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Publisher Summary This chapter discusses the development of surface smoothness of a lightweight publication paper under increased loading of the finishing supercalender. A 28 lb/ream basestock consisting of approximately 70 percent hardwood and 30 percent softwood chemical pulp has been coated on a 12 inch trailing blade pilot coater with a single coat on the wire side under various coating conditions. Supercalendering and blade coating exert, therefore, a combined beneficial influence on the printability of the finished paper. Blade coating fills the deep regions of the basestock and applies only a thin coating layer to the highest portions, thus, equalizing the sheet caliper to some extent. The coating thickness of a blade coated sheet varies from a small fraction of the final paper caliper to 50 percent and more according to the void depth of the basestock before coating. Supercalendering reduces the coated paper caliper at the thickest areas, thus, again equalizing the sheet caliper in the same direction. It effects this by increasing density at these high surface locations and throughout the sheet under these surface areas.

Publisher Summary This chapter presents experiments on deformations of paper in stacks, in which sheets were conditioned at a fixed humidity and then printed with a screen line plate by means of a Vandercook proof press. The prints were stacked progressively during printing. The stack was exposed to another humidity for a time and then, a second color was printed upon the first one, from the same plate. From the interference of the two line patterns, it was possible to measure deformation of the paper. Every sheet was measured and the results for an offset paper, a conventional coated paper, and a machine-coated paper are presented in the chapter. The change in dimension is given on the abscissa in units of 0.1 mm/m. The trials were made on three papers: (1) an offset paper, (2) a conventional coated paper, and (3) a machine-coated paper. The results show that the deformation was greater in the transverse direction than in the longitudinal direction and the deformations were not the same whether the transverse direction or the longitudinal direction was parallel to the cylinder axis; this effect shows that the press has a laminating action.

This chapter discusses the chain-mould paper-making machine. In 1812, another machine with separate moulds carried by chains was patented, and a drawing was included with the specification. The patent of 1806 consisted of a framework containing a series of rollers on which a succession of moulds were caused to run or roll along. These moulds were hooked onto each other as closely as possible, and there was no real division of the stuff between each mould, although there were fairly big deckles that were hinged and kept in position by springs on either side to prevent the stuff running off the moulds onto the floor. The moulds were moved on their rollers by an endless felt passing round two driving rollers, the lower one of which revolved on the wet stuff on the mould, and couched it off onto the felt, carrying it almost vertically upward through a press. At this press, the web of paper was transferred to another horizontal felt that carried it through a second pair of press-rolls, and it was then either taken off by hand or could be reeled up.

This chapter discusses modifications and inventions of Early Victorian paper-making machines. By 1843, Lemuel Wellman Wright had moved to North Wales where he was a paper-mill engineer. He invented a number of notable improvements to the cylinder-mould machine. This cylinder was a single or Yankee type, of large diameter, and the paper was stuck onto it by the wet- or over-felt as it came from the cylinder-mould. During the passage of the paper over the cylinder, it was pressed against it by three or more press-rolls, which were held against the cylinder by lever arms and weights, and were not driven except by friction against the cylinder, or rather against the paper as it stuck to the cylinder. With regard to the four rolls driven by friction on the surface of the cylinder, the two rolls marked (K) were pressing-rolls, and those marked (M) were steam-heated smoothing-rollers. In this way, he made a very highly machine-glazed paper. This appears to be the first time that this type of paper was made. Lemuel Wellman Wright claimed that the surface was far better for writing upon than that of any other paper previously made and that it gave excellent impressions for printing purposes.

This chapter discusses the papers presented by the House of Commons and the House of Lords. Whenever the House of Commons requires the submission of a report and orders it to be printed, the resultant document is issued in a numbered series of the House of Commons Papers. The series includes papers presented to both Houses and to the Commons alone. House of Commons Papers arise in different ways. Returns are printed in response to a direction of the House to obtain certain information. Act Papers comprise reports or accounts required to be laid before Parliament under the provision of certain Acts, though Act Papers of less general interest to Members are printed as Non-Parliamentary Publications, and others are simply laid open to inspection by Members in typescript form. Reports are made by select committees appointed by the House to inquire into special matters. The examination of witnesses is usually recorded in Minutes of Evidence, and papers submitted to a committee are usually published as appendices to its report. Minutes are printed of proceedings of standing committees appointed to examine Bills. House of Commons Papers are identified by their serial numbers, which are printed without brackets at the bottom left of their title pages. On the other hand, House of Lords Papers are distinguished by their serial numbers that are printed in curved brackets at the bottom left of their title pages.

