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Population control of the house mouse ( Mus musculus ), Norway rat ( Rattus norvegicus ) and black rat ( Rattus rattus ) is common practice worldwide. Our objective was to assess the impact on animal welfare of lethal and non-lethal control methods, including three dispatch methods. We used the Sharp and Saunders welfare assessment model with eight experts scoring eleven control methods and three dispatch methods used on the three species. We presumed the methods were performed as prescribed, only taking into account the effect on the target animal (and not, for example, on non-target catches). We did not assess population control efficacy of the methods. Methods considered to induce the least suffering to the target animal were captive-bolt traps, electrocution traps and cervical dislocation, while those with the greatest impact were anticoagulants, cholecalciferol and deprivation. Experts indicated considerable uncertainty regarding their evaluation of certain methods, which emphasises the need for further scientific research. In particular, the impact of hydrogen cyanide, chloralose and aluminium phosphide on animal welfare ought to be investigated. The experts also stressed the need to improve Standard Operating Procedures and to incorporate animal welfare assessments in Integrated Pest Management (IPM). The results of our study can help laypeople, professionals, regulatory agencies and legislators making well-informed decisions as to which methods to use when controlling commensal rodents., Competing Interests: None., (© The Author(s) 2023.)

Before broilers are slaughtered, several parties are involved in catching, loading, transportation and lairage. During these pre-slaughter activities, broilers are exposed to a variety of stressors. A detailed understanding of how broiler welfare is impaired during each stage could help the responsible parties to make targeted improvements. The aim of this study was to identify welfare problems occurring during the consecutive stages of commercial broiler transportation and to identify risk factors associated with the identified welfare problems. Commercial Belgian transports (n = 81) were assessed in spring (n = 14), summer (n = 33), autumn (n = 10), and winter (n = 24), and potential risk factors were recorded by the observer. Animal-based welfare indicators were scored before the start of the pre-slaughter phase as well as after the catching, transport and lairage, and slaughter stages to assess the impact of each stage. The most frequently observed welfare impairments were vent and thigh lesions, panting, wing fractures, and bruising on wings and breasts. Our results show that the impact of the pre-slaughter phase on broiler welfare is multifaceted. The overall pre-slaughter phase resulted in a mean weight decrease of 5.3%, a prevalence of 1.4% in leg bruising, and 3.7% in breast or wing bruising. Wing fractures occurred mainly during the catching stage: Prevalence increased from 0.1% to 1.9% (P = 0.003). A welfare comparison before and after transportation and lairage revealed that plumage had become more soiled (P = 0.003), body temperature decreased by 0.7°C (P < 0.001), huddling prevalence increased by 0.5% (P = 0.008), prevalence of birds with splayed legs increased by 0.08% (P = 0.008), prevalence of supine birds decreased by 0.05% (P = 0.003), and 0.1% fewer birds with wings stuck in the crates (P = 0.010) were observed. Risk factor analyses revealed that carefully choosing the catching crew, minimizing thermal stress, reducing duration of transportation, and worker training are promising actions that may improve broiler welfare during the pre-slaughter phase., (© 2016 Poultry Science Association Inc.)

There is a large demand for holistic welfare assessment systems that result in a singular balanced summary of welfare. The Welfare Quality® (WQ) broiler protocol summarizes 18 welfare measures into four principles ('good feeding', 'good housing', 'good health' and 'appropriate behaviour'), which are then integrated into one overall category ('excellent', 'enhanced', 'acceptable' or 'not classified'). But the protocol is time consuming which hampers implementation. Furthermore, WQ's aim to assess animal welfare in a wide range of husbandry systems may decrease its ability to discriminate between flocks from the same system. We applied the protocol in the context of intensive indoor rearing to assess whether it discriminated sufficiently between flocks, could be shortened without losing essential information, and provided a balanced summary of welfare. The vast majority of the flocks (88%) received the same overall classification (acceptable) whilst all other flocks received an adjacent classification (enhanced), suggesting poor discriminative capacity. For 95% of the flocks overall classification was explained by two measures only ('drinker space' and 'stocking density'). A system based on these two measures would reduce assessment time from 3.5 h to a few minutes. However, both measures' validity can be questioned as they are risk factors for poor welfare rather than animal-based outcome measures and they suffer from methodological weaknesses. Furthermore, the possibility for such an extreme simplification raises doubts on whether the overall classification reflects a balanced summary of different welfare aspects. In line with this, overall classification was not affected by replacing single measures within the 'good health' and 'appropriate behaviour' principles with realistically attainable minima or maxima for intensively reared flocks. Even replacing either of these two principles entirely with their realistically obtainable minimum or maximum did not affect classification. Such insensitivity to change may discourage attempts to improve the welfare of intensively reared flocks when assessments are made based on the overall classification. This calls for an adjustment of the classification system, which is currently being developed by the Welfare Quality Network.

The pre-slaughter phase of the production process has potentially important animal welfare implications, including mortality (recorded as "Dead on Arrivals"; DOA: ). To reduce DOA%, specific risk factors need to be identified. DOA% can also be used as a first and quick screening of pre-slaughter broiler welfare under commercial conditions. The aim of the present study was to identify risk factors for DOA% in commercial broiler flocks and to find associations between DOA% and animal-based indicators of broiler welfare during the pre-slaughter phase. Eighty-one transported flocks to five slaughter plants were assessed. Farmers provided information on the flock and observers gathered data on pre-slaughter factors. DOA% was recorded by slaughter plant personnel. The association between risk factors and DOA% was tested using linear mixed models, with slaughter plant as the random effect. Mean (± SE) DOA% was 0.30 ± 0.05% and median was 0.19% (range 0.04 to 3.34%). Two risk factors for DOA% were identified, both related to flock health status during the production phase. Higher DOA% was found when farmers did not check chick quality upon arrival (P = 0.011), although one extreme DOA% caused this significant effect. In addition, on-farm mortality during production (including selective culling) was negatively associated with DOA% (P = 0.011), potentially due to the selective culling on farm. Further research is needed on the impact of on-farm health status on welfare during the pre-slaughter phase, as the current study provided some evidence that on-farm factors are linked to mortality during the pre-slaughter phase. No specific characteristics of the pre-slaughter phase could be identified as risk factor for increased mortality. DOA% was positively associated with five welfare indicators, including indicators of thermal stress, which indicates the potential to use DOA% as a quick, cost-efficient screening tool for those welfare aspects., (© 2016 Poultry Science Association Inc.)

Demand for meat from free-range broiler chickens is increasing in several countries. Consumers are motivated by better animal welfare and other product attributes such as quality and taste. However, scientific literature is not unanimous about whether free-range access influences quality, composition, and taste of the meat. Because chickens normally do not use free-range areas optimally, it is possible that provision of more suitable shelter will lead to more pronounced differences between chickens raised indoors and outdoors. In this study, an experiment with 2 production rounds of 600 slow-growing broilers each was performed. In each round, 200 chickens were raised indoors (IN), 200 had free-range access to grassland with artificial shelter (AS), and 200 had free-range access to short-rotation coppice with willow (SRC). Free-range use, feed intake, and growth were monitored, and after slaughter (d72) meat quality, composition, and taste were assessed. Free-range use was higher in SRC than in AS chickens (42.8 vs. 35.1%, P < 0.001). IN chickens were heavier at d70 than AS and SRC chickens (2.79 vs. 2.66 and 2.68 kg, P = 0.005). However, feed intake and conversion did not differ. Breast meat of chickens with free-range access was darker (P = 0.021) and yellower (P = 0.001) than that of IN chickens. Ultimate pH was lower (5.73 vs. 5.79; P = 0.006) and drip loss higher (1.29 vs. 1.09%; P = 0.05) in IN versus AS chickens. The percentage of polyunsaturated fatty acids was higher in AS than in IN meat (35.84 vs. 34.59%; P = 0.021). The taste panel judged breast meat of SRC chickens to be more tender (P = 0.003) and less fibrous (P = 0.013) compared to that of AS and IN chickens, and juicier compared to the IN chickens (P = 0.017). Overall, free-range access negatively affected slaughter weight, but positively affected meat quality, taste, and composition. Only a few differences between AS and SRC were found, possibly due to limited differences in free-range use., (© 2016 Poultry Science Association Inc.)

