Search

Seldom have comparative studies of educational assessment systems been undertaken, especially regarding their standard setting procedures. This study examines the effects of governance structures on the power relations in standard setting in the dominant school-leaving or university-entrance examinations. We present acritical analysis of the published research and policy documents, including sense-checking with senior assessment practitioners from 22 jurisdictions. The nature of standard setting systems in three cases of Ireland, the USA and India are described in detail to showcase the differences between the following three models of governance systems: nationalised, commercial market and quasi-market. The contribution of this article, then, is to describe the three models of governance systems, to classify the 22 jurisdictions using the three models, and to generate propositions inductively. Thus, the article provides aconceptual basis for extension of this work to other cases to advance the literature cumulatively by theory-building.

The synergy, or lack thereof, between large-scale and classroom assessment has been fiercely debated in both academic and policy spheres for decades around the world. This paper seeks to explicate how different countries are utilizing large-scale testing and test results at the classroom level. Through country profiles, this paper analyzes contemporary developments on the tensions and synergies between large-scale assessment and classroom teaching, learning, and assessment observed across seven international jurisdictions: United States, Canada, Australia, England, Germany, Finland, and Singapore. The paper concludes with an analysis of international trends leading to a synthesis of root causes contributing to the current limited uptake of large-scale assessment results at classroom levels.

Professional standards are increasingly being used internationally as the basis of teacher performance and as a mechanism to progress teacher quality. Concurrently, teacher assessment practices continue to be highlighted in many countries as an area in need of further professional development. In this paper, we analyse the assessment focus within the Australian Professional Standards for Teachers (APSTs), as an example of one nation's articulation of the expected performance and development of assessment literacies across a teaching career. Through a conceptual framework of proficiency progression based on the work of researchers such as Dreyfus and Dreyfus, we employ text analysis and a visualisation methodology to explore meanings and patterns in Standard 5: "Assess, provide feedback and report on student learning." Using diagrammatic representations, we show the relationships between terms in the APST statements and how progression of expertise is constructed. The analysis identifies the areas of alignment between the APSTs and the proficiency framework, as well as the areas where the APSTs could be improved and could be more reflective of models of proficiency progression. We offer suggestions for advancing the description of professional standards to encapsulate models of proficiency in efforts to meet the expectations for assessment literate teachers.

In response to the commentaries to their original article, the authors thank the commentators for their remarks and note that there is some general consensus across the commentaries around some major themes: (1) the lack of articulation between assessment and learning theories, particularly in relation to large-scale testing used for accountability purposes; (2) educational assessment as a socially driven activity in which the culture shapes both assessment and what and how we learn; (3) the need to develop learning theories in a way that can be utilized in assessment, for example learning progressions; and (4) using technology in a way that will better align learning and assessment. They address some of these themes in this article. [This article is a response to the commentaries on Jo-Anne Baird et al.'s original article: "Assessment and Learning: Fields Apart" (EJ1149539).]

Educational assessments define what aspects of learning will formally be given credit and therefore have a huge impact upon teaching and learning. Although the impact of high-stakes national and international assessments on teaching and learning is considered in the literature, remarkably, there is little research on the connection between theories of learning and educational assessments. Given the voluminous assessment that takes place annually in systematic ways in most many nations, it is surprising that more has not been gained from these assessments in the development of theories of learning and "vice versa." In this article, we consider both theories of learning and assessment and draw the main message of the article, that if assessments are to serve the goals of education, then theories of learning and assessment should be developing more closely with each other. We consider fundamental aspects of assessment theory, such as constructs, unidimensionality, invariance and quantifiability, and in doing so, we distinguish between educational and psychological assessment. Second, we show how less traditionally considered cases of (a) international assessments and (b) "Assessment for Learning" affect student learning. Through these cases we illustrate the otherwise somewhat theoretical discussion in the article. We argue that if assessment is to serve the learning goals of education, then this discussion on the relationship between assessment and learning should be developed further and be at the forefront of high-stakes, large-scale educational assessments.