Publisher Summary This chapter discusses standardization of the paper-making machine during 1870–90. Between the years 1870 and 1880, the paper-making machine had taken a definite pattern that was to last, with few changes, for many years. While machines made by different manufacturers differed in many details, the design was, for all practical purposes, the same, whether the machines were made in England, Scotland, or the United States of America, or on the Continent. The principle on which the machine operated was much the same as on the machine patented in 1807 and made by Bryan Donkin for the Fourdriniers. The width and length of many machines had been much increased, the speeds at which some machines operated were very much faster, and there was a definite trend on the part of paper-makers to specialize in papers such as newsprint, writing papers, or wrapping papers. Some companies had large mills with many paper-making machines. By 1870, many materials were in general use, which was unknown to the paper-makers of the early nineteenth century. The only raw material in use at the beginning of the nineteenth century was rags of cotton and linen. Chemical wood pulp by the soda process was produced by Burgess and Watt in 1853, and subsequently Tilghmann made sulfate pulp, and finally Mitscherlich in 1874 became famous for his process of making sulfite pulp from wood. Meanwhile, straw had been used in increasing quantities for the low-grade straw papers and strawboards, and many mills made paper exclusively from straw.

By means of the Spectrophotometer PMQ II (C. Zeiss, West Germany), the tristimulus values of the DIN-Blue, printed as “solids” on art paper, poster paper (calendered) and poster paper (rough) have been measured. The measurements were made with three different colour measuring attachments: Integration sphere (Ulbricht) d/0°, 0°/d and the reflectance attachment for the geometry 45°/0°. A similar investigation was carried out with the same ink and the same papers, also printed as “solids” but at different film thicknesses. These samples have been measured with the Pretema colour measuring instrument, using an integrating sphere with the geometry d/0°. The instrument is equipped with the digital computer FR-1. From the resulting X, Y and Z values the chromaticity coordinates were calculated and plotted into the CIE (x, y)-chromaticity diagram. The differences of the results obtained are discussed on the basis of the McAdam discrimination ellipses.

This chapter discusses paper-making in the 1860s. In 1861, Edmund H. Joynson, of St. Mary Cray, Kent, a paper-maker, patented an improvement to the wet-end of the machine, concerning the delivery of the stuff onto the wire, to make it even and regular across the width of the sheet. He maintained that the ordinary method of doing it, that is, allowing it to flow on over an apron at the breast-box, then leveling by vertical slices, was not very satisfactory. The paper was uneven and sometimes not very well put together, so he had the idea, which he carried into practice on his own machine, of putting a roller over the first few tube-rolls of the wire before the stuff had settled down. In 1869, William Frederick de la Rue, of Bunhill Row, London, invented a new way of making a dandy to give different types of watermark compared with those which had always been produced during the previous thirty years or so. Up to this time, the mark had been obtained in the paper by fixing to the wove surface of the dandy-roll letters or figures in wire, which were sewn or soldered onto the surface of the dandy. When the dandy-roll revolved on the stuff, the device pressed into the paper and made it slightly thinner at these places.

Problems involved in manned lunar missions, discussing the round trip flight, lunar landing and surface operations, crew survival and abort techniques