Non-cage systems provide laying hens with considerable space allowance, perches and access to litter, thereby offering opportunities for natural species-specific behaviors. Conversely, these typical characteristics of non-cage systems also increase the risk of keel bone and foot pad disorders. The aim of this study was twofold: 1) to investigate if providing ramps between perches (housing factor) reduces keel bone and foot pad disorders and 2) to test for genetic predisposition by comparing 2 different layer hybrids. In a 2 × 2 design, 16 pens were equipped either with or without ramps between perches and nest boxes (8 pens/treatment), and housed with either 25 ISA Brown or Dekalb White birds per pen (in total 200 birds/hybrid). Keel bone injuries and foot health were repeatedly measured via palpation and visual assessment between 17 and 52 wk of age and daily egg production was recorded. The relationships between the dependent response variables (keel bone and footpad disorders, egg production) and independent factors (age, ramps, hybrid) were analyzed using generalized linear mixed models and corrected for repeated measures. Ramps reduced keel bone fractures (F 1,950  = 45.80, P < 0.001), foot pad hyperkeratosis (F 1,889  = 10.40, P = 0.001), foot pad dermatitis (F 1,792  = 20.48, P < 0.001) and bumble foot (F 1,395  = 8.52, P < 0.001) compared to pens without ramps. ISA Brown birds sustained more keel bone fractures (F 1,950  = 33.26, P < 0.001), had more foot pad hyperkeratosis (F 1,889  = 44.69, P < 0.001) and laid more floor eggs (F 1,1883  = 438.80, P < 0.001), but had fewer keel bone deviations (F 1,1473  = 6.73, P < 0.001), fewer cases of foot pad dermatitis (F 1,792  = 19.84, P < 0.001) and no bumble foot as compared to Dekalb White birds. Age, housing and hybrid showed several interaction effects. Providing ramps proved to be very effective in both reducing keel bone and foot pad problems in non-cage systems. Keel bone and foot pad disorders are related to genetic predisposition. These results indicate that adaptation of the housing systems and hybrid selection may be effective measures in improving laying hen welfare., (© 2016 Poultry Science Association Inc.)

Bone metabolism fluctuates throughout the reproductive cycle of sows to enable foetal growth and milk production. Although increased bone mineralisation is conceivable in sows during reproduction, a study of mineralisation in function of parity has not been performed. This study evaluated the fluctuations of markers for bone metabolism in primiparous and multiparous sows throughout a reproductive cycle. The experiment included ten multiparous and five primiparous commercial hybrid sows from one herd. The sows were monitored for one reproductive cycle and fed according to commercial dietary standards. Blood samples were taken in the morning before feeding at fixed time intervals before (day -5) and during gestation (insemination (day 0), 21, 42, 63, 84), around parturition (day 108, 112, parturition (115), 118), and during lactation (day 122, 129, 143). Serum osteocalcin (OC) concentration increased in early and mid-gestation (P=0.002) and decreased at the end of gestation (P=0.001), whereas crosslaps (CTX) concentration decreased during early and mid-gestation (P=0.002) and increased towards the end of gestation (P=0.001). Towards the end of lactation serum levels of both markers increased (P=0.007 and 0.013, respectively). For hydroxyproline (HYP) no significant fluctuation in function of the reproductive cycle was detected. Matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP2) concentration increased towards parturition for both primiparous and multiparous sows (P=0.001), whereas during lactation no significant fluctuations in function of the reproductive cycle were found. A parity effect was found for OC and CTX (P<0.010), but not for the other markers. These results demonstrate that bone metabolism differed between primiparous and multiparous sows, although in both groups a similar fluctuation throughout the reproductive cycle was observed.

Lameness and lesions to the skin and claws of sows in group housing are commonly occurring indicators of reduced welfare. Typically, these problems are more common in group housing than in individual housing systems. Group management type (dynamic versus static) and stage of gestation influence the behavior of the animals, which in turn influences the occurrence of these problems. The present study compared prevalence, incidence and mean scores of lameness and skin and claw lesions in static versus dynamic group housed sows at different stages of gestation during three consecutive reproductive cycles. A total of 10 Belgian sow herds were monitored; 5 in which dynamic groups and 5 in which static groups were utilized. All sows were visually assessed for lameness and skin lesions three times per cycle and the claws of the hind limbs were assessed once per cycle. Lameness and claw lesions were assessed using visual analogue scales. Static groups, in comparison with dynamic groups, demonstrated lower lameness scores (P<0.05) and decreased skin lesion prevalence (24.9 vs. 47.3%, P<0.05) at the end of gestation. There was no difference between treatment group regarding claw lesion prevalence with 75.5% of sows demonstrating claw lesions regardless of group management. Prevalences of lameness (22.4 vs. 8.9%, P<0.05) and skin lesions (46.6 vs. 4.4%, P<0.05) were highest during the group-housed phase compared to the individually housed phases. Although the prevalence of lameness and skin lesions did not differ three days after grouping versus at the end of the group-housing phase, their incidence peaked during the first three days after moving from the insemination stalls to the group. In conclusion, the first three days after grouping was the most risky period for lameness incidence, but there was no significant difference between static or dynamic group management., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Broiler chicks are transported to production sites within one to 2 d post-hatch. Possible effects of this transportation are poorly understood and could vary among chicks from breeder flocks of different ages. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of transportation duration and parental flock age on chick welfare, productivity, and quality. After hatch in a commercial hatchery, 1,620 mixed-sex chicks from 29-wk old (young) and 1,620 chicks from 60-wk old (old) breeders were subjected to transportation of 1.5 h or 11 h duration. After transportation, 2,800 chicks were divided among 100 pens, with each pen containing 28 chicks from one transportation crate (2 or 3 pens per crate). From the remaining chicks, on average 6 chicks (min 4, max 8) per crate (n = 228) were randomly selected and assessed for chick quality, weighed, and culled for yolk sac weighing (one d). Chicks that had not been assigned to pens or were not used for post-transportation measurements, were removed from the experiment (n = 212). Mortality, ADG, BW, and feed conversion ( FC: ) of the experimental chicks were recorded until 41 d. Meat quality was measured for breast fillets (n = 47). No interaction effect of parental age and transportation duration was found for any variables. BW and yolk sac weight at one d were lower for chicks transported 11 h than 1.5 h and for chicks from young versus old breeders. The effect of parental flock age on BW persisted until slaughter. Additionally, parental age positively affected ADG until slaughter. Chick quality was lower in chicks from old versus young breeders. Chick quality and productivity were not affected by transportation duration. Mortality and meat quality were not affected by either parental age or transportation duration. To conclude, no long-term detrimental effects were found from long post-hatch transportation in chicks from young or old parent flocks. Based on these results, we suggest that 11 h post-hatch transportations under similar conditions do not impose long-term welfare or productivity risks., (© The Author 2016. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Poultry Science Association.)

This study evaluated the influence of floor type on sow welfare in terms of lameness, claw lesions, and skin lesions. In a 2 × 3 factorial design, we have investigated the effect of rubber coverings on concrete floors and the effect of 3 levels of dietary zinc supplementation on locomotion and claw and skin lesions in group-housed sows. Six groups of 21 ± 4 hybrid sows were monitored during 3 successive reproductive cycles. The sows were group housed from d 28 after insemination (d 0) until 1 wk before expected farrowing date (d 108) in pens with either exposed concrete floors or concrete floors covered with rubber in part of the lying area and the fully slatted area. During each reproductive cycle, locomotion and skin lesions were assessed 4 times (d 28, 50, 108, and 140) and claw lesions were assessed twice (d 50 and 140). Results are given as least squares means ± SE. Locomotion and claw scores were given in millimeters, on analog scales of 150 and 160 mm, respectively. Here, we report on the effect of floor type, which did not interact with dietary zinc concentration ( > 0.10 for all variables). At move to group (d 28) and mid gestation (d 50), no differences between floor treatments were seen in locomotion ( > 0.10). At the end of gestation (d 108), sows housed on rubber flooring scored 9.9 ± 4.1 mm better on gait ( < 0.001). Regarding claw disorders, both parameters "heel overgrowth and erosion" (difference of 4.6 ± 1.8 mm; = 0.01) and "heel-sole crack" (difference of 3.1 ± 1.5 mm; = 0.04) scores were better for sows on rubber flooring at mid gestation (d 50). However, sows on rubber flooring scored worse for "vertical cracks in the wall horn" (difference of 3.4 ± 1.7 mm; = 0.04). At the end of lactation (d 140), both "white line" (difference of 2.9 ± 1 mm; = 0.02) and "claw length" (difference of 4.7 ± 1.4 mm; < 0.001) had better scores on rubber flooring. No differences for skin lesions were observed between floor treatments. The improved scores for gait toward the end of gestation and some types of claw disorders at mid gestation suggest that rubber flooring in group housing has a beneficial effect on the overall leg health of sows. The documented increase in vertical cracks in the wall horn at d 50 requires further investigation.

Objective: To describe anatomical and methodological factors influencing mechanical nociceptive thresholds (MNTs) and intra-site variability in healthy sows., Study Design: Prospective, randomized validation., Animals: Eight pregnant, healthy, mixed-parity sows (176-269 kg)., Methods: Repeated MNT measurements were taken: 1) with a hand-held probe and a limb-mounted actuator connected to a digital algometer; 2) at nine landmarks on the limbs and tail; and 3) at 1 and 3 minute intervals. Data were analysed using linear mixed regression models., Results: The MNTs (±SEM) of the limbs were lower with the probe (14.7 ± 1.2 N) than with the actuator (21.3 ± 1.2 N; p < 0.001), in the pelvic versus the thoracic limbs (16.7 ± 1.2 versus 19.2 ± 1.2 N; p < 0.001), and in the lateral versus the dorsal metatarsi and metacarpi (17.6 ± 1.2 versus 18.4 ± 1.2 N; p = 0.002). MNTs were higher in all subsequent measurements compared with the first (p < 0.001) and in the morning compared with the afternoon (p = 0.04). We found no evidence of MNT differences based on interval between consecutive measurements (1 versus 3 minutes). Variability was lower in the thoracic limbs [mean back-transformed log10 coefficient of variation (CV) ± SE = 25.5 ± 1.5% versus 30.6 ± 1.5% in the pelvic limbs; p < 0.001], with the actuator (22.7 ± 1.5% versus 33.4 ± 1.5% with the probe; p < 0.001), and on the left (CV = 26.9 ± 1.5% versus 29.3 ± 1.5% on the right; p = 0.01). Tail data (probe only) were analysed separately: mean MNT (± SE) was 11.7 (±1.8); MNT increased in days 3-6 of testing compared with day 1 (p < 0.001). The mean CV (±SE) was 38.9% (±1.1%)., Conclusions and Clinical Relevance: MNTs and intra-site variability in healthy sows were affected by several factors, indicating that this methodology requires considerable attention to detail., (© 2015 Association of Veterinary Anaesthetists and the American College of Veterinary Anesthesia and Analgesia.)

