continuously for the duration of the experiment discharged fewer oocysts of Eimeria tenella than did untreated chicks, and that the percentage of sporulation of the oocysts passed by treated birds was much lower than that of the oocysts passed by untreated birds. Dickinson, Babcock, and Osebold (1951) found that continuous feeding of nitrophenide in the mash at a level of 0.05 per cent suppressed oocyst development of both cecal and intestinal coccidia, and gave protection from the disease during the period of administration of the drug.

The percentage of calcium in the ash of white-tailed deer mandibles was determined for 68 specimens collected from a Maryland herd. There was no statistically significant differences among ages or between sexes. The overall average percent, 37.8, was comparable with presented values for North American big game. During an investigation of strontium-90 accumulation in a Maryland herd of whitetailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) (Schultz and Flyger 1965), I collected data on the calcium content of mandible ash. These data were collected because strontium accumulates in the bone mineral where it behaves like calcium. Furthermore, calcium data are used in an expression known as the strontium unit (1 micromicrocurie of 90Sr per gram of calcium) or in a strontiumcalcium ratio. The purpose of this paper is to record these data and to evaluate the relationship of calcium content of mandibles to sex and age of deer in this Maryland herd. In addition, I desire to summarize the data known to me on the calcium content of bones of big game. The deer mandibles were collected at Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland, in December, 1959. Details concerning the study area, sample characteristics, and statistical procedures are presented in Schultz and Flyger (1965). The calcium determinations for this paper and those reported by Schultz and Longhurst (1963) were conducted by contractors of the U. S. Atomic Energy Commission's Health and Safety Laboratory, utilizing procedures recommended by the laboratory (Harley and Whitney 1957). The average difference of the percentages between seven blind duplicate determinations was 0.71 ? 0.12 (sE). I am indebted to personnel of the U. S. Atomic Energy Commission's Health and Safety Laboratory for supervising the calcium analyses and to J. L. Carmon and J. Fortson who so kindly did the machine computations for the least-squares analysis. K. J. Chiavetta, R. D. McDowell, C. W. Severinghaus, and J. E. Tanck estimated the age of the specimens. I am also indebted to F. B. Turner who commented on

PIERSOL (1907) was the first to describe the spawn of Ambystoma jeffersonianumn, showing that the egg-masses can readily be distinguished from those of A. maculatum. Smith (1911) compared the eggs of the two preceding species and those of A. tigrinum. Noble (1927), in considering the relation of breeding habits to phylogeny, states that both Allen and Bishop noted the males embracing the females. The reference is probably an error and should read, Wright and Allen. No one, however, has heretofore described the spermatophores of A. jeffersonianum. Smith (1911) considered the extremely early spawning season suggestive of an autumnal fertilization, while Piersol (1929), noticing that both sexes hide on land near the ponds during the day, suggested the likelihood of a terrestrial mating. In a previous paper (1930) the writer has reported field observations of seven embracing pairs of salamanders and the discovery of a wellformed spermatophore in the cloaca of a male A. Jeffersonianum, examined in the laboratory last year. No description of the spermatophore was given in that paper. During the present season observations have been made every night for a period of ten days after the appearance of the first A. jeffersonianum, and trips have been made to the ponds at frequent intervals since that time. The only mountain ponds which are readily accessible are near Woodward, Centre County, at an altitude of 1475 feet, and nearly thirty miles to the west of Bucknell University, Lewisburg, Pennsylvania, where the writer was located. The first individuals of A. jeffersonianum, in 1931, were seen on the night of March 25. At this-time a spermatophore, believed to have been deposited by this species, was found attached to a broken twig in about three inches of water close to the edge of the pond. About a dozen of the fifty odd salamanders seen were collected. On transferring them to an aquarium the next morning, two spermatophores were found in the collecting can. The next trip was made primarily to hunt spermatophores and an hour's intensive search revealed thirteen. On returning to the laboratory it was found that the salamanders collected on the first night had deposited five spermatophores in the aquarium. On the third night, March 27, fully twenty-five spermatophores were located in a second pond. On this night the first eggs were seen, and three females were observed in the process of egg-laying. The fact that no A. maculatum reached the ponds until the following night, March 28, as

A total of 285 lesser prairie chickens (Tympanuchus pallidicinctus) were mist-netted in the spring on 16 booming grounds (display grounds) in eastern New Mexico during 1962-70. Life tables, based on capture-recapture data from 3 consistently trapped grounds, were constructed for males only, as comparatively few females were trapped and none was recaptured. The male population underwent virtually a complete turnover in about 5 years. The mean annual overall mortality rate of males was calculated at about 65 percent. Inefficiencies inherent in the trapping method (probable failure to recapture all banded birds present on booming grounds each year) presumably magnified the calculated mortality rate, possibly by about 5 to 10 percent. Age and sex ratios indicate that adult females had a higher mortality rate than adult males. The removal by hunting of about 1,100 birds per year, on the average, over a 12-year period had no observed harmful effect on the population. Recaptures of banded birds suggest that adult males are faithful throughout life to the same booming grounds where they initially established territories, but hunter recoveries show that at least some males shift for feeding purposes in fall and winter to harvested grain fields that may be several miles from their accustomed booming grounds. This paper reports the results of a field study of the lesser prairie chicken on its native range in eastern New Mexico. The work was done in the heart of that range in southern Roosevelt and northern Lea counties. Life tables, based on capturerecapture data, were constructed for the male segment of the population. Biological and behavioral data derived from the hunting harvests are also presented. Several general accounts have been published concerning the lesser prairie chicken in New Mexico (Bailey 1928:207-209, Ligon 1961:89-92, Sands 1968), but published reports of specific research studies on the local populations have been few. The first of these reports appears to be that by Lee (1950); it contains data on age and sex ratios, weights, criteria for determining age and sex, habits, and habitats. Campbell (1950) described a typical instance of the 1A contribution from Federal Aid Project W104-R, New Mexico. often-seen persistent harassment of prairie chickens by wintering marsh hawks (Circus cyaneus). Snyder (1967:121-128), in addition to a general account of the species in the state, summarized some of the technical data from a series of unpublished New Mexico P-R reports by W. S. Huey, G. W. Merrill, L. G. Frary, W. A. Snyder, J. F. Johnson, M. G. Wischnofske, and J. L. Sands. The present paper is based chiefly on these reports, and on several of my later unpublished P-R reports. Portions of Colorado, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas also have populations of lesser prairie chickens, and investigators in at least the latter two states have published important work on the species. Copelin (1963) published a comprehensive account of lesser prairie chickens in Oklahoma, and Jones (1963) compared in great detail the habitats of the lesser and greater prairie chickens in Oklahoma. Jones (1964) also studied seasonal behavior of various plant species in

Experiments were conducted in the laboratory to investigate the ability of trichostrongylid larvae to migrate vertically on various grasses under controlled environments. Only a small proportion, 2 to 3%, of the larvae given opportunity to ascend the grass blades, under conditions considered favorable for migration, climbed. Of these, 59.2, 26.7, 9.9, 3.4, and 0.8% were found on the 1st-, 2nd-, 3rd-, 4th-, and above the 5th-inch height level from the soil, respectively. It was concluded that though infective trichostrongylid larvae can climb grasses, the greatest portion remain at the base of the vegetation. The larvae were comparatively more successful on the tall fescue than on the smooth brome. The external morphology of grasses apparently influences migration of the larvae. A film of moisture is obviously advantageous to migration. On an average 0.65% of the test larvae climbed wetted blades while only 0.04% climbed unwetted blades. Upward migration was favored by higher relative humidity. On the average 1.36% of the test larvae were successful at 95% relative humidity while only 0.06% were successful at 56% relative humidity. Lower temperature adversely affected upward migration. Only 0.13% of the test larvae climbed at 40 F while 2.54% did so at 79 to 80 F. A direct influence of light intensity was not clearly established since migration in light and darkness was essentially similar. Taylor (1938), Rogers (1940), Kauzal (1941), Dinaburg (1944), Crofton (1948), and Rees (1950) studied vertical migration of infective trichostrongylid larvae on herbage. Their techniques essentially involved placement of known numbers of infective larvae, contained in a known volume of water, on the soil at the base of the test herbage in experimental plots in the field or laboratory. Subsequent recovery of larvae on the test herbage was interpreted to indicate vertical migration of the larvae from the soil surface onto the herbage. However, except for Crofton (1948) and Rees (1950), most of these investigators did not establish the actual height on the herbage the larvae ascended. Furthermore, only in a few cases (Crofton, 1948; Rees, 1950; Rogers, 1940) was the ability of the larvae to migrate vertically on the herbage correlated with environmental factors. The present study was undertaken in order to obtain an extensive series of observations Received for publication 20 August 1963. * From the Department of Veterinary Science, Paper N.S. 400, with the approval of the Director, Wis. Agr. Exp. Sta., supported in part by the University Research Committee. on the actual height of vertical migration by trichostrongylid larvae as well as the portion of the population which does migrate, and to observe the influence of various environmental factors including moisture, temperature, relative humidity, light, type of grass, and the number of grass blades available upon movement of the larvae. MATERIALS AND METHODS The larvae for these studies were obtained from "seed" calves primarily infected with Haemonchus placei with minor populations of Cooperia onchophora and Trichostrongylus colubriformis. The larvae were cultured in sterilized sphagnum according to the method of Cauthen (1940) and recovered by using Baermann funnels. Differential counts of larvae were not made for individual tests, and the larvae, therefore, have been referred to as trichostrongylid. The larvae were 7 to 20 days old when used in the tests, but in a given trial all larvae were the same age. Grass blades were grown from seeds planted in a light silt soil or a muck soil in paper pots. The soils were sterilized to render them free of nematode life prior to the tests. The grass seedlings emerged in a tuft of blades and were used when 3 inches or more tall. Numbers of larvae used in a test were estimated by dilution counts. By restriction of volume of the suspension, a known quantity of larvae could be placed in position on the soil surface at the

Field sampling equipment consisted of a supply of No. 12 or slightly larger Kraft paper bags for holding young birds and keeping those already bled separate from those to be bled during sampling activities; a supply of sterile 1or 2-c.c. hypodermic syringes (the writer preferred using a 2-c.c. syringe when bloods from several birds in a nest were to be pooled); sterile 1-inch, 27-gauge needles; small (10-c.c.) serum bottles with 10% rabbit serum in buffered saline diluting fluid;' a bottle of 70% alcohol; tightly corked sterile 10 x 75 m.m. soft glass tubes with adhesive tape labels, for blood samples; and a pint thermos flask partly filled with wet ice for immediate refrigeration of blood samples and for carrying these to the laboratory. A bottle of clean water for rinsing syringes and needles after use facilitated later cleaning of this equipment. A supply of Fish and Wildlife Service bands was carried for marking the birds when possible. The young birds were removed from a nest and placed in a Kraft paper bag. To prepare the syringe for procuring the blood sample, 0.1 c.c. or 0.2 c.c. diluting fluid was drawn into it. This enabled the operator to obtain better initial suction with the syringe and to waste less blood when only 0.1 c.c. or 0.2 c.c. was taken from a nestling. A young bird to be sampled was then placed on its back in the left hand, with its head toward the finger-tips. The neck of the bird was placed between index and middle fingers and the head pulled back slightly. Legs and posterior part of the bird were held down between little finger and thumb, which tended to arch the breast of the bird upwards for easier needle penetration. The ring finger was used to hold down the left wing when it was of any size and tended to get in the way. The operator worked from a sitting or kneeling position and steadied his hand holding bird by resting it on his knee.