Thirty-three rolls of rotary gravure papers—type: 70 per cent ground wood, 30 per cent wood pulp—taken from different productions or of different quality were received from eleven paper mills in Finland, Sweden, Austria and Germany. Felt and wire side of these papers were printed on a modified rotary gravure machine under constant and controlled conditions at 10,000 and 16,000 r.p.h. The testing of different stocks and sampling of printed and unprinted test sheets from six different roll locations were examined for consistency in quality between production runs as well as within one roll. One “solid” of the prints was objectively measured with the FOGRA Variance-meter for degree and uniformity of optical density. The results were compared with the subjective evaluation of various observers and showed a good correlation. The visual evaluation of quality was made in respect of “quality in middle-tone”, “tone reproduction” and “show through”. The following characteristics of the papers were determined by laboratory methods: smoothness on Bekk, Bendtsen, percentage of contact, and proof printing for evaluating the point of coverage and for visual evaluation at 1.5 g/m2 inking; absorbency against oil and gravure inks and evaluation of contact angle; compressibility on Bendtsen, percentage of contact, Laraignou and Breeht-Schalder; optical properties; brightness, opacity and gloss; evaluation of abrasive tendency. The various laboratory proofing methods were tested for evidence of the printability of rotary gravure papers, i.e. the correlations between the individual objective and subjective quality evaluations and the measured single properties were calculated.

This chapter describes the first paper-making machine. The paper-making machine of today is something that is taken for granted and about the origin or the tremendous amount of work and ingenuity of which little is known. The man who first put into practice the idea of making paper mechanically in long lengths and who produced a machine on which to do it was a Frenchman named Nicolas Louis Robert. He worked in the office of a paper-mill. An idea captured his imagination, and he began to give a great deal of attention to the problems involved. His intelligence and the encouragement of his employer from time to time eventually enabled him to create a machine destined to revolutionize the art and practice of paper-making. After much experimental work, which occupied several years, and many improvements indicated through practical use, his machine made paper. It is certain, however, that this crude machine had a short life and was never able to make paper continuously on a commercial scale. There was no continuous paper-making machine working commercially in France until many years after Louis Robert's invention, in fact not till 1816, when a machine was installed at the mill of Messrs.

This chapter discusses the progress in paper-making between 1830 and 1835. An advanced type of Fourdrinier machine, with a number of additions, was introduced by Matthew Towgood and Leapidge Smith in 1830. Matthew Towgood obtained St. Neots Mill from the Fourdriniers on account of the large amount of money they owed him. He was the banker who had advanced them money in the early days. Towgood took great interest in paper-making and had several mills later on, which were carried on successfully by his sons and grandsons. The specification of this machine was enrolled in 1830. The main feature of his machine, however, was his tub-sizing arrangement. This was the first time that tub-sizing is shown to have been carried out on a paper-making machine, with the paper passing through the tub in an endless web. He used three sizing-rolls, and there were two size-troughs. In 1835, John Dickinson patented the use of magnets for removing metallic particles from paper-stock on its way to the wire. He maintained that a very large amount of metal was trapped in this way, which had previously got into the paper. These horseshoe magnets have been used in quite recent times in sand-traps for the same purpose.

It is to be noted that consideration of electric propulsion development cannot be taken out of the context of the development of the entire field of advanced propulsion. This discussion therefore provides a comparison of the present major technology programs in advanced propulsion on the basis both of technological state, of the art and of missions capability. Some additional features concerning the economic problems of deep space exploration are provided which may seriously limit the application of any form of advanced propulsion to unmanned exploration. For manned planetary exploration, it is entirely possible that a combined system utilizing both nuclear and electric propulsion systems is more reasonable than either propulsion system alone.

This paper will present two conceptual designs for a nuclear lunar base powerplant based upon the utilization of SNAP 8 components. One is an integral design with a 4 pi, earth-fabricated shield for the reactor. This plant requires very little installation effort. The total weight of this system is limited to 25,000 lb, estimated to be the payload capacity of a Saturn V booster and lunar logistics vehicle. Consequently, shield weight limitations result in an exclusion radius of more than one-third mile. This plant produces approximately 45 kw. The second concept is based upon the burial of the reactor below the lunar surface to provide radiation shielding. This requires considerably more installation effort than the integral design. The plant weight is only 6500 to 8500 lb, however, depending upon the criteria used to calculate meteoroid armoring. The exclusion radius for this plant is less than 100 ft, and 50 kw of power are produced.