On 1 January 2012, conventional cages for laying hens were banned in the European Union (EU); all egg farmers must now use alternative hen housing systems. In total, 218 Flemish egg farmers were surveyed in 2013 to 2014 regarding which housing systems they currently use, their degree of satisfaction with the system, and how they experienced the transition from conventional cages to an alternative system. The response rate was 58.3% (127 respondents). Of these, 43 (33.9%) were no longer active as an egg farmer, mainly due to the ban on conventional cages. The respondents who were active as egg farmers both before and after the transition (84, 66.1%) mainly judged the ban as negative for their own finances and for the competitive position of the Belgian egg industry, but were neutral or positive regarding the general consequences for their own business. Most respondents' hens were housed in either aviary systems (47.7%) or in alternative cage systems (38.2%). When choosing a new system, the fit into the farm and consumer demand were the most important factors. Consumer demand was the main reason for choosing a system with free-range access. In general, egg farmers were satisfied with the system they chose, although this differs between systems. When asked to compare the alternative systems to conventional cages, alternatives were judged to be better for hen welfare and consumer demand, but similar or worse for all other aspects, especially labor. Egg farmers previously using conventional cages judged alternative systems more negatively than those who had no prior experience with conventional cages. Farmers who had experience with free-range systems judged these more positively than those without this experience, e.g., for egg consumer demand, profitability, and hen welfare. These results can possibly be extrapolated to other EU countries in which conventional cages were the most common housing system until 2012, and lessons can be drawn from the farmers' experiences when implementing other animal welfare legislation that may require similar far-reaching adaptations for primary production., (© 2015 Poultry Science Association Inc.)

The aim of the present study was to explore whether marginal dietary zinc (Zn) concentrations affect claw quality measurements in weaned pigs. Twenty-four weaned pigs were randomly assigned to two dietary treatment groups: (1) 42 mg Zn/kg diet from ingredients only (unsupplemented, marginal dietary Zn concentration below Zn requirements of 80 mg Zn/kg feed); and (2) 106 mg Zn/kg diet, where Zn was added as ZnO (common commercial dietary Zn concentration). Claw conformation characteristics were measured at the start (day 0, 4 weeks of age) and at the end (day 36) of the study, and the histological claw characteristics of horn wall and heel horn were examined on samples collected at 9 weeks of age. Non-supplemented pigs had narrower claw widths (P= 0.028) and lower toe heights (P= 0.010) at 9 weeks. The length of the dorsal border tended to be lower for the non-supplemented piglets (P= 0.092). Claw volume and claw horn size were lower (P= 0.003 and P < 0.001, respectively) for the non-supplemented pigs at 9 weeks of age. Horn growth and wear were lower for the non-supplemented pigs (P= 0.044 and P < 0.001, respectively), but net horn growth (horn growth minus wear) was not different (P= 0.406). No changes in the histological claw characteristics were observed. Differences in claw quality measurements were found between lateral and medial claw digits and between fore and hind claws. It was concluded that marginal dietary Zn concentration affected various claw quality measurements. Marginal dietary Zn concentrations may not be sufficient to maintain claw quality in pigs., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Aviary systems for laying hens offer space and opportunities to perform natural behaviors. However, hen welfare can be impaired due to increased risk for keel bone and foot pad disorders in those systems. This cross-sectional study (N = 47 flocks) aimed to assess prevalences of keel bone and foot pad disorders in laying hens housed in aviaries in Belgium to identify risk factors for these disorders and their relation to egg production. Information on housing characteristics and egg production were obtained through questionnaire-based interviews, farm records, and measurements in the henhouse. Keel bone (wounds, hematomas, fractures, deviations) and foot pad disorders (dermatitis, hyperkeratosis) were assessed in 50 randomly selected 60-week-old laying hens per flock. A linear model with stepwise selection procedure was used to investigate associations between risk factors, production parameters, and the keel bone and foot pad disorders. The flock mean prevalences were: hematomas 41.2%, wounds 17.6%, fractures 82.5%, deviations 58.9%, hyperkeratosis 42.0%, dermatitis 27.6%, and bumble foot 1.2%. Identified risk factors for keel bone disorders were aviary type (row vs. portal), tier flooring material (wire mesh vs. plastic slats), corridor width, nest box perch, and hybrid. Identified risk factors for foot pad disorders were aviary type (row vs. portal), free-range, and hybrid. Percentage of second-quality eggs was negatively associated with keel bone deviations (P = 0.029) at the flock level. Keel bone and foot pad disorders were alarmingly high in aviary housing. The identification of various risk factors suggests improvements to aviary systems may lead to better welfare of laying hens., (© 2015 Poultry Science Association Inc.)

Welfare Quality(®) (WQ) assessment protocols place the emphasis on animal-based measures as an indicator for animal welfare. Stakeholders, however, emphasize that a reduction in the time taken to complete the protocol is essential to improve practical applicability. We studied the potential for reduction in time to complete the WQ broiler assessment protocol and present some modifications to the protocol correcting a few errors in the original calculations. Data was used from 180 flocks assessed on-farm and 150 flocks assessed at the slaughter plant. Correlations between variables were calculated, and where correlation was moderate, meaningful and promising (in terms of time reduction), simplification was considered using one variable predicted from another variable. Correlation analysis revealed a promising correlation between severe hock burn and gait scores on-farm. Therefore, prediction of gait scores using hock burn scores was studied further as a possible simplification strategy (strategy 1). Measurements of footpad dermatitis, hock burn, cleanliness and gait score on-farm correlated moderately to highly with slaughter plant measurements of footpad dermatitis and/or hock burn, supporting substitution of on-farm measurements with slaughter plant data. A simplification analysis was performed using footpad dermatitis, hock burn, cleanliness and gait scores measured on-farm predicted from slaughter plant measurements of footpad dermatitis and hock burn (strategy 2). Simplification strategies were compared with the full assessment protocol. Close agreement was found between the full protocol and both simplification strategies although large confidence intervals were found for specificity of the simplified models. It is concluded that the proposed simplification strategies are encouraging; strategy 1 can reduce the time to complete the on-farm assessment by ~1 h (25% to 33% reduction) and strategy 2 can reduce on-farm assessment time by ~2 h (50% to 67% reduction). Both simplification strategies should, however, be validated further, and tested on farms with a wide distribution across the different welfare categories of WQ.

As of 2012, the EU has banned the use of conventional cages (CC) for laying hens, causing a shift in housing systems. This study's aim was to gain insight into farmers' opinions on hen health and welfare in their current housing systems. A survey was sent to 218 Belgian egg farmers, of which 127 (58.3%) responded, with 84 still active as egg farmer. Hen welfare tended to be less important in choosing the housing system for farmers with cage than with non-cage systems. Respondents currently using cage systems were more satisfied with hen health than respondents with non-cage systems. Reported mortality increased with farm size and was higher in furnished cages than in floor housing. Feather pecking, cannibalism, smothering and mortality were perceived to be higher in current housing systems than in CC, but only by respondents who shifted to non-cage systems from previously having had CC. Health- and production-related parameters were scored to be more important for hen welfare as compared to behavior-related parameters. Those without CC in the past rated factors relating to natural behavior to be more important for welfare than those with CC. This difference in opinion based on farmer backgrounds should be taken into account in future research.

Societal pressure to ban surgical castration of male piglets is rising due to animal welfare concerns, thus other methods to prevent boar taint need to be explored. Genetic selection against boar taint appears to be a long-term sustainable alternative. However, as boar taint is linked to reproductive hormones, it is important to consider possible negative side effects such as delayed sexual maturity or changes in behaviour. We reported earlier that the melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R) marker can be used to reduce boar taint levels in fat of boars. The objective of this study was to evaluate whether MC4R marker-assisted selection for lower boar taint prevalence affects plasma levels of boar taint compounds and testosterone; sexual maturity; behaviour; skin lesions; and lameness in boars and gilts. Using an intervention study with a 2×2 design, 264 boars and gilts differing on position 893 of the MC4R gene (AA v. GG) were compared. The MC4R polymorphism did not affect the plasma concentration of either androstenone or testosterone at different time points, whereas the concentration of skatole was significantly lower (P=0.003) and the concentration of indole tended to be lower (P=0.074) in GG compared with AA boars. A higher percentage of gilts of the GG genotype were in puberty at slaughter age compared with AA gilts (P<0.001). The age of the boars at sexual maturity (as indicated by the first positive preputial smear test) did not differ between AA and GG boars. In contrast, weight of GG boars at sexual maturity tended to be lower (P=0.065). During the period from 6 weeks of age to slaughter, boars and gilts of the GG genotype showed more playing behaviour (P=0.015) and less passive and feeding behaviour (P=0.003). They showed more skin lesions on their back and caudal area (P=0.022), and tended to show more skin lesions on their head and anterior area (P=0.093) compared with AA animals. In conclusion, the polymorphism in the MC4R gene can be used as a marker without negative effects on reproduction characteristics in boars and gilts. Genetic selection towards a lower prevalence of boar taint will lead to more active pigs with more skin lesions. Management strategies may therefore be necessary to reduce skin lesions in the selected animals.