Whole-body gamma-irradiated (250r) cottontails (Sylvilagus floridanus) confined in 25x 60-ft outdoor pens produced litter sizes significantly smaller than normal cottontails kept as controls. Animals irradiated in 1964 tended to recover from irradiation and produce litters approaching normal size in 1965. Early papers on the effects of artificial radiation on wild animals are Schnell (1963, 1964) and Willard (1963). The objective of this paper is to report on the effects of whole-body gamma irradiation on reproduction of penned cottontail rabbits. I am indebted to R. A. McCabe, L. B. Keith, and J. J. Hickey of the Department of Wildlife Ecology of the University of Wisconsin, for guidance and assistance throughout this project. K. H. Clifton of he Radiology Department was very helpful in showing me the technique of wholebody irradiation. MATERIALS AND METHODS Cottontails were obtained by livetrapping at the University of Wisconsin at Madison campus and at the State Game Farm near Poynette, Wisconsin. Pairs were kept in separate rearing pens, 25 x 60 ft, at the State Game Farm. The pens were made of 1 This paper is based on an M.S. Thesis in Wildlife Ecology completed under a Graduate Research Assistantship, University of Wisconsin, Madison. 2 Present address: Box 1435, New Mexico State Health Department, Roswell, New Mexico. This content downloaded from 207.46.13.127 on Wed, 12 Oct 2016 04:34:46 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms REPRODUCTION OF IRRADIATED COTTONTAILS * Forcum 181 1-inch mesh poultry wire buried in the ground 12 inches. They were covered and connected to a brooder house at one end. Commercial rabbit pellets were made available weekly in addition to the natural food and cover which was predominantly quack grass (Agropyron repens) and Kentucky blue grass (Poa pratensis). Water was provided during the summer. The procedures of rearing cottontails in pens were similar to those described by Rongstad (1966). Females were palpated frequently to determine the stages of pregnancy and of lactation. By carefully searching the pen area, I was able to locate 85-95 percent of all known litters. Females and litters were tolerant of handling. Rabbits were irradiated with gamma rays from a 2,000-Curie cesium-137 source at the University of Wisconsin General Hospital. Each rabbit was placed on its left side in a sock within a lucite cage 25 cm in diameter and 10 cm deep. The cage had a 5-mm-thick adjustable lid, which was placed against the animal's right side. The cage was placed in the center of an adjustable shelf and suspended from the head of the cesium unit. The distance from the cesium source to the floor of the cage was a constant 55.5 cm. The upper surface of the animal was approximately 49 cm from the source. The energy of gamma rays emitted by 137Cs was 662 kev, and the unit was fitted with a copper field flattening disc which aided in maintaining uniform dosage over the entire bottom surface of the cage. The dose rate to the upper surface (right side) of the animal was 30.7 rontgens in air per minute and to the center of the floor of the empty cage with the lid in place was 25.4 r per minute. Dosimetry indicated a significant difference in the dose rate to the upper and lower surfaces of the radiation chamber. This resulted in a 25 percent reduction of radiation to the abdominal cavity as compared to the animal's upper surface. In terms of total dose (measured in air at the upper surface of the body) the first series of 10 treated rabbits received 750 r, which was 90 percent lethal within 8-10 days. A second series of 26 rabbits received 250 r which was 4 percent lethal in 10 days, and 20 percent lethal in 30 days. Animals were individually irradiated, then paired with normal animals. Equal numbers of each sex were irradiated on one date, usually five of each sex, until the entire series was completed. Normal pairs served as controls. Reproductive capacity was assessed by appraising complete pedigrees (reproductive records) of all animals. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Results indicated that whole-body gamma irradiation of either parent decreased litter size of the cottontails. Average sizes of all groups of litters with one irradiated parent were numerically smaller than the average sizes of litters produced by normal parents (Table 1). Average sizes of litters with one irradiated parent (either sex) in 1964, and litters born in 1965 to females irradiated in 1964 were significantly smaller (P 0.05). Some recovery was indicated among the animals irradiated in 1964 which bred in 1965 (Table 1). The first five litters in 1964 were born April 8-11, and the first six in 1965 were born April 10-26. The last litters in both years were born during late August. A few of the animals irradiated in 1964 were still paired and breeding in 1965 when a number of additional animals were irradiated. A decrease in the litter sizes of mammals This content downloaded from 207.46.13.127 on Wed, 12 Oct 2016 04:34:46 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 182 Journal of Wildlife Management, Vol. 32, No. 1, January 1968 Table 1. Sizes of litters produced by normal and irradiated cottontails (first litters excluded). Statistical analyses according to Duncan's multiple range test, Kramer's (1956) modification.

The antioxidant used in commercial animal feeds, 6-ethoxy-1,2-dihydro-2,2,4-trimethylquinoline (ethoxyquin, Santoquin, or EMQ) had an inhibitory effect on larval nematode development. Increasingly fewer larvae were recovered from fecal cultures as the quantity of EMQ fed to infected calves, or mixed with feces from infected calves, was increased from the amount commonly used as a feed preservative (1/4 lb/ton) up to 100 times that amount. For example, the number of Cooperia pectinata larvae recovered from fecal cultures from a calf fed untreated chopped alfalfa hay was 40.4% as compared to 9.5% when 100 X EMQ was mixed with the hay. Similarly, 25 X EMQ resulted in reductions as follows: Trichostrongylus colubriformis from 33.2 to 13.5%, T. axei from 28.3 to 10.8%, and Oesophagostomum radiatum from 45.3 to 4.8%. Comparing commercial pelleted alfalfa hay with and without EMQ showed reductions, varying from 17% for C. punctata to 64% for T. colubriformis. Larval development in feces-vermiculite cultures treated with various concentrations of EMQ showed reductions as follows: T. axei from 27.9 to 0.0% with 500 X, C. pectinata from 22.8 to 0.8% with 30 X, and T. colubriformis from 24.6 to 15.3% with 4 x. Studies on the effect of host diet on the bionomics of the free-living stages of some cattle nematodes showed a reduction in the number of larvae recovered from cultures when the diet was changed from alfalfa hay to dehydrated alfalfa pellets. Further investigations indicated that inhibition of larval development could be due to the chemical preservative or antioxidant used in the preparation of commercial animal feeds. Of the antioxidants used in the food industry, 6-ethoxy1,2-dihydro-2,2,4-trimethylquinoline (known as ethoxyquin, Santoquin, or EMQ) is probably the most prevalent because of its high activity and desirable physical properies (Bickoff et al., 1954). According to Machlin et al., 1957, and Wilson et al., 1959, this chemical is rapidly absorbed and its metabolites are readily and nearly completely excreted in urine and feces. This paper considers the effect of EMQ on larval development when mixed with various feeds, and when added to feces obtained from donor calves monospecifically infected with various cattle nematodes. Received for publication 28 September 1966. * Resigned 13 August 1966. t In cooperation with the Georgia Agricultural Experiment Station. Station Journal Series Paper No. 546. MATERIALS AND METHODS Commercial dehydrated alfalfa pellets (16 or 17% crude protein) and alfalfa meal (17% crude protein) were compared with alfalfa hay and with chopped alfalfa hay, to which various amounts of EMQ (Santoquin-Mixture 6, Monsanto Company, St. Louis) had been added. The chopped hay was passed through a hammer mill with a 1/2-inch screen. The standard concentration of EMQ, designated as 1 X, was based on the amount commonly used in the manufacture of commercial pellets and other animal feeds (1/4 lb/ton, or 125 Mig/g). Higher dosages were in multiples of the standard dosage, and were designated, for the sake of brevity, from 1 X to 100 X. Dairy calves, monospecifically infected with various cattle nematodes, were used as experimental hosts. The species present were Cooperia punctata, C. pectinata, Trichostrongylus axei, T. colubriformis, and Oesophagostomum radiatum. Feces were collected from the hosts' rectums hourly during the day (8 AM to 4 PM) for various days while the particular host calf ate, ad lib., one of the rations. No collections were made 3 or 4 days following a change in diet in order to allow the elimination from the calf of all waste products of the previous diet and for the rumen flora to become adjusted to the new diet. The total daily output was mixed thoroughly, samples were taken for nematode egg counts, and the remainder was cultured in plastic pans. The cultures, each containing 1,000 g of feces, 166 g vermiculite, and any necessary water, were incubated for 9 days in constant temperature cabinets set at 25 C. All cultures were weighed daily and opened to aerate and to replace any water lost through evaporation. At the end of the incubation period, the cultured material was placed in Baermann funnels, left over

During spring and early summer in 1970 grit was found to comprise a considerable percentage of the dry weight of feces in two Alberta bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) herds. Similar percentages of fecal grit in domestic sheep in New Zealand have been correlated with high tooth wear, a factor which results in such impaired metabolic performance that premature culling of affected animals becomes necessary. A hypothetical case of ingested grit making a possible contribution to mortality in bighorns is argued. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 38(4):880-883 Tooth wear and ingestion of grit are topics which have occasionally been correlated but about which little seems known in wild ruminants. Even among domestic species, most of the available information refers to Australian and New Zealand sheep. In New Zealand, a country heavily dependent for export earnings on wool, the number of years of economically gainful productivity from each individual sheep is clearly of considerable significance. Excessive tooth wear has for many years been regarded as a factor contributing to a decline in vitality and a variety of causative agents has been suggested. An early inquiry was that of Barnicoat (1957) who suggested that wear was due to the abrasive action of herbage fiber. Working in Australia, Baker et al. (1959) suggested that the very hard opal phytoliths found in certain pasture species might play a part in wear of sheep's teeth, and Barnicoat and Hall (1960) focused attention on the chemical process of proteolysis as a possible cause of wear. Baker et al. (1961) reported the ingestion of grit by sheep but, rather than to tooth wear, related this and certain plant inclusions to abrasion of the gut wall, a feature which they suggested may pave the way for infection. The experimental study of Cutress and Healy (1965), how ver, convincingly demonstrated that plant juices were only of minor significance while in a companion paper Healy and Ludwig (1965) showed that the most significant causative agent in tooth wear was in fact particles of ingested soil. Support for this contention has come from Healy (1967) and from a study undertaken in Ireland by Nolan and Black (1970). Arnold et al. (1966) have observed that high stocking rates, resulting in severe tooth wear, are also accompanied by increases in both wool production and body weight, even many months after the return of the animals to easier conditions. The authors attributed the increases to absorbed silica. Healy et al. (1967) have none the less claimed that "the saving of 0.2 inches of incisors would mean that one or possibly two more breeding seasons could be obtained from ewes." Against this background it was of interest to discover that the amount of grit present in the feces of Canadian bighorn sheep was comparable with the highest levels measured in New Zealand domestic sheep. This study was made possible through the courtesy and facilities made available by the University of Calgary. Especial thanks are due to V. Geist.