Experimental structures have been built and tested which utilize polyester-impregnated, paper-laminated urethane foam board as the principal stress-resisting material. These structures have been found adequately strong for the construction of light industrial and residential buildings. Material properties are in some instances an advantage; in others a restriction. A two-story prototype building has been constructed which shows performance characteristics similar to conventional wood-frame structures.

This chapter describes the paper-making machine of 1807. Specification of the patent of 1807 is accompanied by a drawing that shows the elevation and also the plan of the machine with a key composed of alphabetical letters and figures. The specification goes on to say that the pulp in the chest was diluted with water to bring it to the required consistency, and then run through apertures in the side of the vat. The pulp was conducted from thence by an inclined plane in a uniform stream upon the surface of the revolving web that was so placed that its surface would be as nearly level as possible, and its revolving motion was in the direction in which the stream of pulp ran from the vat. The web was kept extended by a breast- and couch-roll, but in this case, the couch-roll did not drive the web, both these rolls being driven by the web itself. Between the breast- and couch-roll, there was a series of small rolls to support the web and keep it level so that it did not sag between the rolls.

Summary The history and the responsibilities of the national Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) are presented, and the difficulties resulting from unclearly defined competences of the states' environmental protection agencies and other institutions for environmental protection are discussed with examples. Zusammenfassung Die Bildung und Aufgaben der nationalen Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) werden vorgestellt und besonders die Schwierigkeiten durch unklar definierte Kompetenzen der staatlichen environmental protection agencies und sonstiger Umweltschutzamter an einigen Beispielen diskutiert.

Summary Diagnostic biochemical tests are extensively used to assess the health status of men exposed to atmospheric contaminants, and also in experimental toxicology on animals. Such tests have not, however, played a large part in the establishment of air quality guides; the reasons for this are discussed.

Life support systems for current manned missions consume material at a higher rate, typically 21 lb/man-day, than can be tolerated for long-term missions of the future; thus development of closed life support systems is underway. It appears desirable to utilize heat from thermal to electrical power systems in life support endothermic processes rather than electrical heating in order to reduce the total electrical power requirements. Consideration of waste water and urine treatment, and recovery of O 2 from CO 2 processes shows it is feasible to provide approximately 50% of the life support power requirement with heat from solar, isotope, and reactor dynamic power systems. For early capability manned orbiting systems, the life support power requirements are typically 50% of the total power requirement, so that thermal integration reduces the electrical power load approximately 25%. This is a significant reduction in such critical items as collector and radiator area and isotope inventory. For later, larger stations and manned interplanetary vehicles the life support power requirements will be a small fraction of the total electrical power requirement and there will be less incentive for thermal integration.

The well-known analytical solution of Eggers, Allen, and Niece ( 1 ) for gliding atmospheric entry is extended to include a propulsive force vector. An “equivalent” lift-to-drag ratio (L/D)t, which includes lift, drag, and thrust, replaces the gasdynamic L/D found in the aforementioned solution. An approximation to the optimum direction of the thrust vector is derived with the assumption that only the thrust is varied along the trajectory. The results are used to examine the concept of using continuous thrust to transfer from an initial to a terminal glide trajectory. Propellant weight penalties are examined for typical initial and final conditions (arbitrarily chosen) in order to assess the degree of practicality. The conclusion reached is that continuous thrust during atmospheric entry can be an economical method for producing midcourse range changes.

Advanced scientific missions throughout the solar system are analyzed to determine payload and velocity requirements for nuclear-electric propelled spacecraft. Emphasis is placed upon those missions that are too difficult for all-chemical propulsion, even with boosters as large as Saturn V. In parallel with the mission analysis, spacecraft designs were prepared, and key problems of powerplant integration were investigated. Particular attention is given to the radiator and its effect upon vehicle configuration. The spacecraft integration studies have shown that advanced nuclear powerplants should weigh on the order of 25 to 35 lb/kw for systems of about 2000°F maximum temperature and 250 kw to 3 MW power output. Propulsion times range from about 5000 to more than 30,000 hr, depending upon the mission. Lower specific powerplant weight (less than 30 lb/kw) has only a slight effect in reducing powerplant life requirements. In terms of maximum flexibility and multimission capability, the most attractive system is a 90,000-lb spacecraft with 1 MW of power to the engines. This vehicle is boosted to earth escape velocity by Saturn V. Other favorable combinations of powerplant and spacecraft are obtained with ratings as low as 250 kw, by boosting beyond escape velocity to achieve minimum propulsion time.