Sows housed in groups have to move through their pen to fulfil their behavioural and physiological needs such as feeding and resting. In addition to causing pain and discomfort, lameness may restrict the ability of sows to fulfil such needs. The aim of our study was to investigate the extent to which the mobility of sows is affected by different degrees of lameness. Mobility was measured as the sow's willingness or capability to cover distances. Feed-restricted hybrid sows with different gait scores were subjected to a feed reward collection test in which they had to walk distances to obtain subsequent rewards. In all, 29 group-housed sows at similar gestation stage (day 96.6 ± 7 s.d.) were visually recorded for gait and classified as non-lame, mildly lame, moderately lame or severely lame. All sows received 2.6 kg of standard commercial gestation feed per day. The test arena consisted of two feeding locations separated from each other by a Y-shaped middle barrier. Feed rewards were presented at the two feeders in turn, using both light and sound cues to signal the availability of a new feed reward. Sows were individually trained during 5 non-consecutive days for 10 min/day with increasing barrier length (range: 0 to 3.5 m) each day. After training, sows were individually tested once per day on 3 non-consecutive days with the maximum barrier length such that they had to cover 9.3 m to walk from one feeder to the other. The outcome variable was the number of rewards collected in a 15-min time span. Non-lame and mildly lame sows obtained more rewards than moderately lame and severely lame sows (P<0.01). However, no significant difference was found between non-lame and mildly lame sows (P=0.69), nor between moderately lame and severely lame sows (P=1.00). This feed reward collection test indicates that both moderately lame and severely lame sows are limited in their combined ability and willingness to walk, but did not reveal an effect of mild lameness on mobility. These findings suggest that moderately and more severely lame sows, but not mildly lame sows, might suffer from reduced access to valuable resources in group housing systems.

Using behavioural indicators of thermal discomfort, that is, shade seeking, panting scores (PS) and respiration rate (RR), we evaluated the effect of hot summer conditions and shade, for a herd of adult Holstein dairy cows and a herd of Belgian Blue beef cows kept on pasture in a temperate area (Belgium). During the summer of 2012, both herds were kept on pasture without access to shade (NS). During the summers of 2011 and 2013 each herd was divided into one group with (S) and one without (NS) access to shade. Shade was provided by young trees with shade cloth (80% reduction in solar radiation) hung between them. For S cows, we investigated how shade use was related to hot conditions as quantified by six climatic indices. The heat load index (HLI), which incorporates air temperature and humidity, solar radiation and wind speed, was the best predictor of the six indices tested. In 2011, there was a relatively high threshold for use of shade. When HLI=90, shade use probability reached 17% for dairy cows and 27% for beef cows. In 2013, however, at HLI=90, shade use probability reached 48% for dairy cows and 41% for beef cows. For animals from the NS treatment we determined the effect of hot summer conditions on RR and PS (with 0=no panting and 4.5=extreme panting). In both types of cattle, an increase in black globe temperature was the best predictor for increasing RR and PS. Furthermore, we determined how the effect of hot summer conditions on RR and PS was affected by the use of shade. Under hot conditions (black globe temperature ⩾ 30°C), >50% of the animals under shade retained normal PS and RR (PS<1 and RR<90 breaths per minute), whereas normal RR and PS were significantly less prevalent for animals outside shade. Our findings suggest that, even in temperate summers, heat can induce thermal discomfort in cattle, as evidenced by increases in shade use, RR and PS, and that shade increases thermal comfort.

Feather pecking and high mortality levels are significant welfare problems in non-cage housing systems for laying hens. The aim of this study was to identify husbandry-related risk factors for feather damage, mortality, and egg laying performance in laying hens housed in the multi-tier non-cage housing systems known as aviaries. Factors tested included type of system flooring, degree of red mite infestation, and access to free-range areas. Information on housing characteristics, management, and performance in Belgian aviaries (N=47 flocks) were obtained from a questionnaire, farm records, and farm visits. Plumage condition and pecking wounds were scored in 50 randomly selected 60-week-old hens per flock. Associations between plumage condition, wounds, performance, mortality, and possible risk factors were investigated using a linear model with a stepwise model selection procedure. Many flocks exhibited a poor plumage condition and a high prevalence of wounds, with considerable variation between flocks. Better plumage condition was found in wire mesh aviaries (P<0.001), in aviaries with no red mite infestation (P=0.004), and in free-range systems (P=0.011) compared to plastic slatted aviaries, in houses with red mite infestations, and those without a free-range area. Furthermore, hens in aviaries with wire mesh flooring had fewer wounds on the back (P=0.006) and vent (P=0.009), reduced mortality (P=0.003), and a better laying performance (P=0.013) as compared to hens in aviaries with plastic slatted flooring. Flocks with better feather cover had lower levels of mortality (P<0.001). Red mite infestations were more common in plastic slatted aviaries (P=0.043). Other risk factors associated with plumage condition were genotype, number of diet changes, and the presence of nest perches. Wire mesh flooring in particular seems to have several health, welfare, and performance benefits in comparison to plastic slats, possibly related to decreased feather pecking, better hygiene, and fewer red mite infestations. This suggests that adjustments to the aviary housing design may further improve laying hen welfare and performance., (© 2015 Poultry Science Association Inc.)

For dairy cattle on pasture in temperate regions, it is largely unknown to what degree hot summer conditions impact energy metabolism, milk yield and milk composition and how effective shade is in reducing these negative effects. During the summer of 2012, a herd of Holstein cows was kept on pasture without access to shade (treatment NS). During the summers of 2011 and 2013, the herd was divided into a group with (treatment S) and a group without (treatment NS) access to shade. Shade was provided by young trees combined with shade cloths (80% reduction in solar radiation). A weather station registered the local climatic conditions on open pasture, from which we calculated daily average Heat Load Index (HLI) values. The effects of HLI and shade on rectal temperature (RT), blood plasma indicators of hyperventilation and metabolic changes due to heat stress, milk yield and milk composition were investigated. RT increased with increasing HLI, but was less for S cows than for NS cows (by 0.02°C and 0.03°C increase per unit increase of HLI, respectively). Hyperchloraemia (an increased blood plasma concentration of Cl-), a sign of hyperventilation, increased for NS cows but not for S cows. The plasma concentration of alkaline phosphatase, a regulator of energy metabolism in the liver, decreased with increasing HLI for NS cows only. Access to shade, thus, reduced the effect of HLI on RT, hyperchloraemia and the regulation of metabolism by the liver. As HLI increased, the plasma concentration of cholesterol decreased (indicating increased lipolysis) and the plasma concentration of creatinine increased (indicating increased protein catabolism). These effects did not differ between S and NS cows. For NS cows, after a lag-time of 2 days, the milk yield decreased with increasing HLI. For S cows, the milk yield was unaffected by HLI and its quadratic factor. The milk concentrations of lactose, protein and fat decreased as HLI increased, but only the effect on milk protein content was remediated by shade. In conclusion, access to shade tempered the negative effects of high HLI on RT, hyperchloraemia and a blood plasma indicator of changing energy metabolism (generally) as well as prevented the decrease in milk yield observed in cows without access to shade.

Fluctuations in Zn metabolism throughout gestation and lactation might affect Zn requirements. However, scientific data on Zn requirements for breeding sows are limited. The objective of the present study was to assess the Zn status of primiparous and multiparous sows using different Zn status biomarkers, to identify periods of critical Zn status throughout the reproductive cycle at different parities. Blood samples were taken after overnight fasting before feeding in the morning from five primiparous and ten multiparous sows at fixed time intervals during gestation (days - 5, 0 (insemination), 21, 42, 63 and 84), around parturition (days 108, 112, 115 (parturition) and 118) and during lactation (days 122, 129 and 143 (weaning)). At parturition, blood samples were collected from two randomly selected piglets per sow before colostrum intake. Plasma was analysed for Zn and Cu contents, whereas serum was analysed for alkaline phosphatase, metallothionein and albumin concentrations. Independently of parity, all biomarkers fluctuated differently during gestation and lactation (P< 0·050). This reflects their different roles in Zn metabolism, and suggests that the choice of a Zn status biomarker necessitates careful consideration. Low average plasma Zn concentration at the end of gestation and throughout lactation seem to be replenished towards weaning.