Measures of productivity, breeding seasons, and fecundity of female gray squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis) were studied in southeast Ohio between 1966 and 1970. The corpus luteum begins to decline in size before birth and disappears 5-7 weeks postpartum. Placental scars are visible at least seven months postpartum and, if uteri are chemically treated at scar sites, can be separated into winter-spring and summer-fall implantations. Breeding extended from late December until September, with peaks in breeding activity occurring 2 to 25 January and 19 May to 18 June. Ovum and embryo mortality totalled 9.0 percent for 33 pregnancies. Summer-born juveniles averaged 68.1 percent mortality between implantation and the hunting season in midfall, whereas spring-born juveniles averaged only 15.9 percent mortality over a similar period, which is 3 to 5 months longer for spring-born young. During the January-September breeding period, an average of 2.2 percent of the subadult females, 55.8 percent of the yearling females, and 95.4 percent of the adult females had at least one estrus cycle. Placental scar counts were significantly higher in adult breeders compared with yearlings and in summer-breeding adults compared with spring-breeding adults. During 1968-70, 60.9 percent of the adult females bred in winter-spring, 66.4 percent in June-August, and 27.3 percent during both periods. A representative group of 100 gray squirrels of both sexes could implant 110 embryos during a single January-September breeding period. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 39(2):426-438 Both gray and fox (S. niger) squirrels are important game animals in Ohio; in 1962, it was estimated that 306,331 Ohio hunters killed 1,428,876 squirrels (Donohoe 1965:73). Squirrel hunting ranks second only to cottontail rabbit (Sylvilagus floridanus) hunting in Ohio. Estimates of natality are needed for both species of squirrels to better assess the effects of various levels of mortality, particularly mortality induced by hunting, on population maintenance. This paper deals only with the gray squirrel, which contributes 79 percent of the squirrel harvest in the unglaciated portion of eastern Ohio (Donohoe 1965:76). The objectives of this study were to delineate the annual breeding season, to determine the effects of age and season of breeding on the fecundity of the female gray squirrel, and to determine the reliability of using corpora lutea and placental scar counts as measures of productivity of the gray squirrel in southeast Ohio.

Hair samples from 317 Alaskan moose (Alces alces gigas) were analyzed for 10 elements by atomic absorption spectroscopy between May 1972 and May 1973. Results demonstrated seasonal variation associated with general moose condition. Peak levels occurred in the fall and the low levels occurred during late winter and early spring. Some element levels were below lower limits of "normal values" for domestic animals over extended periods of time. Moose from different geographical locations demonstrated significant differences with certain elements, which suggested geochemical or range differences. Significant differences in magnesium, copper, and manganese were noted between winter-killed calves and live moose from the same area. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 39(2):374-378 We applied the indicator species concept, utilizing physiologic values (Franzmann 1971) to reflect changes in an animal's environment, to moose hair at the Kenai Moose Research Center (MRC). Hair was selected because of its stability and availability. Researchers in human and animal medicine have investigated hair sampling and analysis from several aspects. Some have studied protein metabolism (Bradfield 1968, Bradfield et al. 1967, Bradfield and Jelliffe 1970, Crounse et al. 1970, Godwin 1959, Lowry et al. 1951, Sims 1968), whereas others have investigated mineral metabolism (Klevay 1970, Schroeder and Nason 1969, Strain et al. 1966, 1972a). The utilization of hair analysis to monitor systemic exposure to radioisotopes and toxic elements also has been demonstrated (Hammer et al. 1971, Kopito et al. 1967, Strain et al. 1972b). The purpose of this paper is to report results of our preliminary studies and to indicate where additional work may be directed. We thank the Department of Surgery, Cleveland Metropolitan General Hospital, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio, for providing analyses of hair samples. We appreciate the help from J. L. Davis and J. W. Coady, who assisted in collecting some of the hair samples. D. E. McKnight, K. B. Schneider, R. E. LeResche, and J. L. Oldemeyer read the manuscript and made helpful suggestions. The MRC is a cooperative project between the Alaska Department of Fish and Game and the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Kenai National Moose Range. MATERIALS AND METHODS From May 1972 to May 1973, 317 moose hair samples were collected, 197 from moose at the Kenai Moose Research Center (MRC). The MRC consists of four 2.6-km2 enclosures located in the area of the 1947 burn, 35 km NE of Soldotna, Alaska. Twenty-one fence-line traps (LeResche and Lynch 1973) were located strategically (12 within and 9 outside the enclosures) to facilitate capture and handling of moose. Hair was collected from each moose trapped within (138) and outside (59). Forty-four of the MRC moose were sampled more than once. The total of 268 samples from the Kenai Peninsula included 17 collected from winter-killed calves in 1 This work was supported in part by Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Project W-17-R. 374 J. Wildl. Manage. 39(2):1975 This content downloaded from 157.55.39.195 on Tue, 26 Apr 2016 07:11:45 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms MINERAL ELEMENTS IN MOOSE HAIR * Franzmann et al. 375 Table 1. Means and standard deviations of monthly hair mineral macro element values from Alaskan moose, May 1972 to May 1973. Month and Element (ppm) year Sample sampled Location size Calcium Magnesium Potassium Sodium 5/72 Kenaia 11 335.0 ? 75.8 38.3 +_ 6.2 257.5 -+73.7 633.5 +104.9 5/72 enaib 17 429.5 ? 80.1 89.2 ? 21.8 336.3 -+81.2 407.1 ?+ 139.7 6/72 Kenai 17 269.6 ?108.1 27.9 ?12.8 783.7 -+485.8 475.0 ?141.7 7/72 Kenai 17 252.7 ? 107.0 22.5 ? 16.8 972.4 ? 409.0 576.7 -+185.8 8/72 Kenai 11 744.6 -+208.8 105.7 ? 40.5 894.4 ? 498.4 408.6 ? 148.2 9/72 Kenai 12 515.5 ?125.5 174.5 -+61.6 1,579.1 ? 947.2 714.2 ? 140.7 10/72 Kenai 67 225.4 ? 72.9 120.5 -+ 42.9 2,090.4 -+761.9' 1,235.4 331.8 11/72 Kenai 14 201.1 -+38.1 79.7 ?19.5 968.3 ? 569.4 1,172.0 + 292.6 12/72 Kenai 15 220.6 ?31.8 62.3 ? 12.3 468.1 ? 203.2 1,202.6 ? 285.0 1/73 Kenai 19 204.4 ? 26.9 52.8 ? 10.2 317.1 ? 68.2 1,086.4 ? 390.3 1/73 Fort Richardson 44 280.4 -+100.3 76.1 ? 22.0 406.4 ? 239.0 1,187.3 + 507.4 2/73 Kenai 21 297.9 ? 67.4 48.4 + 11.4 376.6 ? 138.4 841.2 ? 176.2 3/73 Kenai 20 243.1 + 39.1 50.2 -+19.9 428.2 ? 124.7 796.7 ? 146.1 4/73 Kenai 27 251.4 ? 46.4 44.8 ?-12.0 429.7 -+111.0 625.1 ? 129.3 4/73 Tanana Flats 5 341.9 +80.8 76.5 23.4 1,382.2 ? 809.3 615.8 ? 158.3 a Includes samples from the Moose Research Center and other localities on the Kenai Peninsula. b Winter killed calves. May 1972 and 54 from moose immobilized in October 1972 for other studies. Fortyfour samples were collected at Fort Richardson, Alaska, in January 1973, and 5 samples from the Tanana Flats area near Fairbanks, Alaska, were collected in April 1973. Hair samples were double-washed with diethyl ether, then 200-mg portions were digested in 10 ml of 24 percent methanolic tetramethyl ammonium hydroxide for 2 h at 55 C. Only the proximal 2 cm of each hair filament, including the hair follicle, were digested. This represents approximately the past two months of hair element accumulation, based upon the mean growth rate of moose hair. Samples were analyzed by atomic absorption spectroscopy for the presence of four macro elements (calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium) and six trace elements (cadmium, copper, iron, lead, manganese, and zinc).

A 10-year evaluation was made of the effects of hunting and mast crops on a population of gray squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis) and fox squirrels (S. niger) located on a 505.0-ha (1,250-acre) public shooting area in southeast Ohio. On a 95.7-ha (237-acre) research portion of the area, preseason squirrel densities averaged 1.91 squirrels per ha (0.77 squirrel per acre), hunting pressures averaged 4.5 gun-hours per ha (1.81 gun-hours per acre), and harvests averaged 0.89 squirrel per ha (0.36 squirrel per acre). The kill per ha each year was significantly correlated (P < 0.01) with preseason density per ha and with total gun-hours expended. Annual mortality averaged 80 percent for adult and subadult gray squirrels and adult fox squirrels but only 69 percent for subadult fox squirrels. Hunters recovered an average of 45.1 percent of the available marked population each year, and hunting accounted for 55.2 percent of the annual mortality. Fall-to-fall densities of squirrels were unstable, with significant changes in density occurring in 6 of 10 years. The squirrel population fluctuated mainly in response to the mast crop the preceding fall, but fall harvests also affected subsequent squirrel densities, particularly for adult gray squirrels. Both harvests and population densities affected the subsequent survival of adult female gray squirrels; survival was highest when densities were less than 70 squirrels per 40.4 ha (100 acres). Mortality and/or dispersal exceeded natality after 1966, and fall densities and kill became increasingly dependent upon immigration from surrounding forests. The response of individual squirrels to a good-to-heavy seed crop included: (1) improved survival of summer-born young, (2) a lower rate of emigration of both juvenile and subadult squirrels, (3) an increase in fecundity of breeding females, and (4) a higher rate of survival of adult gray squirrels in response to an increase in the size of the hickory (Carya spp.) seed crop. At least 58.9 kg (130 lb) of sound tree seed per 0.4 ha was needed to sustain reasonably high squirrel densities. A minimum of 3.2-3.7 m2 of basal area of mast-producing species per 0.4 ha (35-40 ft2/acre) is needed to produce this amount of tree seed, and 1.0-1.4 m' (10-15 ft2) of basal area should be hickory species of seed-producing size. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 39(1):1-25 This paper reports a 10-year evaluation of the effects of hunting and mast crops on a population of gray and fox squirrels located on a public hunting area in southeast Ohio. Annual hunting pressures are often several times higher on forests open to the general public than on privately owned forests (Allen 1954, Uhlig 1955, Fouch 1969, Nixon et al. 1974). Reported squirrel harvests from public forests have varied from lows of 13 percent (Uhlig 1955:26) and 15 percent (Kidd and Soileau 1965: 113) to highs of 45 percent (Nixon and McClain 1969:354), 46 percent (Chapman 1941:7), and 58 percent (Peterle and Fouch 1959, Nixon et al. 1974) of the estimated squirrel population. In most of these studies no evaluation was made of the subsequent effects of these harvests on the squirrel population. Mosby (1969:65) found that an average harvest of 37.4 percent of the estimated fall population of gray squirrels produced no significant difference in the average annual mortality rate compared with the rate on an adjacent unhunted area. The rate of population turnover, the annual mortality rate, and the rate of juvenile recruitment were somewhat higher under controlled hunting (Mosby 1969:71). In general, squirrel populations located in extensive forests and composed mainly of gray squirrels have been reported 1 A contribution of Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Projects, Ohio W-105-R and Illinois W-66-R. J. Wildl. Manage. 39(1):1975 1 This content downloaded from 157.55.39.30 on Fri, 27 May 2016 05:56:30 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 2 EFFECTS OF HUNTING ON SQUIRRELS Nixon et al. to be underharvested (Allen 1954, Uhlig 1955) and to fluctuate in size in response to the availability of forest seed crops, particularly acorns (Allen 1954:61, Christisen and Korschgen 1955:350, Sharp 1959:383, Nixon and McClain 1969:353, Barkalow et al. 1970:499). The response of both gray and fox squirrels to fluctuations in tree seed crops has been reported to include changes in fecundity (Allen 1943, Uhlig 1955) and in the survival and/or dispersal rates for juveniles (Uhlig 1955, Barkalow et al. 1970). We acknowledge C. McKibben, J. Ely, R. Beal, R. Dicken, and R. Stoll, Ohio Division of Wildlife, who assisted with livetrapping, mast collections, and operation of the checking station. S. Havera, Illinois Natural History Survey, assisted with the statistical analysis, and H. C. Schultz, W. R. Edwards, and G. C. Sanderson, Illinois Natural History Survey, reviewed the manu