Publisher Summary This chapter discusses 10 years of translation. Ten years the Federation Internationale des Traducteurs has existed as a coordinating force in the world of translation. Within 10 years, working over an ever-widening field, FIT has not only succeeded in placing the profession on an organized footing but has also become a focus of international cooperation, as was confirmed by FIT's admission to Consultative Status with UNESCO in 1959. The diversity of the types of translation practised, the great variety of circumstances under which the work is carried out, and the vast number of auxiliary services and aids closely related to translation proper are facts that have always been more or less realized by those active in the profession. Some Member Societies of FIT consist of translators and interpreters. Others have linguists of various classes as members, such as language teachers, translators and interpreters, or even users of translations.

A thermoelectric generator has been combined with thermal energy storage to produce electricity during simulated 90-min orbits with 55 min of sunlight and 35 min of darkness. The experimental model has demonstrated the thermodynamic feasibility of converting solar energy to electric power for space application. The generator produced constant power (± 7%) during simulated orbits in a space chamber and has also operated successfully utilizing natural solar energy. Projection of the feasibility model indicates that a generator with an output of 150 w coupled with a collector-concentrator of 8-ft dia can be built. This system can operate with 0.50 orientation error with a specific power of 2.14 w/lb. Very precise orientation would reduce the area of the collector by 17.5% and increase the specific power, excluding orientation equipment, to 2.3 w/lb. Analysis of the system shows that the thermal storage feature has a significant weight advantage over electrochemical energy storage. This feature also makes the system feasible from an operational standpoint since temperature excursions and warm-up period after solar darkness are eliminated.

The results of a study of auxiliary power generating systems for a large 24-man space laboratory for the post-1970 time period are presented. Solar dynamic, nuclear Snap 8, and solar cell-battery units vere investigated as possible auxiliary power systems capable of generating 18 to 40 kw of electrical power. Tradeoffs in weight, cost, reliability, solar area deployed and/or radiator area were performed for the various systems. The power required for subsystem operation and experimentation was established at 27 kw. On the basis of the tradeoffs and the 27 kw design load, the solar dynamic Brayton system was recommended for the laboratory.

The concept behind the SNAP-50/SPUR nuclear-electric space powerplant is presented and the present status of the program is reviewed. It is found that a suitable technological base already exists from which an orderly program can proceed initially to feasibility demonstrations of the reactor and power conversion components and ultimately to a demonstration of an experimental powerplant. Nuclear-electric powerplants based upon this technology can have a variety of applications in the national space program beyond 1975.

The ultimate objective of this research is to advance the state-of-the-art of solar thermionic power conversion technology to a suitable state that it could be considered as an alternate spacecraft power source. Efforts in specialized areas such as; cesium reservoir and solar flux control, ceramic to metal seals, generator support structures, solar concentrating mirrors and thermionic converters must be actively pursued. Over the past few years major improvements in thermionic converter performance have been demonstrated (today converters with power densities to 24 w/cm 2 and life testing beyond 3000 hours are a matter of fact). Problems which exist today, of a metallographical or design nature, are solvable within the foreseeable future. The materials and technology developed under this effort have application not only to solar powered systems but have both direct and indirect application to systems which utilize other thermal sources such as radioisotope and nuclear reactors.

Since the original use of solar cells for electrical power generation in space, the state of the art in solar-cell arrays has experienced some significant advances. The solar cell itself has been improved in many ways. These improvements have increased silicon solar-cell efficiencies from roughly 5% to 11% in space sunlight. Material improvements have been made in silicon which have enhanced the resistance of silicon solar cells to particle radiation. The methods used to connect cells into modules as a building block for constructing large arrays have been improved also. New methods in the soldering of cells into modules have decreased the degradation of the cells resulting from handling and soldering. In addition, the successful fabrication of cells into modules has made possible the matching of cells by modules rather than by single cells. The methods used to mount the modules to the supporting structure have been improved by using better techniques and bonding agents. With the above advances, sun-oriented arrays have been built which approach 10 w/ft2 and 10 w/lb when operated in near Earth space (with no particle radiation damage). With further research and development, the watts per square foot, watts per pound, radiation resistance, and cost of solar-cell arrays may he optimized further.