The Welfare Quality consortium has proposed a science-based protocol for assessing broiler chicken welfare on farms. Innovative features make the protocols particularly suited for comparative studies, such as the focus on animal-based welfare measures and an integration procedure for calculating an overall welfare status. These protocols reflect the scientific status up to 2009 but are meant to be updated on the basis of inter alia implementation studies. Because only few such studies have been done, we applied the Welfare Quality protocol to compare the welfare of broiler flocks in Belgium (representing a typical European Union (EU) country which implies stringent animal welfare legislation) versus Brazil (the major broiler meat exporter to the EU and with minimal animal welfare legislation). Two trained observers performed broiler Welfare Quality assessments on a total of 22 farms in Belgium and south Brazil. All of the farms produced for the EU market. Although the overall welfare was categorized as 'acceptable' on all farms, many country differences were observed at the level of the welfare principles, criteria, and measures. Brazilian farms obtained higher scores for 3 of the 4 welfare principles: 'good feeding' (P = 0.007), 'good housing' (P < 0.001), and 'good health' (P = 0.005). Four of the 10 welfare criteria scores were, or tended to be, higher on Brazilian than Belgian farms: 'absence of prolonged thirst' (P < 0.001), 'ease of movement' (P < 0.001), 'absence of injuries' (P = 0.002), and 'positive emotional state' (P = 0.055). The only criteria with a higher score for the Belgian farms than their Brazilian counterparts were 'absence of prolonged hunger' (P = 0.048) and 'good human-animal relationship' (P = 0.002). Application of the Welfare Quality protocol has raised several concerns about the validity, reliability, and discriminatory potential of the protocol. The results also call for more research into the effect of animal welfare legislation as broiler welfare on the south Brazilian farms appeared to be superior to that on the Belgian farms. Animal-based welfare assessments on a larger sample of farms are needed to evaluate to what extent these findings may be generalized., (© 2015 Poultry Science Association Inc.)

Pig vocalisations convey information about their current state of health and welfare. Continuously monitoring these vocalisations can provide useful information for the farmer. For instance, pig screams can indicate stressful situations. When monitoring screams, other sounds can interfere with scream detection. Therefore, identifying screams from other sounds is essential. The objective of this study was to understand which sound features define a scream. Therefore, a method to detect screams based on sound features with physical meaning and explicit rules was developed. To achieve this, 7 hours of labelled data from 24 pigs was used. The developed detection method attained 72% sensitivity, 91% specificity and 83% precision. As a result, the detection method showed that screams contain the following features discerning them from other sounds: a formant structure, adequate power, high frequency content, sufficient variability and duration.

Since surgical castration of male piglets without anaesthesia is under heavy societal pressure, finding a sustainable solution to reduce boar taint has become urgent. One way to circumvent this animal welfare violation is raising entire male pigs whilst selecting against the tainted phenotype through marker-assisted selection. Since slaughtering at a lower weight is often suggested to reduce boar taint, selection using a marker for that trait could be a promising strategy. Therefore, in this study a melanocortin 4 receptor (MC4R) mutation, frequently described in different pig breeds as marker for fat content, weight gain and feed intake, was examined in relation to boar taint in pig breeds used in Belgian pig farms. Although results suggest an association between this mutation and a boar taint odour score assigned by experts, no association was found between the mutation and the concentration of the individual chemical boar taint components androstenone, skatole and indole., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Male piglets are castrated to reduce boar taint and also to reduce aggressive and sexual behaviour. However, the procedure as traditionally performed is painful and negatively affects performance. Large-scale results about the consequences of implementing alternatives on farms are lacking. We, therefore, investigated the practical applicability of the following five alternatives that can be implemented in the short term: surgical castration (1) without pain relief (CONT, control group), (2) with analgesia (MET, Metacam, 0.2 ml, 10 to 15 min before castration), (3) with general anaesthesia (CO2, inhalation, 100% CO2, 25 s, 3 l/min), (4) vaccination against boar taint (IM, two injections with Improvac) and (5) production of entire males (EM). The study consisted of the following two trials: (1) an experimental farm trial with 18 animals/treatment and (2) a large field trial on 20 farms with ~120 male pigs/farm per treatment and all treatments performed on each farm. Performance results as well as data on carcass traits, boar taint (hot-iron method) and testes development and weight were collected in both trials. Neither castration nor administration of analgesia or anaesthesia had an effect on daily gain of the piglets in the farrowing crates (P>0.05). Farmer records indicated that mortality in the farrowing crates (1.1%), nursery pens (1.8%) and fattening stable (2.2%) was not influenced by MET or CO2 compared with EM, IM or CONT (P>0.05). No significant differences were found for daily gain (P>0.05) nor slaughter age (P>0.05). Immunocastrates and EM had a better gain-to-feed ratio (P<0.05) compared with the groups of barrows (CONT, MET and CO2). Lean meat percentage was higher for EM compared with the barrows, and intermediate for IM (P<0.05). Carcass yield was lowest for IM (P<0.05). The hot-iron method indicated that boar taint was eliminated in barrows and IM compared with EM (P<0.001). Average prevalence of strong boar taint was 3% for EM, but varied from 0% to 14% between farms. As the effect of treatment on performance as well as the level of boar taint of EM was farm dependent, farmers should be encouraged to pre-test the different alternatives in order to make a well-considered choice for the best practical and profitable alternative for their farm.

The Asp298Asn polymorphism of the melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R) in pigs is known to affect economically important traits such as growth rate and backfat thickness. We have assessed the possible use of this polymorphism as a molecular marker to perform genetic selection toward lower boar taint levels without compromising growth performance and carcass and meat quality in commercial boars and gilts. Homozygous boars and gilts of the AA genotype and GG genotype were compared in an intervention study with a 2 × 2 design to assess main effects and possible interactions between sex and genotype. The concentrations of the 3 boar taint compounds androstenone ( = 0.044), skatole ( = 0.049), and indole ( = 0.006) were significantly higher in fat of AA boars compared to GG boars. However, no effect on the sensory analysis of the fat samples could be observed. Between 20 and 115 kg BW, AA pigs showed higher ADFI than GG pigs ( < 0.001). An interaction between genotype and sex was observed for ADG ( = 0.044): AA boars had a significantly higher ADG than GG boars but there was no significant difference between the gilts. Daily lean meat gain tended to be higher in boars compared to gilts ( = 0.051), independent of genotype. Similarly, boars showed higher G:F compared to gilts ( < 0.001), without effect of genotype. Genotype and sex affected several carcass quality parameters but there was no interaction. Pigs of the AA genotype displayed a lower dressing percentage ( = 0.005), lower ham width ( = 0.024), lower muscle thickness ( = 0.011), and higher fat thickness ( < 0.001), resulting in a lower lean meat percentage ( < 0.001) in comparison with GG pigs. Gilts had a significantly higher dressing percentage ( < 0.001), higher muscle thickness ( < 0.001), higher ham width ( < 0.001), and lower ham angle ( < 0.001) compared to boars. Other than the boar taint compounds, meat quality was not affected by genotype. Pork of gilts was darker ( = 0.014) and less exudative during cooking ( < 0.001) and contained more intramuscular fat ( = 0.013). These results indicate that genetic selection against boar taint is possible using this marker. This will also result in lower feed intake and ADG and, consequently, better carcass quality.

The most common housing system for reproduction rabbits, individual cage housing on a wire floor, is increasingly scrutinized because of its potential detrimental impact on animal welfare. We compared three types of housing: (1) individual cage housing on a wire floor (3952 cm2/doe, maximum roof height 63 cm, one 1000 cm2 plastic footrest/doe), (2) semi-group housing on a wire floor (5000 cm2/doe, roofless, one 1000 cm2 plastic footrest/doe) and (3) the same semi-group housing, but with a fully plastic slatted floor. In all housing systems, does had free access to an elevated platform. In the semi-group housing pens, four does were housed communally during 21 days of the reproduction cycle (to allow more space for locomotion and to increase opportunities for social contact), and individually during the other 21 days of the cycle (to minimize doe-doe and doe-kit aggression that peaks around kindling). In all, 24 Hycole does were included per system. The does entered the experiment at 203 days of age (after their first parity). The experiment consisted of four reproductive cycles, ending at 369 days of age. Pododermatitis was scored in cycles 1, 2 and 4. At the end of the 4th cycle the does were euthanized and X-rays were taken to assess spinal deformation. Tibia and femur length, width and cortical thickness were determined and bone strength was assessed using a shear test, as a measure of bone quality. Although severe pododermatitis was absent, the prevalence of plantar hyperkeratosis (hair loss and callus formation) at the end of the 4th cycle was much greater on the wire floor (65% and 68% for semi-group housing and individual cages, respectively) than on the plastic floor (5%, P<0.0001), even though the wire floors were equipped with a plastic footrest known to decrease hyperkeratosis. In contrast to our expectations, semi-group housing did not affect the prevalence of spinal deformations (P>0.10), but in line with our expectations bone quality was affected favourably by semi-group housing. The tibial cortex (and to a lesser extent the femoral cortex) was thicker in semi-group housing than in individual cages (1.45, 1.46 and 1.38 mm for semi-group housing on wire, semi-group housing on plastic and individual housing on wire, respectively, P=0.045). What this increase in cortical thickness means in terms of doe welfare requires further study, as it may reflect an increase in activity resulting either from increased space for locomotion, or from fleeing aggressive pen mates.