Background: PISA results appear to have a large impact upon government policy. The phenomenon is growing, with more countries taking part in PISA testing and politicians pointing to PISA results as reasons for their reforms. Purpose: The aims of this research were to depict the policy reactions to PISA across a number of jurisdictions, to see whether they exhibited similar patterns and whether the same reforms were evident. Sources of evidence: We investigated policy and media reactions to the 2009 and 2012 PISA results in six cases: Canada, China (Shanghai), England, France, Norway and Switzerland. Cases were selected to contrast high-performing jurisdictions (Canada, China) with average performers (England, France, Norway and Switzerland). Countries that had already been well reported on in the literature were excluded (Finland, Germany). Design and methods: Policy documents, media reports and academic articles in English, French, Mandarin and Norwegian relating to each of the cases were critically evaluated. Results: A policy reaction of "scandalisation" was evident in four of the six cases; a technique used to motivate change. Five of the six cases showed "standards-based reforms" and two had reforms in line with the "ideal-governance" model. However, these are categorisations: the actual reforms had significant differences across countries. There are chronological problems with the notion that PISA results were causal with regard to policy in some instances. Countries with similar PISA results responded with different policies, reflecting their differing cultural and historical education system trajectories. Conclusions: The connection between PISA results and policy is not always obvious. The supranational spell of PISA in policy is in the way that PISA results are used as a magic wand in political rhetoric, as though they conjure particular policy choices. This serves as a distraction from the ideological basis for reforms. The same PISA results could motivate a range of different policy solutions.

This paper examines teachers' experiences of autonomy as they undertook Continuing Professional Development (CPD) in the form of Teacher Learning Communities (TLCs) to develop Assessment for Learning (AfL). Participant teacher interview data were used from two parallel TLC projects, one in Hong Kong and one in London, UK. Autonomy was defined in terms of taking initiatives,?acting independently?and making critical inquiries. Links between autonomy and effective CPD were argued and the findings indicated that some teachers in both the projects experienced limited autonomy in terms of taking initiatives and being critical, although several described a new sense of professional independence as they attended TLCs. Their limited autonomy looked likely to inhibit the long-lasting impact of the projects, although one TLC in London seemed likely to shape teachers' AfL principles and practices more profoundly because attendance was voluntary and egalitarian.

The research aims to articulate the experiences and opinions of Year 6 (Y6) teachers, primary headteachers and primary science coordinators as a contribution to the debate about the effect of statutory national testing in England and its abolition in Wales. A multi-faceted approach of quantitative and qualitative data collection and analysis was used in England and Wales including a telephone survey of 600 respondents and eight focus group interviews involving a total of 74 participants. The findings of this research provide insights into the strategies adopted by Y6 teachers in England in ensuring pupils gain the highest possible scores in high-stakes national tests, used as the basis of published "Schools and Colleges Assessment and Attainment Tables" at Key Stage 2 (KS2). Test preparation is perceived by teachers to narrow the curriculum, and for science in particular, as the inclusion of only those aspects of science likely to be included in paper and pencil tests is said to have reduced many aspects of investigatory science in Y6. Year 6 teachers in Wales reported working to develop effective teacher assessment strategies, supported by the continued use of optional test materials, to inform summative judgements about pupils' levels of attainment in science at KS2. Practical science activities, including investigations, were reported as becoming an important feature of science lessons in Y6 in Wales. Although it is too soon to make predictions about the longer-term effects of the abolition of national testing on Y6 teachers and the teaching of science in Wales, early indications suggest increased opportunities for investigative science in Y6. (Contains 1 note, 1 table, and 2 figures.)

Background: Validity is a central concern in any assessment, though this has often not been made explicit in the UK assessment context. This article applies current validity theorising, largely derived from American formulations, to national curriculum assessments in England. Purpose: The aim is to consider validity arguments in relation to the multiple purposes which national curriculum assessments serve. This is because validity is now understood in terms of how the test results are interpreted and used. Multiple purposes mean multiple uses of the results, each requiring justification. Sources of evidence: A validity framework for national curriculum assessments is presented which is organised around purposes, fitness-for-purpose, reliability and the interpretation and impact of the results. Current tests are evaluated against this framework. Main argument and conclusions: The analysis finds the national test regime successfully meets some of the common threats to validity. The main concerns are about the multiple high-stakes purposes for which the tests are used and their impact on teaching and learning. Some alternative approaches are then considered, which could reduce the burden of interpretation which the tests currently bear. (Contains 1 table and 7 notes.)