Publisher Summary The advent of isotopes has provided a new method to resolve old questions of cell behavior in bone growth and of mineral turnover with age. Tissue and organ culture and transplantation have allowed a considerable separation of hereditary and environmental factors in skeletal growth and structure and are major techniques for analysis of cell behavior and of phenomena of bone grafting and wound healing. Finally, comparative anatomy is cast in a new role when reaching out for new biological models when the traditional laboratory animals do not allow the asking of particular questions. A few examples show that the hallmark of modern bone biology is the level of its questions, and not the fact of the ancient skeleton it studies or the date of origin of techniques it uses. The most significant recent advance in bone biology has not been merely a research trend or a technical development. Rather, it has been the institution of formalized graduate training programs and the influx of good, motivated students.

Publisher Summary This chapter defines wood resins as materials that are insoluble in water and soluble in neutral organic solvents. The definition, however, is not very precise for wood resin, as the solvent and the conditions used for extraction may have a very great influence on the amount and composition of the wood extract. Knowledge of wood resin is important for several reasons. Resin may cause troubles, such as pitch deposition, in the manufacture of pulp and paper from certain species of wood. It may also adversely affect the quality of finished pulp, whether the pulp is to be used for paper or as a chemical raw material. Increased knowledge of the occurrence and chemistry of the various components of wood resin should help to develop effective methods for the deresination of wood pulp during processing. Wood resin is also a source of valuable chemicals.

Publisher Summary This chapter discusses the evaluation of printing pressure, as a function of applied load and printing area, in letterpress halftone plates. In letterpress printing, pressure arises through the fact that the clearance between the printing forme and the impression cylinder is less than the total thickness of packing topped by the paper sheet: this combination of packing material and impression sheet will, therefore, undergo a deformation, the amount of which will determine the resulting pressure. When a solid area alone is being printed, it is relatively easy to measure, by means of a suitable transducer, the total applied load and to calculate the linear pressure—in terms of force per unit length—knowing the width of the printing plate. The real difficulty arises when halftone plates are being printed and, above all, when halftones of various values are combined in the same printing forme. In this case, it would be desirable to be able to determine not only the mean pressure over the forme as a whole but also the distribution of the total load over the various zones of the forme.

Publisher Summary This chapter discusses the application of the scanning electron microscope (SEM) to the study of printability. It describes the interrelationships between pulp quality and the resultant print quality of the commercial newsprint made from it. By fractionating the groundwood and mixed stock going to some 16 paper machines making roto, standard, and litho newsprint, and printing the handsheets made from these fractions and the whole pulps, it has been possible to study the contribution of each fraction to the print quality of the whole pulp and to the commercial sheets. To assist in the understanding of these interrelationships, the topography of these handsheets has been studied by means of the SEM. A series of SEM micrographs were shown of initial trials to examine letterpress and offset prints without metallizing. These appear most promising. The chapter presents photomicrographic examples of the use of the SEM in other fields such as the examination of crill, groundwood stones, and fiber pick-outs.

Publisher Summary This chapter focuses on the utilization of sucrose. Two organizations––the Sugar Research Foundation Inc. in America and the Colonial Products Research Council in Great Britain––have been formed, and the development of the industrial use of cane sugar is included in each of their programs. Sugar cane or sugar beet can be easily cultivated and efficiently extracted. Economically sugar cane is the better source of sucrose. The chapter discusses the more modern work on the chemical transformations of sucrose and the substances that can easily be obtained from it. The bagasse produced at most sugar factories is used as a fuel for the boilers, because there is usually a shortage of fuel in countries growing cane. Sugar cane wax is an interesting byproduct of the sugar industry. Sugar beet pulp can be readily dried and used as a cattle food.