Most commonly, salivary cortisol is used in pig stress assessment, alternative salivary biomarkers are scarcely studied. Here, salivary cortisol and two alternative salivary biomarkers, haptoglobin and chromogranin A were measured in a pig stress study. Treatment pigs (n = 24) were exposed to mixing and feed deprivation, in two trials, and compared to untreated controls (n = 24). Haptoglobin differed for feed deprivation vs control. Other differences were only found within treatment. Treatment pigs had higher salivary cortisol concentrations on the mixing day (P < 0.05). Chromogranin A concentrations were increased on the day of refeeding (P < 0.05). Haptoglobin showed a similar pattern to chromogranin A. Overall correlations between the salivary biomarkers were positive. Cortisol and chromogranin A were moderately correlated (r = 0.49, P < 0.0001), correlations between other markers were weaker. The present results indicate that different types of stressors elicited different physiological stress responses in the pigs, and therefore including various salivary biomarkers in stress evaluation seems useful., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Animal-based measures of thirst are currently absent from animal welfare monitoring schemes due to the lack of a well-validated indicator applicable for on-farm use. In the present study, an on-farm test based on voluntary water consumption from an unfamiliar open drinker was validated in a (semi-)commercial setting. To investigate the effect of thirst on water consumption, we subjected 4 flocks of 1,500 broilers to either 0 or 12 h of water deprivation and subsequently measured the amount of water that small subgroups consumed after the deprivation period (first experiment). Broilers that were water deprived before the test drank more than control broilers (P < 0.001). In a second experiment, a similar test was performed using 20 commercial broiler flocks in Belgium and Brazil. After a pretreatment water consumption test, the birds were subjected to 0 or 6 h of water deprivation, and a posttreatment water consumption test was conducted. Only in Brazil, deprived birds drank significantly more than controls in the posttreatment water consumption test (P < 0.001). A tendency for a difference was found in Belgium (P = 0.083). Pre- and posttreatment water consumption was higher in Brazil than in Belgium (P < 0.001). Stocking density and temperature influenced, respectively, the pretreatment and the control's posttreatment water consumption in Brazil, but not in Belgium. These results indicate that the water consumption test is sufficiently sensitive to discriminate between control and 12 h deprived flocks, and in Brazil even between control and 6 h deprived birds. The location of the test within the house did not affect the amount of water consumed in either experiment, suggesting that this variable does not have to be standardized. However, the amount of water consumed by broilers able to drink freely for a long period depended on indoor climatic variables (in Brazil only) and possibly genotype. This suggests that these variables need to be considered when interpreting the test outcome in terms of the thirst level experienced by the broilers., (Poultry Science Association Inc.)

Most gait-scoring scales for pigs have a limited number of categories, supposedly to improve repeatability. However, reducing the number of categories could lead to loss of information if the observers' discriminative capacities are underused. With a recently estimated within-herd prevalence of sow lameness of 8.8% to 16.9% in the European Union and the associated losses, the availability of reliable tools for the timely detection of initial cases warrants attention. This study investigated the intra- and inter-observer repeatability (intra-OR and inter-OR) of three gait-scoring scales for sows: a continuous 'tagged' visual analogue scale (tVAS, measured in mm), a 5-point and a 2-point ordinal scale (5P and 2P), all with the same descriptors. Veterinary medicine students (n=108) were trained to use the scales and then asked to score 90 videos (30 per scale) of sows with normal and abnormal gait. Thirty-six videos were shown once and 18 were randomly shown three times, of which one mirrored horizontally. The students' opinions on the scales were also collected. Intra- and inter-OR were higher with the tVAS than the 2P scale (inter-OR: 0.73 v. 0.60; P<0.05. Intra-OR: 0.80 v. 0.67; P<0.05). Intra-OR was higher with the 5P (0.81) than the 2P scale (0.67; P<0.05). For all three scales, repeatabilities were lower (P<0.05) for non-lame sows (gait score of ⩽45 mm on the tVAS) than for sows showing some signs of lameness (gait score>45 mm). Video order (first 45 v. last 45 clips), mirroring, users' opinions on the scales, and previous declared experience in handling pigs or scoring lameness in other species had no effect on repeatabilities. Correlations between the students' and experts' scores were high (tVAS=0.92; 5P=0.91; 2P=0.88) but the association for the 2P was not linear and the frequency distribution showed lower correlations for a group of students. This study confirms recent evidence that it is possible to design high-resolution gait-scoring scales that do not reduce observer repeatability. Visual gait-scoring scales with fewer than five categories are likely to entail loss of information on lameness in individual sows.

Lameness is a frequently occurring, painful condition of breeding sows that may result in hyperalgesia, i.e., an increased sensitivity to pain. In this study a mechanical nociception threshold (MT) test was used (1) to determine if hyperalgesia occurs in sows with naturally-occurring lameness; (2) to compare measurements obtained with a hand-held probe and a limb-mounted actuator connected to a digital algometer; and (3) to investigate the systematic left-to-right and cranial-to-caudal differences in MT. Twenty-eight pregnant sows were investigated, of which 14 were moderately lame and 14 were not lame. Over three testing sessions, repeated measurements were taken at 5 min intervals on the dorsal aspects of the metatarsi and metacarpi of all limbs. The MT was defined as the force in Newtons (N) that elicited an avoidance response, and this parameter was found to be lower in limbs affected by lameness than in normal limbs (P<0.05). Forelimbs had higher MTs than hindlimbs (P<0.001). The hand-held probe systematically yielded lower values than the actuator (P<0.001), and the MT differed between morning and afternoon testing sessions (P<0.001), as well as between days (P<0.001). The findings provide evidence that lame sows experience hyperalgesia. Systematic differences between forelimb and hindlimb MT must be taken into account when such assessments are performed., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

This study evaluates 1) carcass quality, meat quality and palatability for barrows, immunocastrates and boars and 2) the effect of chicory supplemented feed during 10 days before slaughter on boar meat quality. At comparable carcass weights, estimated carcass lean meat percentage was higher in immunocastrates and boars than in barrows. Muscle thickness was higher for immunocastrates and barrows compared to boars, while fat thickness was lowest for immunocastrates and boars. Barrows, immunocastrates and boars differed in water holding capacity and boar taint. Home consumer panels were conducted to evaluate palatability. The consumers did detect differences in tenderness and juiciness, but not for boar taint. The chicory feed supplemented in boar feed decreased skatole concentration in backfat, without largely influencing meat quality or palatability. Not only boar taint, but also carcass and meat quality should be considered when evaluating alternatives for surgical castration., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

No automated detection system for boar taint detection is currently available, thus boar taint at the slaughterline can currently only be assessed using the singeing method (olfactory scoring). This study compares several heating methods (microwave, soldering iron and pyropen) and evaluates the effect of habituation, cleaning the soldering iron, singeing the fat twice in the same place, and variations in the technical procedures. All methods seem to be suitable for detecting boar taint but the choice of heating method for sensory scoring of boar taint depends on habituation of the trained assessor and specific conditions applied. The pyropen seems to be most suitable because it does not contact the fat and is easy to handle (wireless). Finally, the intensity score may also be influenced by: contamination from not cleaning the soldering iron, singeing the fat twice in the same place, and the effect of habituation., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Freedom of (prolonged) thirst is considered to be of paramount importance for animal welfare. This emotion normally results from dehydration, which can be measured using physiological indicators. Because no reliable physiological indicator for thirst was available for broilers, we aimed to identify such a measure in this study. This indicator would ideally be integrated into quality control systems in commercial slaughter plants. In the first experiment, water deprivation was manipulated systematically by withdrawing water for different durations (total water withdrawal for 0 (control), 24, 36, or 48 h, or a 10-d period with restricted access to water for 2 times 10 min per day). A significant decrease in drained blood content and BW occurred from 36 h of total water deprivation onward (both P = 0.03), whereas long-term restricted access tended to decrease drained blood content (P = 0.05). No effect of water deprivation or restriction on skin turgor was found. In the second experiment, water was withdrawn for 0 (control), 6, 12, 24, or 48 h. Plasma chloride concentration was increased after 6 h of water withdrawal, but did not rise further with longer withdrawal. If assessed at slaughter, chloride will thus mainly reflect the catching-to-slaughter interval. In contrast, plasma creatinine and hematocrit levels showed a numerical decrease after 6 h of water withdrawal, but rose again after prolonged withdrawal. Plasma creatinine values were significantly higher in 24-h-deprived birds than in 6-h-deprived birds (P < 0.01), allowing for discernment between water withdrawal during catching and transport from dehydration that had occurred on the farm. Blood sodium concentrations and plasma osmolality showed a steady increment between 0 and 24 h of water deprivation (P < 0.001 and P < 0.001 for both), and may thus be used to assess the combined effects of water deprivation on farm and during the catching-to-slaughter interval. These findings may form the basis of an on-farm or at-slaughter test that could be included in integrated animal welfare assessment schemes.