One hundred and sixty-four DDT analyses were conducted on breast muscle of 527 American woodcocks (Philohela minor) collected in New Brunswick during the fall in 1969, 1970, and 1971. DDT residues (= p,p'-DDE + p,p'-DDD + p,p'-DDT) were detected in all samples, the mean concentration of 2.07 ppm (dry weight) being somewhat higher than levels found in 1959-61. Residue levels (wet weight) in woodcocks were directly correlated (P 0.05) in DDT residue concentrations could be attributed to the age of the birds. DDT levels did not change significantly (P > 0.05) in woodcock samples taken from the same site throughout the fall season. There was a significant (P < 0.01) correlation between DDT levels (dry weight) in wings and in breast muscle, indicating the usefulness of wings, which are collected for other purposes, for DDT residue monitoring. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 38(2):331-337 In the course of a pesticide residue monitoring program, prompted by an extensive and prolonged use of DDT against spruce budworm in New Brunswick, 13 woodcocks were collected for the Canadian Wildlife Service in the province during the 1969 hunting season (Pearce and Baird 1971). Total DDT (= p,p'-DDE + p,p'-DDD + p,p'-DDT) residue levels in the breast muscle of some of those samples were high, (weighted mean, 25.4 ppm lipid-weight), relative to the tolerance of 7 ppm in the fat of meat for human food set by the Food and Drug Directorate of the Canada Department of National Health and Welfare. Consequently 46 additional woodcocks were collected by Canadian Wildlife Service and New Brunswick Fish and Wildlife Branch and analyzed during early September 1970, just prior to the scheduled opening of the hunting season. The relatively high DDT content of some of those samples was considered by the Food and Drug Directorate to present an unacceptable potential hazard to human health, with the result that a complete closure of the woodcock hunting season in New Brunswick was agreed on by federal and provincial health and wildlife agencies. Further sampling resulted in a better definition of the area ,'f heaviest contamination and closure of the hunting season in only the central region of the province in 1971 and 1972. The objective of this paper is to present DDT residue data of 527 woodcocks which were collected in New Brunswick in the fall in 1969, 1970, and 1971 so that management decisions could be made to minimize the hazard to the health of the woodcockhunting public. We appreciate the assistance of personnel of the New Brunswick Department of Natural Resources and others, especially F. C. Swan, who collected some of the woodcocks for us. We are greatly indebted to L. M. Reynolds, Ontario Research Foundation (ORF), who conducted all the chemical analyses of the samples, and to J. A. Keith and H. Boyd, Canadian Wildlife Service, for their critical comments on the manuscript. Financial assistance was provided in part by the Canadian National Sportsmen's Show. j. Wildl. Manage. 38 (2):1974 331 This content downloaded from 207.46.13.114 on Thu, 26 May 2016 06:20:18 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 332 DDT IN WOODCOCKS * Dilworth et al. Table 1. Total DDT residues in breast muscle of woodcocks collected in New Brunswick in 1969, 1970, and 1971. Total no. Total DDT Year Spray history of of breast samples collection sites No. of muscle Mean SE IMean SE collected (lb DDT/acre) analyses samples (ppm wet wt) (ppm lipid wt) 1969 None 2 2 0.02 0.60 2.6 4 11 1.33 0.48 29.9 10.3 1970 None 33 161 0.07 0.02 2.24 0.58 0.5 8 15 0.14 0.03 4.17 1.85 0.6 8 20 0.61 0.46 17.3 5.54 0.7 7 23 0.22 0.08 8.05 3.89 0.9 1 2 0.25 15.8 1.0 2 4 0.20 0.05 7.84 6.04 1.2 3 6 0.51 0.36 26.6 0.94 1.5 6 22 0.16 0.01 5.00 1.78 1.6 1 1 0.42 26.4 2.2 2 2 0.80 65.4 2.6 14 45 2.33 0.54 74.7 28.1 2.8 5 5 1.21 0.81 112 67.0 2.9 2 2 0.66 22.6 1971 None 17 45 0.10 0.03 9.16 3.51 0.1 1 2 0.14 11.7 0.2 1 1 0.13 8.67 0.6 15 35 0.57 0.16 12.8 3.94 1.5 1 1 0.15 4.12 2.2 2 5 0.65 47.5 2.6 21 80 1.38 0.40 58.3 7.22 2.8 3 3 1.59 0.90 116 102 2.9 5 34 0.81 0.46 49.9 28.9

Serum cholesterol values were determined by analysis of postmortem samples taken from 31 white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) harvested from the E. S. George Reserve from October 1970 through January 1971. Cholesterol showed a definite downward trend through the harvest season, with October levels significantly higher (P < 0.05) than any of the following three months. Serum cholesterol was believed to reflect the quality and/or quantity of the forage in the animals' diets, and may have significant value as an index of nutritional condition. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 39(2):342-345 Many factors are employed as indices of the condition of white-tailed deer. These include physical factors of the deer themselves such as size and weight (Severinghaus 1946, P-R Job Prog. Rep., Proj. 1-R, New York Dept. Environ. Conserv., Albany; Severinghaus and Cheatum 1956), kidney (Riney 1955) and bone marrow fat concentrations (Cheatum 1949), and even rumen liquor analysis for volatile fatty acids (Davis 1972). This paper explores the possibility that serum cholesterol is an index of the condition of white-tailed deer in

The sizes of stomach compartments relative to total body weight and carcass weight were compared among roe (Capreolus capreolus), red (Cervus elaphus), and fallow deer (Cervus dama) collected in Hungary. The relative rumen-reticulum tissue weight as a percentage of body weight was similar for all three species. As the body size of the species increased, the relative weight of omasal tissue increased, and abomasum tissue decreased. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 39(3):621-624 Capacities of the different stomach compartments of the digestive tract have important implications in the nutrition of ruminant animals. The rumen capacity in relation to body weight influences the retention time of food in the rumen. Animals with a smaller rumen must have a higher turnover rate to secure their nutrient needs, whereas animals with a large rumen can retain ingesta for a longer time and consequently digest more fiber (Hungate 1966: 414). The food habits of ruminant animals are influenced to some degree by rumen capacity. Animals with a small rumen must select forage lower in fiber and higher in digestibility than animals with a large rumen in order to satisfy energy needs. The relationships of rumen contents weight and rumen volume to total body weight have been reported for sheep by Purser and Moir (1966), for mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) by Short et al. (1965), and for white-tailed deer (0. virginianus) by Short et al. (1969). The purpose of this paper is to report the size of the various organs of the digestive tract in relation to animal weight for three species of wild European ruminants: roe, fallow, and red deer. This research was made possible through a cooperative agreement between the Hungarian Academy of Sciences and the U.S. National Academy of Sciences. Thanks are extended for the cooperation, helpful suggestions, and actual work contributed by L. Bencze, A. Bleier, K. Boroczky, T. Fodor, J. Hopp, G. Nagy, L. Sugar, S. Toth, and many other Hungarian game managers who helped throughout the study. Special thanks are due to the two daughters of the senior author who helped prepare the materials for study.

Population changes from 1951 to 1972 in the Cache elk (Cervus canadensis) herd are discussed, based on analyses of aerial trend counts, productivity estimates, hunting pressure trends, harvest figures, and tagging data. Population changes during the study period could be correlated with levels of female harvest. Mortality rates, derived from analysis of tag recoveries from 1951 to 1960 were 0.42 and 0.36 for males and females, respectively. Female recruitment for the same period averaged 28 calves per 100 cows. The disparity between recruitment and mortality resulted in a population decline of approximately 8 percent per year from 1959 to 1966. Curtailment of female harvest (1966-68) effected a reversal of this decline, the population increasing at approximately 15 percent annually during the initial recovery phase. Following initiation of unlimited bull hunting (1968) the rate of population growth dropped to approximately 3 percent. Various contributory components of the female mortality rate are estimated to interpret the observed differential rates of population change. Estimated rates of hunting and "other" mortality for females during the period 1951-60 are 0.16 and 0.24, respectively. Observed and predicted initial effects of unlimited bull hunting and various levels of female harvest are also discussed as guidelines in future management. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 38(2):761-174 The primary objectives of early elk management programs in Utah were the protection of elk populations and removal of nuisance animals (Olsen 1943). As elk populations prospered under this protection, accompanied by increasing demands on the resource, the need for a more refined management program developed. In an effort to gain more knowledge about these expanding populations, the Utah Division of Wildlife Resources complemented its regular management program with periodic research projects (McCormack 1951, Hancock 1955, King and Muir 1971, Follis 1972). The history of the Cache elk herd, as described by McCormack (1951) and Hancock (1955), generally parallels a pattern found throughout the West. Following settlement of the area, the native elk population declined rapidly, until by the late 1800's it was virtually eliminated. Between 1911 and 1917 elk were reintroduced with the aid of local sportsmen's organizations. The first subsequent elk hunt was authorized in 1925 primarily to control nuisance animals; since 1931 elk hunts have been held annually. Early hunts were restricted to bull-only permits, but from 1935 through 1967 antlerless or either-sex permits were also issued. Hunting pressure prior to 1968 was limited by the number of permits authorize . Since 1968, however, the unit has been open to unlimited "open-bull" hunting with limited either-sex permits offered for specific problem areas only. With the advent of open-bull seasons, hunter participa ion more than tripled. Watershed management and range protection, competition with deer (Odocoileus hemionus) and livestock, loss of winter and summer range to suburban development, and increasing recreational demands also augmented pressures on the elk herd and intensified the need for better understanding of the population. In this paper, we have attempted to integrate annual survey data with the results of specific studies cited above and tagging data into a general population analysis of the Cache elk herd. The analysis should provide insights into the following aspects of our management program: (1) the effect on the population of the increased bull J. Wildl. Manage. 38(2):1974 161 This content downloaded from 157.55.39.45 on Thu, 01 Sep 2016 05:40:21 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 162 ELK POPULATION ANALYSIS * Kimball and Wolfe TA7AH BEAR WINTER RANGE

The growth rate of brown trout (Salmo trutta L.) is affected by many factors including the size and metabolic requirements of the fish, the water temperature, and the amount of food eaten by the fish. As a result of previous work on feeding and growth, it is now possible to estimate the maximum weight of food eaten in a day and the maximum growth rate of trout in the weight range 5-300 g at both constant and fluctuating temperatures in the range 3.8-19.5? C (Elliott 1975a, b). The chief purpose of the present paper is to investigate the relationship between the growth rate of brown trout and the amount of food eaten in a day. A mathematical model is developed to estimate the daily ration required for different levels of growth ranging from zero to maximum growth rate.

