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Gall‐forming insects induce various types of galls on their host plants by altering gene expression in host plant organs, and recent studies have been conducted for gene expression in galls. However, the evolutionary trajectories of gene expression patterns and the resulting phenotypes have not yet been studied using multiple related species. We investigated the speciation and the diversification process of galls induced by four closely related aphid species (Hormaphidini) on a host plant species (Hamamelis japonica) by examining the phylogenetic congruence between the geographical divergences of aphids and the host plant, and by comparing their gene expression patterns and resulting phenotypes. Phylogenetic analysis of aphids and the host plant showed that geographical isolation among host plant populations has interrupted gene flow in aphids and accelerated the speciation process. The concentration of phenolics and the complexity of the internal structure of galls were correlated with the expression levels of genes for the biosynthesis of phenolics and morphogenesis respectively. These results suggest that the expression levels of genes for the biosynthesis of phenolics and morphogenesis have evolutionarily increased in galls accelerated by the speciation process of aphids due to the distribution change of the host plant, leading to the related phenotypic evolution. Our study showed the evolutionary process of phenotypic traits in galls in the wild from both gene expression and actual phenotype levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The waxy layer on leaf surfaces may restrict the range of arthropod species that can grip the leaf, thus affecting biological interactions. Here, we report that the wax on the leaf surface of Phragmites australis leaves provides enemy-free space for the aphid Hyalopterus pruni. In our experiment, aphids had higher survival rates on Ph. australis leaves than on Prunus mume leaves in the presence of ladybirds. In addition, removal of wax from the surface of Ph. australis leaves enabled ladybugs to grip the surface of Ph. australis leaves and decreased the survival rate of aphids. These results indicate that the leaf wax of Ph. australis provides enemy-free space for H. pruni by inhibiting ladybird adhesion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Aims Plants have evolved various defences against herbivores, including direct chemical and structural defences and co-opted biological defences by predatory insects. However, the effects of abiotic habitat conditions on the quantitative expression of defence traits of spiny species have not been elucidated. Methods Here, we investigated whether a spiny deciduous tree, Aralia elata (Miq.) Seem. changes its defence expression across light and nutrient gradients. We measured allocation to spines and C-based secondary metabolites (condensed tannins and total phenols) on A. elata plants growing across light and nutrient gradients in situ in natural landscapes in Japan. Second, we examined the effects of light and soil nutrient condition on allocation to shoot organs, spines and chemical defences of juveniles of two genotypes of the species, respectively spiny (mainland population) and non-spiny (island population), grown in a glasshouse. Key Results In the field investigation, absolute spine mass, spine mass fraction, total phenols and condensed tannins all responded positively to canopy openness. Total phenol content was also negatively related to soil N. In the glasshouse, spiny genotype individuals had less total biomass, had lower stem allocation and were shorter than non-spiny genotype individuals. In spiny genotype trees, both spine mass fraction and total phenols decreased under low light conditions. Nutrient additions had negative effects on spine mass fraction and total phenols, but no effect on absolute spine mass. Conclusions These results suggest that development of spines is costly for A. elata and receives greater allocation when carbohydrate supply is more plentiful. Thus, light is a more important determinant of spine allocation than soil nutrients for A. elata. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent studies suggest that changes in leaf traits due to interactions between plants affect resource utilisation by herbivores, as well as herbivore distribution. However, this has not yet been confirmed experimentally. Here, we investigated the effects of phenotypic plasticity in leaf traits of Rumex obtusifolius (host plant) in response to intraspecific and interspecific interactions on the distribution of two leaf beetles, Gastrophysa atrocyanea (specialist herbivore) and Galerucella grisescens (generalist herbivore).We investigated the local population density of R. obtusifolius plants and the presence of leaf beetles on the plants at five study sites. Leaf chemicals (condensed tannins and total phenolics) were compared between aggregated and solitary R. obtusifolius plants. To clarify the effects of the interaction environment of R. obtusifolius plants on their leaf traits and on resource utilisation by the leaf beetles, we compared leaf chemicals and preferences of adult leaf beetles among treatments where R. obtusifolius experienced intraspecific interaction, interspecific interaction or no interaction in cultivation experiments. Finally, we evaluated the independent and combined effects of patch size and intraspecific interaction on leaf beetle distribution in mesocosm experiments.In the field, the presence of the specialist leaf beetle G. atrocyanea was positively correlated with the local population density (rosette overlap ratio) of R. obtusifolius plants; however, there was no correlation in the case of the generalist leaf beetle G. grisescens. In the cultivation experiments, plants in the intraspecific interaction treatment increased their leaf concentrations of condensed tannins and total phenolics, and G. atrocyanea consumed more of these leaves than leaves in other treatments. Similar results were observed in the field. In the mesocosm experiments, larger numbers of G. atrocyanea were distributed on R. obtusifolius plants exposed to below‐ground intraspecific interaction than on plants not exposed to intraspecific interaction.Our results provide experimental evidence that leaf‐trait changes in response to intraspecific interaction between host plants influence specialist herbivore distribution. This highlights the need to integrate plant–plant interactions into our understanding of plant–animal interactions. A free Plain Language Summary can be found within the Supporting Information of this article. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Caterpillars (Lepidoptera and Symphyta larvae) employ diverse visual defensive tactics, and effectiveness of such tactics may be highly dynamic across time due to seasonal changes in the predator assemblages and their preferences. However, this has rarely been studied especially in tropical regions. Here we assessed temporal changes in the defensive value of caterpillar color and shape, using six types of plasticine dummy caterpillars: three colors (green, black, and white) × two shapes (curled and straight). These dummy caterpillars were deployed five times over different seasons in tropical forests of Xishuangbanna (China) and, as a comparison, twice in a temperate forest of Hirosaki (Japan). The colors and shapes of dummy caterpillars simulate visual traits of black sawfly larvae which take the curled resting posture in tropical rainforests of Xishuangbanna, apparently masquerading excrements commonly found on plants, while in Hirosaki there is no black‐curled sawfly larvae and few excrements on plants. We found no significant effects of caterpillar colors or shapes on predation in Hirosaki. In contrast, black and curled caterpillars received significantly lower predation by birds in Xishuangbanna constantly across time. However, we were unable to provide evidence that the black‐curled sawfly larvae are masquerading as excrements. Shapes of the dummy caterpillars also affected the predation by ants and parasitoid wasps at certain times. This is the first report on ecological function of the curled posture of sawfly larvae, and we demonstrated the importance to assess the temporal dynamics of predation and effectiveness of defensive tactics in tropical forests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]