Two remedial treatments to reduce the high incidence of broken eggs in the furnished cages of our experimental layer farm were investigated: lining the nest floor with artificial turf (to increase nest acceptance) and lowering perch height (to reduce the chance of egg breakage of outside-nest eggs). A 2 × 2 factorial design was used with low (7 cm) or high (24 cm) perches, and with nest floors lined with artificial turf or plastic mesh. Eight cages, each housing 8 hens initially (aged 40 to 56 wk), were used per treatment. Egg location and percentage of broken eggs were recorded. Hen position (cage floor, nest, or perch) was recorded by direct scan-sampling observations. In addition, 8 cages (4 high + 4 low) each containing 8 hens (aged 54 to 56 wk) were videorecorded to determine perch use and behavior during the light period. Data were mainly analyzed using logistic regression and mixed models with cage as the experimental unit. Nest floor material did not influence the percentage of eggs broken or laid outside the nest. The proportion of outside-nest eggs (2.6 vs. 10.6%, P = 0.004), and consequently also of total eggs (2 vs. 4.6%, P = 0.016) broken, was lower for low than high cages. Perch use increased during the observation period, more so for the high cages during the light period and the low cages during the dark period. Perch bout duration (P < 0.001), the likelihood of ending a perching bout voluntarily (P = 0.013), and time spent sitting during perching (P = 0.007) were lower in low vs. high cages. In this study, replacing plastic mesh nest floor lining with artificial turf was not an effective remedy for the already-high rate of broken eggs, but the prevalence of broken outside-nest eggs was lower in cages with low versus high perches. However, perching behavior during the light period was more disturbed in cages with low perches.

Footpad dermatitis is increasingly used as an indicator of decreased broiler welfare, and automation of dermatitis monitoring potentially reduces the effort needed to monitor commercial flocks. In this study we evaluated a prototype system for the automatic assessment of footpad dermatitis in broiler chickens by comparing the automatic assessment with a human expert assessment. The expert aimed at selecting 2 times (different period) 20 broilers per footpad dermatitis category (5 categories in total), from 2 different flocks of 38-d-old broilers on an experimental farm. Two days later these broilers were transported to the slaughterhouse, where footpad dermatitis was assessed by the automatic system. Subsequently the footpads were reassessed by the same expert that had selected the birds. Automatic scores were only weakly correlated with scores given by the expert on-farm (r = 0.54) and at the slaughterhouse (r = 0.59). Manual evaluation of the photographs on which the automatic system based its scores revealed several errors. For 41.1% of the birds, the automatic system assessed only one of the footpads, whereas for 15.2% neither footpad was assessed. For 49.4% of the birds, scores were based on partially incorrectly identified areas. When data from such incomplete and obviously incorrect assessments were discarded, stronger correlations between automatic and expert scores were found (r = 0.68 and r = 0.74 for expert scores given on-farm and at-slaughter, respectively). Footpads that were missed by the automatic system were more likely to receive a high expert score at slaughter (P = 0.02). However, average flock scores did not differ greatly between automatic and expert scores. The prototype system for automatic dermatitis assessment needs to be improved on several points if it is to replace expert assessment of footpad dermatitis.

Three potential early-age predictors of which boars are likely to develop boar taint (testes volume, skin lesions and dirtiness) were measured on 102 boars every fortnight from 10 weeks of age until slaughter. These predictors were correlated with the level of boar taint according to the hot iron method and the concentrations of skatole and androstenone as determined by chemical analysis. The chance of no/low boar taint according to the hot iron method decreased with higher testes volume (weeks 22 and 24) and increased with skin lesion score (weeks 12, 16 and 18). For the concentrations of androstenone and skatole, the strongest correlation was found with testes volume in week 12. Skin lesions in week 16 were negatively correlated with skatole levels. Dirtiness was negatively correlated with skatole concentrations (week 18) but positively correlated with androstenone concentrations (weeks 20 and 22). Testes volume has the greatest potential for predicting the likelihood of developing boar taint., (Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The aim of this study was to evaluate the performance of various boar taint detection methods, measure the relationship between them and identify possible points of improvement for boar taint detection. The methods used to evaluate boar taint in the carcasses of 448 entire male pigs and 17 barrows were the hot iron method (n = 442), a standardised (n = 323) and home (n = 58) consumer meat-evaluation panel, an expert panel assessment of meat and fat (n = 464) and laboratory analysis of skatole, androstenone and indole in fat (n = 464). The axillary odour of a number of slaughtered entire male pigs was also investigated (n = 231). As correlation coefficients were generally weak, a positive result for one of these detection methods did not per se result in a positive result for all other methods. Results of one detection method could not be generalised. The choice to use one or more detection methods deserves consideration depending on the aim of the study. In this paper, we suggest some possible improvements for evaluating boar taint with a consumer panel based on our results and experience. The home consumer evaluation was correlated with the concentration of indole (r = 0.27) but not with skatole or androstenone. We therefore recommend that lab analyses include indole testing. The hot iron method seems to be an easy and fast detection method, which yields comparable or better correlation coefficients with the other detection methods than an expert panel evaluating fat samples. However, the reliability of the hot iron method depends on the training and reliability of one or two assessors. Efforts should be made to further optimise this method by evaluating the effect of testing conditions. The axillary odour score was moderately correlated with the other detection methods (up to 0.32). More research is needed to evaluate the possibilities of axillary odour as a boar taint detection method.

We studied the effect of increased cage size on different aspects of bone quality (bone strength, diameter, weight, and length) and fluctuating asymmetry (FA). Such characteristics may indicate improved animal welfare, as greater bone quality may decrease fracture incidence during handling, whereas decreased FA has been suggested to signal decreased stress. As stress is likely not only influenced by the quantity of space, but also by its quality, we also studied the effect of environmental enrichment. Groups of 8 rabbits were housed in wire open-top cages of 0.40, 0.46, 0.53, 0.64, 0.80, 1.07, and 1.60 m(2) from weaning until slaughter. All cages of 0.40 and 0.46 m(2) (12 cages/size) were left barren to allow sufficient mobility. One-half of the larger cages were enriched with a wooden-enrichment structure that could be used to gnaw on, hide in, or lie in (6 cages per size × enrichment treatment). Increased cage size led to an increase in tibiofibula diameter (P = 0.008), a tendency for increased tibiofibula weight (P = 0.051), and decreased FA (P = 0.010), suggesting improved welfare. Bone length and strength were not affected by cage size (P > 0.1). Enrichment did not affect FA (P > 0.1), in contrast with our expectations based on previous glucocorticoid analysis. This discrepancy between indicators may be due to sensitivity to other types of stressors or different sensitive periods. In summary, rabbits housed in larger cages had wider, heavier bones, but the absence of changes in bone strength indicate that this is unlikely to result in decreased fracture incidence. In larger cages, FA was lower, suggesting a favorable effect on welfare, whereas no effect of enrichment was shown.

Because broiler chickens are juvenile animals undergoing physical development, stocking density during rearing may influence this development. Some of these physical changes may cause welfare problems, for example, decreased bone quality, which may lead to fracture during catching and transport. Others do not influence welfare directly but can be used as indicators of the animal's ability to cope with its environment (e.g., fluctuating asymmetry). The present study evaluates the effect of stocking density on bone quality and fluctuating asymmetry. Birds were stocked at densities of 2.4, 5.8, 8.8, 12.1, 13.6, 15.5, 18.5, and 21.8 birds/m(2) from 1 until 39 d of age. Increased stocking density had a negative effect on some aspects of bone quality (tibia curvature and shear strength). Tibias were shorter at high density, possibly due to increased curvature. Several other bone quality aspects (tibia weight, torsion, and dyschondroplasia, and femur curvature and epiphysis shape) remained unaffected. Middle-toe length was the only character that showed a significant increase with increasing density when each character was analyzed separately. Nevertheless, a composite index of fluctuating asymmetry, which combined data on all 11 measured characters, tended to increase with stocking density. Such increased fluctuating asymmetry may indicate decreased welfare. However, one of the assumptions of fluctuating asymmetry is that the animal is subjected to the same environmental influences on both sides. This assumption may not be fulfilled when leg deformations occur, as these may lead to asymmetric changes in bone growth by altering the division of force over the 2 legs. In addition, leg deformations decrease the accuracy of bone length measurements made in a straight line. This raises some concerns on the applicability of fluctuating asymmetry measurements on broiler chicken legs, especially because stocking density did not effect the asymmetry of the head.