Distributional data on over 250 specimens of reptiles collected in Nebraska since Hudson's (1942) herpetofaunal survey are presented. Information on reproduction, feeding, and growth, based on the specimens, is included. Subspecific relationships of milk snakes (Lampropeltis triangulum) in southwestern Nebraska are discussed. Trans. Kans. Acad. Sci., Vol. 78 (1-2), 1975. Nebraska has one of the least studied herpetofaunas of any state. Very little information has appeared since Hudson's (1942) survey, and much of his natural history information was drawn from sources pertaining to other than Nebraska specimens. The need for further investigation of Nebraska reptiles is apparent. This account relates information accumulated on Nebraska reptiles during the period 1968 to 1975. Most specimens collected during that period have been deposited in either the University of Nebraska State Museum (UN) or the Florida State Museum (FSM). Those cataloged in my private collection (JBI) are to be deposited in the Nebraska State Museum. Also included in the following list are Nebraska reptiles deposited in the Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan (,UMMZ) since Hudson's (1942) paper. Lengths are total lengths unless snoutvent length (SV) is indicated. Order Squamata FAMILY IGUANIDAE Holbrookia maculata Cherry Co.: Hackberry Lake (UMMZ 74715) Keith Co.: No further data (FSM 32772) Thomas Co.: Halsey (UMMZ 97501: 3 specs.) Sceloporus undulatus Chase Co.: Rt. 61 at Enders Dam (JBI 33) Cherry Co.: Hackberry Lake (UMMZ 747 16: 5 specs.) Dundy Co.: 1 mi. N. Rock Creek Fish Hatchery (JBI 30-32) A May 9, 1974, specimen (JBI 33) measured 54 mm SV, and contained four eggs, averaging 11 x 6.5 mm, in each oviduct. One of two females collected on May 9, 1974 (JBI 30) measured 40.6 mm SV and lacked eggs or enlarged follicles. The second (JBI 32) measured 50 mm SV and bore two slightly enlarged follicles (2.5 mm diameter) in her right ovary and three in her left.

Digestive organ lengths, weights, and volumes in each of three groups of mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) were determined at the end of a 21-day period, during which one group was fed turkey starter (control diet), another group was fed whole corn (low fiber content), and the third group was fed alfalfa pellets (high fiber content) to demonstrate the adaptive efficiency of the waterfowl gut to diets of varying quality. Food consumption by the alfalfa-fed ducks was significantly greater (P ( 0.01) than the other two groups. All digestive organs of the alfalfa-fed ducks were significantly larger (P < 0.01) than those of the cornand turkey starter-fed ducks at the end of the study. It is concluded that mallards can adapt rapidly to fibrous, relatively indigestible foods. This ability may have survival value when higher quality foods are unavailable or when food habits change rapidly during migrations. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 39(1):168-173 The ability of wild birds to survive on low quality foods (herein defined as foods relatively indigestible because of high fiber content), and the changes that occur in gut morphology and function in order to do so, have received relatively little attention. In gallinaceous birds, consumption of high quality diets (low fiber content, easily digested) is correlated with short guts and ceca, while consumption of low quality diets results in longer guts and ceca (Leopold 1953, Lewin 1963, Gardarsson 1971, Moss 1972, Pendergast and Boag 1973). These relationships need investigation in waterfowl. An increase in the efficiency of utilization of low quality foods may have survival value when favored, highly nutritious foods are not available. The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate the short term adaptive response of mallards to foods of varying quality by measuring differences in gut morphology among groups of these ducks fed different diets. I wish to thank D. G. Raveling for arranging financial support, for encouragement during the study, and for editorial assistance and guidance on the manuscript. R. G. Schwab provided the ducks, and R. Cole and K. Miller assisted me during the

Previous failure to obtain development beyond early cleavage of eggs of Nematospiroides dubius deposited by worms fertilized in vitro (Sommerville and Weinstein, 1964), appears to be due to a temperature effect. In the present study, sexually mature females obtained from mice were cultured at 37 C and the eggs deposited during the first 24 hr were reincubated at 25 C; none completed more than early embryonation. However, such females transferred directly from mice to cultures maintained at 25 C, deposited eggs of which 40 to 70% embryonated normally and hatched. In experiments with eggs dissected from the uteri of worms, as little as 4to 8-hr exposure of eggs to 37 C prior to their incubation at 25 C caused the proportion of eggs hatched to decrease. Hatching was slight after 16hr exposure, and did not occur after 20 hr. These figures do not include about a 3-hr period at 37 C, required for the dissection of the worms and preparation of the egg inoculum. Substitution of nitrogen for air during the 8-hr incubation at 37 C, did not modify or reduce the injurious temperature effect. Eggs in early cleavage were less affected by exposure to 37 C than those in later stages of development, such as the late blastula, tadpole "C"-shape, and early vermiform. These results indicate that eggs produced by N. dubius in culture at 37 C should be harvested and removed to a lower temperature within a few hours following their deposition if viable embryos are to be obtained for continuation of the life cycle. In a study of the reproductive behavior of N. dubius in vitro, Sommerville and Weinstein (1964) reported some females were apparently fertilized by the males, but that invariably the eggs harvested from the medium did not develop beyond early cleavage. In that study, eggs deposited at 37 C were collected once daily, and were subsequently maintained at 18 to 22 C. It appeared possible that the failure to obtain complete embryonation and hatching might have been due to the fact that the eggs thus exposed to 37 C for approximately 24 hr were injured. This paper reports observations on the effect of temperature on the development of N. dubius eggs under axenic conditions. MATERIALS AND METHODS To obtain worms as a source of eggs, male mice (NIH "general purpose" strain) were each infected with 200 to 400 filariform larvae. Mature adults were recovered from the intestines and thoroughly washed in saline containing antibiotics, following the procedures previously described (Sommerville Received for publication 20 August 1968. * Guest Worker, supported by the Japan-United States Cooperative Medical Science Program. Present address: Department of Parasitology National Institute of Health, Shinagawa-Ku, Tokyo, Japan. and Weinstein, 1964), except for some modifications noted below. In those experiments in which worms or the eggs obtained from them were to be exposed to 37 C as a test condition, worms were recovered from the intestines, and cultures were prepared in a warm room maintained at 36 to 37 C. This assured that neither worms nor eggs were exposed to a drop in temperature prior to the initiation of the test condition. The uterus of such worms contained eggs in various stages of development, ranging from newly fertilized ova in the anterior portion to eggs containing embryos in the 2to 8-cell stage in the posterior uterus. Preparation of cultures with eggs deposited by adult worms: Female worms were recovered from mice infected for approximately 2 months, and were inoculated into the following media: 1) NCTC 109 (McQuilkin, Evans, and Earle, 1957) alone or containing 20% fetal bovine serum; 2) chick embryo extract, human serum and a vitamin mixture (Weinstein and Jones, 1959). All media contained 200 units penicillin and 100 ,ug streptomycin per ml. Duplicate sets to which mycostatin was also added at a concentration of 50 ug per ml medium, were tested as well. The culture tubes (16 by 150 mm) contained 1 ml medium, and each was inoculated with one or two female worms; the gas phase was 5% CO2 in air. The tubes were rotated in drums at 12 revolutions per hour. Duplicate sets of all media tested were prepared; following inoculation of the cultures one set was incubated at 25 C, the other at 37 C. At the end of 24 hr, the worms were removed from the tubes, and all cultures of deposited eggs were then incubated at 25 C to permit normal embryo

During the summers of 1930, 1931, and ten days in the middle of May 1931 collection of shrubs of Emmet and Cheboygan counties were made. The collecting was done in the vicinity of the University of Michigan Biological Station, the keying out and the checking of the identifications was done at the University of Michigan Herbarium. Since a floral key would be of little value to the summer student or research worker, the keys are based upon foliage characteristics. Sets of the specimetis collected were given to the University of Michigan Herbarium and to the University-of Michigan Biological Station Herbarium. A set has also been retained in the writer's personal Herbarium. The total number of shrubs reported for this region as compiled from various sources is about 140 species, but this number has been reduced because of the lack of specimens to substantiate some of the records. The following shrubs Spirea latifolia, Sorbus subvestita, Vaccinium vacillans, Vaccirnium corymbosum, Vaccinium uliginosum, Salix pyrifolia, Viburnum pubesc(ns and Rubus randii have been reported by others for the two counties, but as there appear to be no collections to verify them, they have been omitted. Cultivated shrubs have not been included unless they have spread from their original planting and become established elsewhere. The number of shrubs for Emmet and Cheboygan counties as thus limited is 128 specimens and 22 varieties or a total of 150. Twenty-five of the shrubs which are found in Cheboygan County are not found in Emmet County, and there are only 5 shrubs found in Emmet County which are not found in Cheboygan County. Two factors are responsible for this uneven distribution; first, Cheboygan County has been botanically surveyed more carefully than Emmet County; secondly, Cheboygan County has all the ecological communities that Emmet County has besides a very large jack pine plains area, which is absent in Emmet County. In the preparation of this paper Roserdahl and Butters' recent publication "Trees and Shrubs of Minnesota" was followed for nomenclature and sequence of families. The author wishes to thank Dr. J. H. Ehlers, under whom the work was done, for many helpful suggestions and encouragement. He also wished to express his appreciation of the aid of Dr. C. R. Ball, Dr. E. W. Erlanson, and Dr. K. M. Wiegand for checking over material of Salix, Rosa, and Amelanchier. He is also indebted to Dr. F. C. Gates for supplying data concerning habitats and to Mr. Arthur Blickle for checking the keys. Capital letter "C" indicates that the shrub is found in Cheboygan Countv ( 230)