Publisher Summary This chapter explains the influence of extractives on the pulping of wood. There are three principal types of pulping processes: (1) mechanical, (2) chemical, and (3) semichemical. In the mechanical process, the wood is usually reduced to the fibrous state by means of a grinder. The chemical process involves cooking the wood with chemicals so that most of the lignin is removed and the fibers can be readily separated. Wood is initially softened in the semichemical process, and then the fibers are separated by mechanical means. The type of pulping procedure chosen is determined by the species available and the type of product required. The species usually pulped by the sulfite process are Picea species, Abies balsamea, Tsuga heterophylla, and some hardwoods from which 40–50% of pulp is obtained. For various reasons, unsuitable pulps are obtained from other species. The two principal processes are the soda and the sulfate. In both of them, sodium hydroxide is the principal cooking chemical, although in the sulfate process, sodium sulfide is also present.

Publisher Summary This chapter discusses the aspects of high-speed cinematography and the functioning of a typical high-speed rotating-prism camera; it discusses the path of light that travels through a rotating-prism camera. In time-lapse cinematography, a series of pictures is exposed at a slower rate than that at which they are later projected, producing a speeding-up of motion because of a compression of the time-scale. However, in high-speed cinematography, the camera taking speed is higher than the projection speed, producing an apparent slowing down of motion because of the expansion of the time-scale. High-speed cameras can conveniently be grouped in three categories: (1) intermittent movement cameras working at speeds between 64 and 500 frame/sec, (2) rotating-prism cameras working at speeds between 150 and 20,000 frame/sec, and (3) rotating-mirror cameras working at speeds between 200,000 and 20,000,000 frame/sec. Intermittent cameras work on a similar principle to the better designs of ordinary-speed cameras. The film is pulled down frame by frame by a claw mechanism and a register pin is engaged to hold the film steady and in frame register at the moment of exposure. The biggest industrial users of high-speed cinematography in the United Kingdom and in Continental Europe are the electrical industries, aircraft manufacturers, the motor industry, and companies concerned with designing and manufacturing production machinery. Each of these industries accounts for about 20% of the total number of rotating-prism cameras sold. The remaining 20% is spread around the textile industry, paper makers, and the oil companies. The ultra-high-speed cameras of the rotating-mirror type are used almost exclusively by research laboratories concerned with either plasma research or explosives.

This chapter discusses salvage and utilization. Salvage is considered to be the material sorted from refuse and prepared for sale as a raw material that is incorporated in the manufacture of commodities by the appropriate branch of industry. Utilization is the treatment or conversion of a part or parts of the mass of refuse to condition it such that it is usable in industry, agriculture, or domestic life. The chapter describes the salvage and utilization of the following: (1) waste paper, (2) ferrous metals, (3) nonferrous metals, (4) textiles, (5) glass, (6) bones, (6) rubber, (7) food waste as a feeding stuff, (8) by-products from animal wastes, and (9) fuel from refuse briquettes.

The oldest cold stores in the world were already equipped for cooling, freezing, the storage of foodstuffs and for ice-making. These means often provided only short term benefits. Many cold stores extended their fields of activity, e.g. the manufacture of ice-cream, freezing of fruit pulp, manufacture of dry ice, production of deep frozen fruit, vegetables and prepared foods, etc…

Publisher Summary This chapter discusses the essential methods used in cacao processing and storage of commercial cacao in tropical climate. Methods such as fermentation and drying for processing cocoa have been described. The chapter reviews some of the organisms found in fermenting masses or on raw cacao. Composition and variation of the microflora during fermentation have been studied. Because knowledge of changing environmental conditions in the fermenting pulp is essential for a deeper insight into the causes of the changing composition of the microflora, the chapter considers factors such as: temperature, aeration, and chemical factors. Experiments on changes in the fermentation procedures have been carried out in many of the producing countries. The purposes of these experiments are to obtain a greater yield or a more valuable product with more flavors, less acetic acid, more plump beans, more uniform appearance, etc. To obtain more ester-like substances that are supposed to improve the flavor, a prolongation of the period of yeast domination has been attempted. The chapter tabulates the consequences of processes induced by internal fermentation. A brief description of the microscopic anatomy of the seed with respect to alcohol-treated material and raw cacao is given.