A group of 160 Flemish pig farmers (n=160) were surveyed about their attitude towards surgical castration with anaesthesia (SCA) and without (SCN), immunocastration (IC), sperm sexing (SS) and the production of entire males (EM). The farmers' general preference was recorded as SCN>SS>SCA=IC>EM. The farmers' self-reported knowledge of the strategies was associated with their preference for SCA (negatively) and SS (positively). Herd size was correlated with farmers' preference for SCA (negatively) and SS (positively). Farmers perceived surgical castration without anaesthesia as the most favourable strategy in terms of farm profitability, animal performance and effectiveness against boar taint, but they expected the lowest consumer acceptance for this strategy. Surgical castration with anaesthesia was ranked the least favourable in terms of labour conditions. Production of entire males was viewed as the least profitable and the least effective strategy. Sperm sexing was positively perceived, particularly in terms of labour conditions, animal welfare, effectiveness and expected consumer acceptance. The farmers' opinion was quite homogeneous, especially regarding surgical castration without anaesthesia and production of entire males. Increasing our understanding of the farmers' perceptions will hopefully facilitate communication about this intricate issue., (Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Boar taint is an off-odour that can occur when meat or fat from entire male pigs is heated. Most of the currently available analytical methods are not capable of detecting the three known boar taint compounds (indole, skatole and androstenone) simultaneously, which renders their analysis often labour-intensive and time-consuming as separate analyses are required. In this study a validated U-HPLC-HR-Orbitrap-MS analysis method is described for the quantitative determination of the three boar taint compounds in fat. The sample pre-treatment involves a melting step followed by extraction with methanol and clean-up consisting of a freezing step and solid phase extraction (HLB cartridges). The analytes are then chromatographically separated and detected with an Exactive high-resolution mass spectrometer. Due to the absence of guidelines for the analysis of boar taint in fat, the Commission Decision 2002/657/EC [18] and ISO 17025 [19] guidelines were used as guideline for validation of the developed detection method. This resulted in limits of detection and limits of quantification between 2.5 and 7 μg kg(-1) and between 5 and 10 μg kg(-1) for the three compounds, respectively, which is far below the threshold values set at 100 μg L(-1) for indole, 200 μg L(-1) for skatole and 1000 μg L(-1) for androstenone in pig fat samples. The method obtained for the three compounds a repeatability (RSD) lower then 12.7% and a within-laboratory reproducibility (RSD) lower than 16.9%. The recovery of the three compounds ranged between 99 and 112 and an excellent linearity (R(2) ≥ 0.99) was found. In the future, this method may be extended with other compounds that turn out to be correlated with boar taint., (Copyright © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Pork consumers know little about boar taint and the methods used to avoid it. As such, relevant information is necessary to assist consumers to judge the acceptability of different strategies to avoid boar taint. The effect of basic (T1) or extensive (T2) written information or T2 with supplementary audio-visual information (AV) on the opinion concerning immunocastration (IC), raising entire male pigs (EM) and surgical castration with anaesthesia (SA) as compared to castration without anaesthesia (SC) was investigated in a student population. Overall, IC was significantly preferred over SC. The information condition influenced the preference for IC and EM as compared to SC. Participants exposed to AV were more positive to IC than participants exposed to T1 and T2, and more positive to EM than participants exposed to T2. The impact of information condition was not affected by gender, farming experience, knowledge about the boar taint issue or personal relevance of pig welfare. Potential effects of providing background information and media campaigns on public surveys ought to be considered. Supplementary audio-visual information increased the impact of information provisioning., (Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The concentration of glucocorticoid metabolites (GCM) in rabbit faeces has been suggested as a non-invasive indicator of stress. In the present study, GCM concentrations were measured in faeces of fattening rabbits kept in groups of eight, at seven different stocking densities (between 5 and 20 animals/m(2)), with or without environmental enrichment (a wooden structure used mainly for gnawing and resting). Transport (30 min) was used as an acute novel stressor to assess the glucocorticoid response to stress under the different housing conditions. GCM concentrations were elevated post-transport (P<0.001). Whilst cage size had no influence on GCM, enrichment reduced GCM concentrations before as well as after transport (P=0.007 in both cases). Effects of cage size and enrichment on growth characteristics were negligible, whilst enrichment decreased cage manipulation and social contact. The results indicate that even short transport durations may be stressful for rabbits, and that enrichment may decrease housing stress. They suggest that measuring baseline GCM concentrations in faeces is a useful tool to evaluate chronic stress in rabbits, whilst measuring the response to a novel stressor did not provide additional insight., (Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Skatole and androstenone are the main boar taint compounds. Whereas nearly everybody is sensitive to skatole, the sensitivity to androstenone is genetically determined and differs between countries. In this study the methodology for testing androstenone sensitivity was refined and applied to 1569 consumers that were approached at six shopping malls in Flanders. Participants were asked to smell the contents of four bottles (three were filled with water and one with androstenone solved in water) and to identify and describe the odour of the strongest smelling bottle. This test was performed twice. 45.3% of the respondents were classified as sensitive to androstenone (i.e. the percentage of participants that identified the correct bottle in both tests minus a guess correction). Sensitivity differed between sexes (men: 38.3%-women: 51.1%, P<0.001), according to age (older people were less sensitive, P<0.001), and between the test locations (P<0.001), but not between smokers versus non-smokers., (Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Piétrain (P), Large White (LW) and Belgian Landrace stress negative (BN) boars were slaughtered at 50, 70, 90 or 110 kg live weight to investigate breed differences and the effect of slaughter weight on boar taint prevalence. Boar taint was quantified by four different methodologies: sensory evaluation of neckfat heated with a hot iron in the slaughterhouse, sensory evaluation of meat by consumer panels, sensory evaluation of fat and meat by expert panels and laboratory analysis of indole, skatole and androstenone in backfat. Skatole levels in backfat were significantly higher for LW and BN than for P boars. The androstenone levels and the hot iron method revealed a significant interaction between breed and slaughter weight. On the other hand, experts detected an effect of weight on the androstenone odour perception, which was significantly higher in fat from boars slaughtered at 90 kg compared with 50 kg, and significantly higher in meat from boars slaughtered at 110 kg compared with 50 kg. Consumers did not detect differences in the sensory characteristics among breeds or slaughter weight. These results indicate opportunities to minimise the risk of boar taint in entire male pigs by carefully selecting a combination of breed and slaughter weight. Along with the optimal slaughter weight, the effectiveness of reducing boar taint by lowering slaughter weight appeared to be breed dependent.

In the context of the European Union ban on battery cages by 2012, a survey was conducted among Flemish egg producers (60% response rate, 140 completed questionnaires) about the introduction and opinion of alternative housing systems. Belgium appears to be among the countries in the European Union that are slower to adopt alternative housing. Belgium's egg industry is thus likely to undergo drastic changes to comply with the 2012 deadline. As of 2010, the battery cage was the dominant housing system (56% housing units, 67% hens), followed by floor housing (33% housing units, 15% hens) and aviary (10% housing units, 15% hens), whereas colony cages and furnished cages were extremely rare. Future- and market-oriented production was the most important reason for choosing a certain type of alternative system, although the importance of hen performance and amount of labor seemed to increase. A quarter of the producers with battery cages had detailed plans to convert to an alternative system (most planned to install aviaries, followed by colony cages, furnished cages, and floor housing) by 2012. Many older farmers indicated that they would stop farming, whereas others found it more profitable to delay the conversion as long as possible. Apart from hen welfare, producers expressed a negative opinion (relative to battery cages) about noncage systems and, to a lesser extent, furnished cages. However, users of alternative systems reported being quite satisfied, except for the amount of labor and hen health. The housing system had several effects on user satisfaction: positive effect of flock size, negative effect of experience with battery cages, and negative effect of outdoor area on hen health. Although not all opinions were supported by evidence, such surveys provide feedback about the success of alternative systems in practice. This information is valuable to further improve these systems and to producers who have yet to convert. Moreover, producer attitude may determine the extent to which legally imposed changes in husbandry environment result in the desired improvement of hen welfare in practice.

There is a global move from individual to group housing of gestating sows. In the European Union, individual gestating stalls will be banned by 2013. Just like in other industrialized regions, these stalls have been the standard housing system for intensively kept sows from the 1960s onward in the Flemish region of Belgium. Because the socioeconomic consequences for the pig industry may be far-reaching and because farmer attitude may influence the realization of the hoped-for improvement in animal welfare in practice, we conducted a survey from 2003 until 2009 among representative samples of Flemish pig producers every 2 yr. The share of farms with group housing increased from 10.5% in 2003 to 29.8% in 2007, but then dropped to 24.6% in 2009. It appears that after 2005 users of old group housing systems in particular stopped farming. Because sow herd size increased more on farms with vs. without group housing and because the proportion of the herd that was group-housed also tended to increase between 2003 to 2009, the change to group housing took place faster when expressed at the level of the sow (from 9.1% in 2003 to 34.1% in 2009) instead of farm. The percentage of farmers planning to convert to group housing within 2 yr was 4.1% in 2003, and 6 to 7% thereafter. These were typically young farmers (P = 0.006) with a large sow herd (P < 0.001) and with a likely successor (P = 0.03). Free access stalls were the most common group housing system (31% of farms, 37% of sows). Their popularity is expected to increase further at the expense of electronic feeding stations, ad libitum feeding, and stalls/troughs with manual feed delivery. User satisfaction was generally high but depended on whether or not all gestating sows were kept in group (P < 0.001), the provisioning of environmental enrichment (P = 0.057), and the age (P = 0.012) and type (P = 0.016) of system. The main criteria for choosing a certain group housing system were the investment costs and sow health and welfare. The importance of economic reasons (P = 0.007) and type of labor (P = 0.043) decreased with the age of the system. In 2003 and 2005 the main reason for not having converted to group housing was that farmers would stop keeping sows by 2013. In 2007 and 2009 the reasons mainly concerned uncertainty about the future and maximally delaying the conversion. Belgium is one of the European Union countries where the pig industry is expected to undergo drastic changes during the few years remaining before the ban on individual housing.