The primary purpose of this study was to obtain data on the molt pattern and growth rate of captive known-age young blue grouse (Dendragapus obscurus) upon which to base a system of age determination. Secondarily, observations were made on the molt pattern of adult and subadult blue grouse raised in captivity. The average weight (measured at weekly intervals) of the young birds in 1960 was conspicuously different from the average weight obtained in 1961. This variation in weight was attributed to a difference in diet during the first 4 weeks of life. The average weight of young wild blue grouse closely approximated the average weight of the 1960 captive juveniles at a corresponding age, whereas the wild birds were heavier than the 1961 captive birds at a corresponding age. The growth rates of post-juvenal primaries and rectrices, rather than sequence of feather loss, provided the principal means for placing young blue grouse in weekly categories from the third to the eleventh week. The loss of the primary and secondary remiges in subadult male blue grouse (about a year of age) commenced earlier than did the loss in adult males, remaining in advance of the adults until October. Techniques for determining age of game birds are used widely for analyzing and comparing age structure of populations by time and area. A means for determining age of young blue grouse to the nearest week had not been conclusively determined when our study began. Bendell (1955: 354) used the sequence of feather loss over the entire bird for placing young grouse in 2-week categories. The ages of the wild b rds used in his study were determined from the peak of hatching, and therefore were not known exactly. The research upon which this paper is based was conThis content downloaded from 157.55.39.203 on Sat, 27 Aug 2016 05:47:03 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms BLUE GROUSE AGING* Smith and Buss 567 ducted in 1960 and 1961 and was designed: (1) to obtain, from young blue grouse, characteristics which are precise enough to allow age determination to the nearest week, and (2) to record observations on molt patterns of subadult and adult grouse. The data for this study were taken from a thesis submitted by the senior author in partial fulfillment of the requirements for an M.S. degree in Wildlife Biology at Washington State University. The investigation was supported in part by funds provided for biological and medical research by the State of Washington Initiative Measure No. 171. Acknowledgment is made to the State of Washington Department of Game and the Washington Game Bird Club for providing funds to construct experimental pens. Acknowledgment is also made to Oscar W. Johnson, Department of Zoology, Washington State University, for critical reading of the manuscript. Appreciation is expressed to Leo S. Jensen, Department of Poultry Science, Washington State University, for technical assistance in developing the bird diets used in this investigation. MATERIALS AND METHODS Three broods were hatched from captive grouse, Broods A and B in 1960 and C in 1961. Brood A consisted of three birds. Four birds were present originally in Brood B, but two died at 3 and 7 weeks respectively. Four of the eight chicks hatched in 1961 had died by 5 days of age; the remaining four birds survived until October 26, 1961, when field observations ended and the birds were utilized for study skins. All chicks were taken from the hen as soon after hatching as possible and placed in a small brooder at a temperature from 85 F to 95 F for the first week. Thereafter the brooder was utilized only at night and during cool days until the chicks were 5 weeks of age. At this age, their feather development was adequate to protect them against climatic contingencies, and they were placed in large pens like those occupied by the adult grouse. Food and feeding techniques varied between 1960 and 1961. In 1960, the young birds were started on mealworms (larvae of Tenebrio molitor), turkey starter mash, chopped dandelion greens, and hard-boiled egg. Mealworms were the chief food until the second or third week, at which time the birds were shifted to the other foods. During the first 4 weeks, while they were confined to the brooder, the chicks were r leased daily for about an hour on a mowed lawn, where they consumed insects, grass, and weeds. Between the fifth and s xth week of age, they were gradually shifted to whole-grain wheat, cracked corn, crushed oyster shells, crushed rock, and a pellet food formulated by the Poultry Science Department at Washington State University (for ingredients see Table 1, Nelson et al. 1962:270). In 1961, the newly hatched blue grouse were placed in a brooder with a supply of turkey starter mash. At the same time, a newly hatched domestic chicken was obtained and placed with the grouse chicks. The young chicken began pecking at the mash at once, and the blue grouse followed its actions. Thus the grouse were started on mash, and despite a daily ration of mealworms, the mash was the chief food. Alfalfa was provided daily and was devoured quickly by the young birds. As in the previous year, the birds were placed on a mowed lawn for about an hour each day. The diet was shifted gradually to the adult diet soon after the young grouse were placed in one of the large pens. This pen contained a bush of honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica), the berries of which were aten promptly by the young grouse. This content downloaded from 157.55.39.203 on Sat, 27 Aug 2016 05:47:03 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 568 Journal of Wildlife Management, Vol. 27, No. 4, October 1963 Medication (an antibiotic and blackhead preventative) was added to the drinking water in 1961. The following data were recorded weekly for the young grouse: weight; the last primary dropped; the primaries that were found, on gross examination, to contain blood (also recorded for secondaries and rectrices in 1961); and the length of primaries, secondaries, and rectrices (1961 only). The average weekly growth rates of post-juvenal primaries were obtained by subtracting the length observed when first measured from the final length and dividing by the number of weeks required to complete development. In 1960, weekly photographs were taken of the young grouse against a grid of 2-inch squares, with the birds placed as close to the grid as possible to reduce the effect of parallax. These photographs disclosed subtle, but definite, week-to-week differences among males which would be very difficult to convey in words. Until the grouse were 9 weeks of age, photographs were taken of both sexes; thereafter, photographs were taken of males only. All linear measurements were recorded to the nearest millimeter and all weights were recorded to the nearest gram. In 1960, the eight captive adults and four subadults were maintained exclusively for breeding purposes and for the development of a larger colony of experimental grouse. Since handling might have jeopardized breeding success, these grouse were not used for study purposes. In 1961, two subadults, three adult males, and three adult females were present in the experimental flock. Observational procedures were generally the same as for the young birds. The grouse were examined weekly, commencing at the time the first dropped feather was observed, on May 22. At this time, only the males were examined, as the nesting season was not yet complete and disturbance of the females was deemed undesirable. The first female was examined on May 29; the other two females were exam ned initially on June 6. Observations on all grouse were terminated on October 26. The following records were kept for the dult and subadult grouse: the last primary, secondary, and rectrix which had been dropped; the primaries, secondaries, and rectrices which contained blood; the lengths of the incomplete primaries, secondaries, and rectrices; and the development of feathers in the various feather tracts. Development of the contour feathers was observed by stroking the feathers toward the head and noting the area of each feather tract which contained incomplete feathers. Measurements of the flight feathers were obtained by placing a rule against the patagium on the distal side of the feather being measured. Rectrices were measured with a rule from tip to point of insertion. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION There was a conspicuous difference in average weights of young birds between the 2 years of this study. This difference is presented graphically in Figs. I and 2.

Decline in cottontail (Sylvilagus floridanus) Iens weight due to freezing was dramatic and quite variable, indicating use of frozen lenses would be of little value for determining age. The presence of a black ciliary ring around the equator of frozen lenses was not a suitable criterion for separating frozen from normal lenses. Since the development of e eye-lens technique for aging wildlife (Lord 1959), much time and effort have been involved in delineating possible variables that would alter the lens weight and thus the estimated age of an animal (Friend 1967a, 1967b ) . Friend (1967b ) emphasized that techniques in handling, preserving, and weighing of lenses may alter results. Montgomery (1963) and Rongstad (1966) reported that decomposition caused changes in lens weight. Montgomery (1963) also presented evidence of a reduction in weight of lenses due to freezing. Longhurst (1964) and Friend (1967b) found no evidence of this phenomenon in domestic sheep or whitetailed deer ( Odoicoi1Mus virgtnianus ) . However, Friend (1967a ) noted a slight decrease in weight of frozen lenses of guinea pigs (Cavgporcellus). This paper discusses the effect of freezing on lens weight as a variable in estimating the age of the cottontail rabbit. lThis study was supported through a research contract from the Federal Aid Division of the Georgia Game and Fish Commission. Certain equipment, supplies, and other funds were also made available from McIntire-Stennis Project No. 11 of the College Experiment Stations, Athens, in cooperation with the Georgia Forest Research Council. 2Present address: Department of Forestry, University of Tennessee, Knoxville. MATERIALS AND METHODS One eye from each of 70 rabbits was removed immediately after collection and placed in 10 percent formalin. The rabbit was then frozen (-15C) for 2S30 days prior to dissection. Upon dissection, the other eye was removed and placed in formalin. Eyes remained in formalin for a minimum of 30 days. Lenses were dried in a forced air oven for 6 days at 85 C and weighed. Loss in weight due to freezing was expressed as the percent difference between the weights of the frozen and unfrozen lenses of each pair. This method of handling these data is based on previous findings that the weights of both lenses of a given individual cottontail are essentially the same (Lord 1959). An additional 70 pairs of normally preserved lenses in the present study revealed a mean difference of 1.6 mg between the right and left lenses (SD = + 3.08, SE = 0.3S, range 0-15.6 mg). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The mean difference between frozen and unfrozen lenses ( n = 70 ) was 41.4 mg (SD = + 23.6, SE = 2.81, range 2.0-100.0 mg). Distribution of percentage change between the 70 pairs of cottontail lenses is presented in Fig. 1. These data indicate 205 BRIEFER ARTICLES This content downloaded from 157.55.39.17 on Thu, 01 Sep 2016 05:13:35 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 206 Journal of Wildlife Management, Vol. 34, No. 1, January 1970

Effects of time between collection of inoculum and initiation of in vitro digestion and effects of method of storage and temperature of the inoculum upon in vitro digestion of a ground alfalfa sub- strate were examined. There was a significant decrease ( P < 0.05 ) in digestion of dry matter after stor- age of rumen inoculum from mule deer ( Odocoileus hemionus) for more than 2 hours. In vitro digestion of dry matter was greater when inocula were stored at 38.5 C than at 7 C. Inocula strained through cheesecloth and stored without buffer produced higher dry matter digestion than was produced by either inocula strained and stored with buffer or with unstrained unbuffered inocula. Wildlife biologists have adopted tech- niques of in vitro digestion for measuring the nutritional values of forages used by wild ruminants. Captive, sometimes rumen- fistulated, animals are often used as donors of rumen inoculum. However, research objectives may dictate that inoculum be obtained from wild animals far from the laboratory. The collection of inoculum from field animals may require that rumen fluid be in transit for several hours; during the time ill transit the quality of the inoculum is expected to change. This paper describes the effects of the time between collection of inoculum and initiation of in vitro digestion and the effects of the techniques of storing the inoculum and storage temperature of the inoculum upon in vitro digestion of a ground alfalfa substrate. We thank Drs. J. A. Bailey and O. C. Wallmo and W. L. Regelin for review of the manuscript.