This article outlines the research design of a large-scale, longitudinal research study in England intended to describe and explore variations in teachers' work, lives and their effects on pupils' educational outcomes. The study, funded by the Department for Education and Skills (DfES) and incorporated into the Teaching and Learning Research Programme (TLRP) as an "Associate Project", used an innovative mixed-methods research design to create case studies of 300 teachers in Years 2, 6 and 9. The research was conducted over three consecutive academic years and collected a wide range of data through interviews, questionnaire surveys of teachers' and pupils' views and assessment data on pupils' attainments in English and mathematics. The text summarises the main findings from the research in relation to four interconnected themes of the study: Professional Life Phases; Professional Identity; Relative Effectiveness; and Resilience and Commitment. The influence of school context, in terms of level of social disadvantage of pupil intake, is also investigated. Key findings and their implications for policy and practice are highlighted. (Contains 1 table and 5 figures.)

This article analyses some of the findings of an evaluation of Project One of the "Assessment is for Learning" Development Programme in 16 Scottish primary schools and two junior high schools in which teachers developed formative assessment strategies aimed at improving teaching and learning. Drawing on data from pupils, teachers and parents, the use of such strategies is examined. The study provides some evidence that the use of formative assessment led to pupils taking more responsibility for their learning, contributing to improved motivation, confidence and classroom achievement, especially for lower attainers. Employing such strategies also developed teachers' conceptual understanding of formative assessment, moving some from a teacher-centred pedagogy to one which placed pupils and their learning needs at the heart of teaching. The article concludes by discussing the implications of the project for teachers' professional development and the constraints faced by teachers in sustaining and embedding such practices. (Contains 3 tables.)

The VITAE project is a four-year (2001-2005) research study, commissioned by the Department for Education and Skills, conducted with 300 teachers in 100 schools in seven local education authorities in England. The project aimed to identify factors that may affect their work and lives over time and how these factors may, in turn, impact on their teaching and subsequent pupil progress and outcomes. It combined quantitative and qualitative methods of data collection and analysis in order to define and examine notions of teachers' relational and relative effectiveness. The first part of the paper addresses the nature of effectiveness and three key themes relating to the changing contexts of teachers' work, lives and effectiveness: the challenge of reform to notions of professionalism; professional identities; changes in teachers' work and lives. The research design and early findings and their effects upon the development of the research form the second part. The final part of the paper discusses three sets of understandings which are fundamental to any consideration of teachers' work, lives and effectiveness: relative and relational effectiveness; teacher identities; teachers' life and work contexts. The research suggests that policy-makers, school leaders and teachers themselves need to attend to these if teacher recruitment, retention and standards are to improve. (Contains 3 tables, 5 figures and 5 notes.)

The Key Stage 3 Strategy is a complex and evolving government strategy intended to improve the education of 11- to 14-year-olds in England. This paper provides a snapshot of its development by early 2004, drawing on our evaluation of the pilot phase which began in 2000. The evolution of the Strategy, with its phased introduction of both subject and cross-curricular strands, is described. We then examine the policy intentions and evidence base which underpin it before considering what the Strategy offers in terms of curricular and pedagogical reform. While the Strategy seeks to improve schooling for 11- to 14-year-olds, it has struggled to offer a coherent approach, though recent changes in emphasis may help. We conclude that a more radical approach to the learning needs of 11- to 14-year-olds is needed and draw evidence from international trends in middle years education.

In this article, the authors describe a research project designed to explore the effects of science testing in Year 6 (age 11) in England and implications of the abolition of testing in Wales since 2004. The research was commissioned by the Welcome Trust in association with the ASE to inform representation to the House of Commons Select Committee on Education enquiry into testing and assessment. The findings of this research reveal a strong commitment among primary teachers to the development of pupils' science process skills through investigations and other practical activities as a means to understanding science concepts. However, revision and test preparation in Year 6 in England militates against this, resulting in a narrow science curriculum and a tendency toward didactic teaching strategies. Although, perhaps surprisingly, it is still too early to draw firm conclusions about the impact of changes in assessment procedures at Key Stage 2 on the teaching of science in Wales, there are clear signs that Welsh teachers are beginning to exploit opportunities for investigative science in Year 6. Participants in both England and Wales made it clear that there is a useful role for testing in science at Key Stage 2 to support teachers' summative assessments, but there was strong agreement that statutory test results should not be used as the basis of league tables.