Two digestion-intake trials were eonducted with 24 male and female white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) fawns during January, February, and Mareh 1971. Within eaeh trial deer were randomly assigned to one of six treatments representing a basal diet diluted with oak sawdust in levels of 0, 15, 25, 30, 35, and 45 pereent. Dry matter (DM) digestibility and the digestible energy (DE) eontent ( keal DE/gram ) were highly eorrelated with the pereent dilution. Dry matter intake (grams/BW[kg body weight]0 75/day) inereased as digestibility deereased from a high of 3.44 keal DE/gram to 2.17 keal DE/ gram; below this point intake deereased. Digesftible energy intake ( keal DE/BW0 75/day + SE ), on the other hand, remained relatively eonstant (155.2+7.46) keal above 2.17 keal DE/gram. The data indieate that these animals were able to maintain a constant energy balanee, elose to the maintenanee requirements of fawns, by adjusting dry matter intake when fed diets of medium to high digestibility (DE > SO pereent ) . Below 2.17 keal DE/gram, energy intake deereased with the decrease in dry matter intake. The point (2.17 keal DE/gram) representing the interseetion of two regression lines for DM intake versus keal DE/gram of feed was taken to be the threshold at whieh digestive traet fill began to limit the dry matter and energy intake of these animals. These results are diseussed in terms of a theoretieal model of the intake mechanism of ruminants. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 37(2): 95-20 Z Studies of domestic ruminants have shown thatn for diets of low digestibility, there is a positive correlation between voluntary dry matter intake and digestibility. For highly digestible diets, there is a negative correlation ( Blaxter et al. 1961, Conrad et al. 1964). Montgomery and Baumgardt (1965) (Fig. 1) have examined this phenomenon and constructed a model of the intake regulatory mechanism of ruminants. According to this model, various feeds can be thought of as points on a continuum from low to lligh digestibility. Ruminants are able to regulate dry matter intake over a wide portion of this continuum so that their energy 1 Published with lie approval of the Director of ie Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment Station as Journal Article No. 4186. Authorized April 17, 1972. Supported in part by U.S. Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station Contract No. 23-()0-124, Supplement No. 16, and the Pennsylvania Game Gemmission. Paper number lS9 of the Pennsylvania Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit. intake remains equal to their need. At the igh r levels of digestibility, this is done by increasing intake as digestibility decreases, explaining the negative correlation between digestibility and intake observed at high levels of digestibility. As digestibility further decreases, a point is reached where the animal is eating to the maximum capacity of the digestive tract. This point is the threshold where digestive tract fill begins to limit intake. Above this threshold the animal is able to increase its intake for each decrease in digestibility. Below this threshold (all or a part of) the digestive tract remains filled to capacity, but as the digestibility of the feed decreases so does the rate of passage. The effect is decreased intake for each decrease in digestibility. For a given animal the location of the fill threshold along the continuum of digestibility depends on its energy requirements. For maintenance the threshold assumes its lowest value, below which the animal enters J. Wildl. .Manage. 37(2):1973 195 This content downloaded from 157.55.39.158 on Fri, 18 Nov 2016 04:12:27 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms Table 1. Ingredients of the basal diet.

The productivity of bearded Rio Grande wild turkey (Meleagris gallapavo intermedia) hens was investigated on the King Ranch in South Texas from June to September, 1968. Field observations indicated there was no significant difference (P < 0.05) between the ratio of bearded or non-bearded hens with or without poults nor in brood sizes. The purpose of this paper is to assess the reproductive capabilities of bearded wild turkey hens in South Texas. The beard of the wild turkey is normally a characteristic of the male. Beards have, however, been reported on hens in a number of studies ( Table 1 ) . Walker ( 1950:3 ) reports that in Texas, bearded hens are common in the Rio Grande turkey. Schorger (1957:445) reports an incidence of 10 percent of females with beards. The beard has been used as a crude indicator of age for the wild turkey (Mosby and Handley 1943). Young (1955:453) states that, with age, there is an increasing tendency towards maleness in female birds. Schorger (1957:445) notes that the beard is a poor sex character because castration of males does not prevent beard growth. If the beards on hen wild turkeys signify lack of reproductive capability, it follows that this segment of the turkey population could be harvested as legal game along with the males. This study was conducted from June 8 through September 10, 1968. Three divisions of the King Ranch in South Texas were selected as sites for three study areas. The northwestern part of Kleberg County was the site for the 26,800-acre mesquite (Prosopsis juliflora)-brushland study area on the Santa Gertrudis division of the ranch. A 12,200-acre live oak (Quercus virginiana) 1 Research was supported by King Ranch, Inc. and the University of Wisconsin. area was selected on the Eneino division in Kennedy and Brooks eounties, and a 16,000-acre live oak serub ( Q. oleoides ) area was located on the eoastal seetion of the Laureles division in northeastern Kleberg and southeastern Nueees counties. I extend thanks to R. A. MeCabe of the University of Wisconsin and W. H. Kiel, Jr., King Raneh, Ine. for advice and assistanee throughout this project, as well as in the preparation of the manuseript.

The amino-acid lysine is an important constituent of animal diets, and methods of assaying it have been widely studied (e.g. Tsien, Johnson & Liener [1957]; Ousterhout, Grau & Lundholm [1959]). The interpretation of such assays is not always easy because of the suspicion that,factors other than lysine in the test foods may be changing the food consumption of the experimental animals and thus their rate of growth. 'Paired' or controlled feeding of animals would greatly complicate the experiments and would also bring some separate problems of interpretation. This paper describes the analysis of an assay using chicks between the ages of 10 and 20 days; the results have been reported by Carpenter, March, Milner & Campbell [1963]. Three types of dose-response relationship were used; weight gain and food conversion efficiency were related to dose level of lysine, whilst in the third analysis, a development of the work of Gupta, Dakroury, Harper & Elvehjem [1958], weight gain was related to the actual weight of lysine eaten. The calculations needed for these analyses are first described, and then two sets of experimental results are used to compare them; a worked example is given of the third type.

The purpose of this paper is to report the effect on breeding in Missouri cottontails of a period of abnormally high snowfall and prolonged cold in February and March of 1960. In most years, central Missouri cottontails (Sylvilagus floridanus) begin breeding about the end of February. Schwartz's (1942) data for 1939 and 1940 showed first conception dates about March 1, and our own data for 1958 and 1959 show a median first conception date of February 26. The uniformity of the onset of breeding in these 4 years suggests a photoperiod effect governing the onset of breeding. Lyman (1943) demonstrated that altering the duration of illumination may modify greatly both the sexual and molting cycle in the varying hare. Bissonette (1938) and Bisson

Detailed descriptions are given of the sporulated oocysts and sporozoites of the following species of coccidia from cattle: Eimeria bovis (Ziiblin, 1908) Fiebiger, 1912; E. auburnensis Christensen and Porter, 1939; E. ellipsoidalis Becker and Frye, 1929; and E. zurnii (Rivolta, 1878) Martin, 1909. Eleven or more species of coccidia of the genus Eimeria are currently recognized as occurring in bovine animals. Difficulty is often encountered in the identification of many of these species, partly because complete descriptions of their sporulated oocysts are lacking. Detailed descriptions of sporulated oocysts and sporozoites of four commonly encountered species of bovine coccidia are presented to augment the descriptions and illustrations reported by others (Becker and Frye, 1929; Becker, 1934; Christensen and Porter, 1939; Christensen, 1941; Hammond et al., 1946; and Davis and Bowman, 1952). The four species are Eimeria bovis (Ziiblin, 1908) Fiebiger, 1912; E. auburnensis Christensen and Porter, 1939; E. ellipsoidalis Becker and Frye, 1929; and E. zurnii (Rivolta, 1878) Martin, 1909. MATERIALS AND METHODS Oocysts of Eimeria bovis, E. auburnensis, E. ellipsoidalis, and E. zurnii were obtained from fecal samples collected from experimentally infected calves. Each sample was strained through a series of sieves, concentrated by repeated sedimentation, and the final sediment suspended in 2.5% potassium dichromate. Sporulation was induced by constant stirring of the mixture with a rotary mixer for several days. Before they were used, the oocysts were freed from potassium dichromate by repeated washing and centrifugation. The oocysts were then concentrated and freed from debris, using a modification of the differential sugar gradient described by Sharma et al. (1963). Our modified gradient was prepared by putting successively decreasing concentrations of sugar solutions into 50-ml centrifuge tubes as follows: 10.0 ml of saturated sugar solution; 8 ml of two parts water, five parts saturated sugar solution; 10 ml of one part water, Received for publication 5 February 1965. * Supported in part by research grant GB-785 from the National Science Foundation. Published as Journal Paper No. 444 Utah Agricultural Experiment Station. one part saturated sugar solution; 6 ml of two parts water, one part saturated sugar solution; 8 ml of water; and 6 to 8 ml of oocyst suspension added at the top. The tubes were centrifuged at 800 g for 5 min, after which time a layering of the oocyst suspension had occurred. The layering pattern, from the top of the tube to the bottom was: (1) clean layer, (2) cloudy layer, and (3) two dark opaque layers (containing most of the debris). Layers 1 and 2, containing most of the oocysts, were pipetted ff, and washed free of sugar by centrifugation. Measurements of 50 oocysts and sporocysts of each species were made from wet-mount preparations of the concentrated, sporulated oocysts. For drawings, preparations were used in which the oocysts were flattened under the pressure of a cover slip, sealed along its edges with vaseline. Free sporozoites were obtained by using the method of in vitro excystation described by Nyberg and Hammond (1964); oocysts pretreated with CO2 were incubated in bile-enzyme mixtures. The length, and the width at a point 3 ,u from the anterior end, of at least 10 free sporozoites of each species were measured. Measurements were also made at the widest point near the posterior end. A Zeiss microscope equipped with apochromatic objectiv s was used in determining the color of the oocysts. Illustrations were drawn to scale using both bright-field and phase-contrast microscopy.

Cottontail rabbits (Sylvilagus floridanus) were raised in 25x 60-foot game-bird rearing pens during 1961-63 at Poynette, Wisconsin. Conception dates of first litters were less synchronized than those of Missouri cottontails. Nests were constructed from a week before to the day of parturition. Usually a new nest was built for each litter. Maternal care to young seemed to be limited to nursing and covering the nest after feeding. A mean of 2.9 litters per summer with an average of 4.9 young per litter was obtained in the study. Forty-four percent of the young died in their first month. Myiasis by the flesh fly (Wohlfahrtia vigil) was the most serious mortality factor during June and July. Adults had an average monthly mortality rate of 2.8 percent. Summer was the period of highest adult mortality. This paper reports on nesting, reproduction, and mortality of cottontail rabbits reared in 25x 60-foot pens at the Wisconsin Conservation Department Game and Experimental Farm, Poynette, during the summers of 1961-63. Cottontail rabbits have been raised in captivity in a variety of pen sizes and with varying degrees of success (Gerstell 1935, 1937; Stuber 1938; Dalke 1942; Atzenhoefer and Martin 1949; Sheffer 1957a, 1957b, 1958; Grant 1959; Marsden and Conaway 1963). Reproduction in my study, although probably lower than in the wild, was sufficiently high to provide animals for experimental purposes. Survival was probably higher in the pens than is normal in the wild. Information for this report was obtained while I was developing a technique for marking mammals with calcium-45 (Rongstad 1965). For advice throughout the course of this study, I am indebted to R. A. McCabe, J. J. Hickey, and L. B. Keith. MATERIALS AND METHODS Sixty-six pens arranged in three rows were used. The main section of each pen was 25 x 60 x 5 feet and was connected to a brooder house (about 12 x 8 feet) by a smaller pen (12 x 6 x 5 feet) for a total area of 1,674 square feet (0.038 acre) (Fig. 1). The sides of the pens were 1-inch-mesh poultry wire buried in the ground about 12 inches, and the tops were covered with 2-inch-mesh poultry netting. Each pen contained a good growth of quack grass (Agropyron repens) or Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), or a combination of these. The pens originally were made for rearing pheasants (Phasianus colchicus), and were modified only to make the doors rabbit-proof. The bottom 6-12 inches of the pen should have been covered with boards or a finer-mesh wire, since young that had just left their nest could get through the 1-inch mesh. One shelter was constructed for each adult in the pen. A 2-foot section of snow fence bent into a "U" shape with the open side down, and covered with a generous thatch of hay or straw, was durable and simple to construct. Shelters were used at all times of the year but were probably most necessary in winter. The brooder houses were used little as loafing places unless boxes or other objects were in the house for the animals to hide under or

The eggs and larvae of Cooperia punctata, C. oncophora, Ostertagia ostertagi, Trichostrongylus axei, and T. colubriformis displayed a similar rate of development in fecal cultures at various constant temperatures. In general, the rate of development for the five species accelerated as the temperature increased. There was an appreciable variability in the rate of embryonic and larval development in any one culture. The optimal temperature, based on the rate of development and percentage of eggs developing into infective larvae, was 25 C. No development beyond the gastrula stage occurred below 6 C. Above 32 C, development was faster than at lower temperatures, but mortality rate of the preinfective stages was very high. Various ecologic factors regulate the bionomics of the free-living stages of nematodes (Wallace, 1961). Of these factors, the temperature of the microenvironment has the greatest effect on rate of embryonation and development of the larvae of nematodes parasitic in cattle. Information on the effects of temperature on development has dealt primarily with Haemonchus contortus (Berberian and Mizelle, 1957; Silverman and Campbell, 1959). Data are also available on Ostertagia ostertagi (Rose, 1961) and Trichostrongylus spp. (Dinaburg, 1945; Silverman and Campbell, 1959). Results of investigations with other species of parasitic nematodes not covered in this work have also been reported, but most of them had primary interests other than the effects of temperature. The study reported here deals with the effects of various constant temperatures on the development of the free-living stages of Cooperia punctata, Cooperia oncophora, Ostertagia ostertagi, Trichostrongylus axei, and Trichostrongylus colubriformis. Some of these data have been presented in an abstract (Ciordia and Bizzell, 1960). MATERIALS AND METHODS To minimize the variables which characterize fecal cultures, each series of experiments was conducted with freshly voided feces from one calf. At least ten series of experiments were conducted at each of the temperatures studied. Each experiment consisted of from 3 to 18 replicate cultures at each of the temperatures, depending on the amount of feces available at that time. Feces were obtained from dairy calves with experimental monospecific infections of C. punctata, C. oncophora, O. ostertagi, T. axei, and T. colubriformis. Feces were also obtained from calves harboring mixed infections of these nematode species. The calves were kept in separate portable pens on a concrete floor, which was washed thoroughly daily. They were maintained on a ration of alfalfa hay ad lib. and 1 lb of grain/day. Freshly voided feces were thoroughly mixed, whereupon 10-g samples were taken out for routine nematode egg counts. When necessary, enough water was added to the feces to standardize the consistency to approximate that of normal feces (60 to 70% moisture). Feces for each series of experiments were divided into 100-g samples which were placed in 8 oz waxed paper cups (Lily-Tulip Cup Corp., No. 8S) and covered with snap-over lids (No. 16S-16) before being placed in constant temperature cabinets (low temperature incubators, mechanical convection, range 5 to 50 C, accuracy of ?1.0 C). Temperatures used were: 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 32, 35, and 40 C. In addition, some cultures were incubated at 6 and 8 C to determine the lowest temperature at which larvae would develop. Cultures were kept moist by the periodic addition of water. This was necessary even though Received for publication 23 July 1962. * In cooperation with the Georgia Agricultural Experiment Station. Station Journal Series No. 424. Portions of this study were conducted as part of Southern Regional Project (S-21)-a cooperative study involving agricultural experiment stations in the Southern Region.

The bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana Shaw) is an important, widely distributed game species, but its food habits have not been thoroughly investigated. This paper reports a study of the food habits of bullfrogs in central Missouri. Data were derived from the examination of 455 stomachs of bullfrogs secured from farm ponds between the inclusive dates, April 11, 1950, to October 21, 1951. Eighty-seven stomach samples were collected during 1950 an-d 368 during 1951. Specimens were obtained for almost the entire time that bullfrogs were out of hibernation over a two-year period, which permitted a study of seasonal changes in feeding habits.

of Paper 38 of the 1926 Meeting at Winfield L. D. HAVENHILL University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas Digitalis, one of the most reliable of heart tonics, is being successfully grown in the Drug Garden at the University of Kansas. The plant appears to thrive under cultivation. The seedis must be germinated in the greenhouse and the young plants transplanted in early spring. The following analytical data is presented: Average yield of fully developed green leaves per plant 1---------------------------------42 Gm. Upon dryintg~ this weight was reduced ----------83.43% Giving an average yield of ,air dry drug of 1------6.57% The analysis of the air dry drug was as follows: Moisture ------------6.28% Ash --------------------------17.65% Insoluble Ash ---------------------------6.54% Fat removed by Benzin ----------------------_ 3.13% Biological Assay showed an activity of 160% U. S. P. standard. The acid insoluble ash is higher than the U. S. (P. standard of 5%, but the assay shows the drug to be 60% above the U. S. P. standard of potency. The result of this investigation shows that Kansas grown digitalis is a superior product. The work is being continued and it is planned to grow four hundred plants this season.

Twenty-four pellets each from wintering short-eared owls ( Asio flammeus ) and marsh hawks ( Circus cyaneus hudsius ) were staffstically compared. Considerably less osseous material was found to comprise the hawk pellets (17 percent of the total by weight) than the owl pellets (44 percent). exereta and dropped feathers at the pellet site as clues, I ascertained the source of 24 pellets gathered in the field. Weller et al. (1955) indicated that the droppings of short-eared owls were black and string-like and that iose of marsh hawks were green and pellet-like. In addition, I noted that uric acid exereted by the owls was generally buffy as contrasted with the chalky white uric acid of the hawk exerement. As 24 of those pellets collected in the field were known with certainty to be hawk pellets, an equal number of owl pellets were selected at random from the large number collected at their quarry roost. After equal periods of air-drying, the pellets svere weighed and the diameters measured. The pellets were then soaked in preparation dishes filled with water. After soaking 24 hours, they were teased apart with forceps and teasing needles. I found that by rotating the dish a centrifugal action was set up concentrating ffie bone on the bottom of the dish. The fur floated to the surface of the water and was skimmed off. This procedure was repeated until all fur had been renzoved. The bone was then dumped on filter paper to dry in preparation for veighing. Similarities in preference of habitat and food type frequently bring ffie short-eared owl and the marsh hawk into close proximity ( Weller et al. 1955 ). Such was the case in an area of central New York where I was observing short-eared owls in the winter of 196748. From one to SLY hawks roosted in an opexl field of uncut alfalfa. This field was about 6S0 yards north of an abandoned limestone quarry used by the owls as a roost. Because of this situation, I had access to pellets from both of these species. Moon ( 1940:465 ) stated ffiat "Small marsh hawk pellets were easily confusable with short-eared owl pellets, since limited amounts of bone were found to be characteristic of the pellets of both species." As a subjective appraisal of pellets from known sources indicated the oontrary, I decided to compare statistically quantitative characteristics of pellets from both species. I acknowledge the American Museum of Natural History for a Frarlk M. Chapman Memorial Fund grant. Drs. D. Q. Thompson, D. A. Lancaster, and M. E. Richmond provided several suggestions on the manu

Tetracotyles of Cotylurus lutzi were incubated to adults in a basic medium of 40% NCTC135 and 40% chicken serum, supplemented with 20% extract of chicken heart, liver, muscle, intestine wall, or mucosa. Ten per cent or more of eggs produced in media containing intestine extracts appeared normal, but miracidial development occurred only when upper small intestine mucosal extract was used. Five Biomphalaria glabrata snails became infected by such miracidia, shedding cercariae which encysted as tetracotyles and developed into normal adults in zebra finches. Dialysates of the effective mucosal extract failed to stimulate production of normal eggs when added to the basic medium. The strigeid trematode Cotylurus lutzi Basch, 1969, can be grown in vitro from tetracotyle to adult by the method of Voge and Jeong (1971). Their medium contains equal parts of NCTC-135 and chicken serum (CS), plus 100 units of penicillin and 100 tug of streptomycin per ml. Worms develop well in this but produce only fragile, shell-less eggs incapable of embryonation. We have modified this medium so that normal eggs, yielding infective miracidia, are produced by worms grown entirely in vitro. MATERIALS AND METHODS Young adult snails, Biomphalaria glabrata (Say), were exposed to large numbers of cercariae of C. lutzi. After 1 to 2 months the snails were washed and their shells gently crushed in 0.34% NaCl in distilled water. The ovotestes, containing encysted tetracotyles, were removed and teased apart in sterile 0.34% saline containing 10 ,ug gentamicin, 50'0 units of penicillin, and 500a ,g streptomycin per ml. Freed organisms were rinsed 4 times in this solution. Cultures were set up in plain-lipped 25by 150-mm glass test tubes containing 5 ml of medium. About 15 well-encysted tetracotyles were placed into each tube, which was closed by a silicone rubber stopper and then sealed by a tightly wound strip of parafilm. No special gas phase was used. Basic culture medium contained 40% NCTC-135 and 40% CS (Grand Island Biological Co.), plus 100 units of penicillin, 100 jug streptomycin, and 10 jug gentamicin per ml. This was supplemented Received for publication 29 August 1972. * Supported by Grant AI-10271 from the NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland. t At present student, School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, California. with various extracts of chicken origin. From 4 freshly killed 2to 3-kg adult white leghorn chickens, separate extracts of liver, breast muscle, heart, and intestinal wall muscle were prepared. About 15 g of tissue was finely minced, then ground with a mortar and pestle, and finally squeezed through silk bolting cloth. The resulting liquid was made up to 20 ml with normal saline and centrifuged for 60 min at 3,000 rpm at 5 C. The supernatant fluid was filtered twice through paper, then through 0.65and 0.45-Am Millipore filters for sterilization. For extracts of chicken intestinal mucosa, the small intestine was cut at the gizzard and at the beginning of the large intestine (as determined by texture changes and the appearance of fecal masses). This portion, approximately 70 cm, was divided into 2 equal lengths, referred to as "upper" and "lower" small intestine. Each half was cut open longitudinally and washed in several changes of cold (5 C) normal saline. A glass microscope slide was used to scrape off the mucosal cell layer, which was then collected and homogenized in a glass tissue grinder with teflon plunger. Mucosal homogenates from the upper and lower small intestine were then treated as described above. Dialysis of the upper small intestine mucosal extract was done through cellulose tubing (pore size 2.4 nm) overnight at 5 C against 1,000 ml of normal saline or of distilled water. In the former case, 6 ml of extract was used; in the latter, 7 ml. Following dialysis against distilled water, NaCl was added to restore the saline concentration of the dialysate, which in both cases was sterilized using 0.65and 0.45-utm Millipore filters. After filter sterilization, all extracts were stored at -10 C until used. Egg yolk medium was prepared as described by Berntzen and Macy (1969). Extracts were added to the basic medium as shown in Table I. Media were changed on alternate days. In any one tube, organisms were maintained in the same formulation throughout; when extract prepared from one chicken was used up, the homologous material from the next chicken