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The aim of this study was to compare airborne levels of Phl p 1 and Phl p 5, with Poaceae pollen concentrations inside and outside of the pollen season, and to evaluate their association with symptoms in grass allergic patients and the influence of climate and pollution. The Hirst and the Burkard Cyclone samplers were used for pollen and allergen quantification, respectively. The sampling period ran from 23 March 2009 to 27 July 2010. Twenty-three patients with seasonal allergic asthma and rhinitis used an electronic symptom card. The aerosol was extracted and quantified for Phl p 1 and Phl p 5 content. Descriptive statistics, non-parametric paired contrast of Wilcoxon, Spearman's correlations, and a categorical principal component analysis (CatPCA) were carried out. Significant variations in pollen, aeroallergen levels, pollen allergen potency, and symptoms score were observed in this study. Phl p 5 pollen allergen potency was higher at the beginning of the 2010 grass pollen season. Presence of Phl p 1 outside the pollen season with positive O3 correlation was clinically relevant. 45.5% of the variance was explained by two dimensions in the CatPCA analysis, showing the symptom relationships dissociated in two dimensions. In the first one, the more important relationship was with grass pollen grains concentration and Phl p 5 and to a lesser extent with Phl p 1 and levels of NO2 and O3, and in the second dimension, symptoms were associated with humidity and SO2. Clinically relevant out-season Phl p 1 was found with a positive O3 correlation. The effect of climate and pollution may have contributed to the higher seasonal allergic rhinitis symptom score recorded in 2009.

Microplastics have appeared as emerging pollutants due to the diverse applications of plastics in today's world. Growing evidence points to the negative impacts that airborne microplastics have on human health, as they can enter the human body through respiration. Our aim was to quantify polystyrene airborne microplastics in smaller fractions, thoracic (PM

Personal exposure to particulate matter (PM) is associated with a variety of adverse health effects and cardiopulmonary diseases. As a mitigating measure to improve air quality, policymakers should select street cleaning tools according to their potential environmental impact, but there is little information about their actual effect on particle pollution. This paper describes the contribution made by leaf blowers to suspended PM and analyzes the duration of this effect during street sweeping in an urban environment. Particle concentration has been monitored throughout a fixed-site 104-day sampling campaign using the Dylos DC1700, a low-cost real-time laser particle counter. This detector recognizes two sizes of particles, coarse and fine, and records data every minute, which provides unique time resolution in the observation of the effect of leaf blowers. The results show that the use of leaf blowers raises fine PM to 13.9 μg/m3 and coarse ones to 31.5 μg/m3, which increases the number 1.6 times and 1.7 times, respectively, when compared with normal median particle concentration. The particulate matter stays resuspended in the air for several minutes, creating a dust wave effect. Low-cost sensors, such as the Dylos, are proposed as a practical methodology to help local decision-makers incorporate environmental variables in decision-making.

Pollen allergens are one of the most important causes of respiratory allergies in industrialized countries. Aerobiological studies, including pollen and spore concentrations, allow for the defining of different palynomorph concentrations throughout the year. Pollen calendars summarize the aerobiological information of a locality in a single figure. They report which types of pollen are present at each time of the year and highlight the relative importance of some with respect to others. In this paper, the pollen calendar of three cities in the Region of Murcia, Cartagena, Lorca, and Murcia, is presented for the period 2010–2017. Sixty-three pollen types were identified in the bioaerosol of the Region of Murcia. Fourteen pollen types make up the pollen calendar of Cartagena, while 15 form those of both Lorca and Murcia. The spore types Cladosporium cladosporioides, Cladosporium herbarum, and Alternaria, have been included in the same format. The results show important qualitative and quantitative differences among the three cities. Lorca presents an aerobiological profile related to agricultural activities, while Murcia shows higher influence from anemophilous species coming from gardens and parks, and finally, given its proximity to the sea, Cartagena registers lower levels in most pollen types. The intensity of some of the pollen taxon and fungal types requires a deeper study of their responsibility for allergies in the area.

Airborne particulate matter such as mineral dust comes mainly from natural sources, and the arid regions of Sahara and Sahel in Africa release large amounts of the aerosols dispersed worldwide. There is evidence of concomitant presence of desert dust particles and bioaerosols such as pollen grains in the atmosphere, which produce a significant decline in air quality during the dust intrusions events. However, there is little knowledge about the influence of dust episodes on pollen exposure in allergy sufferers as well as the causes that may produce a potential effect of the intrusions on airborne pollen levels. This potential effect on the airborne pollen concentrations is analysed in the Iberian Mediterranean region in this study. Mediterranean countries are strongly affected by Saharan-Sahel dust intrusions, and the Iberian territory, specially the central and southern areas, suffer frequently great incidence of dust episodes due to its geographic location. In this study firstly, the simultaneous occurrence between airborne pollen peaks and Saharan-Sahel dust intrusions were analysed and compared with the behaviour in the days before and after the dust intrusions in the central and south-eastern Iberian Peninsula. Secondly, the weather conditions favouring high pollen concentrations during dust episodes namely prevalent winds, air mass pathways and variations in other meteorological variables like air temperature, relative humidity or atmospheric pressure were studied.Pollen peaks often coincided with dust episodes during the pollen season in the central Iberian Peninsula. The increase of the airborne pollen concentrations during the dust episodes is clear in inland Iberian areas, although this was not the case in coastal areas of the southeast where pollen concentrations could even be seen to decrease when easterly winds from the sea prevailed during dust intrusions. Total pollen concentrations and also pollen types such as Olea, Poaceae and Quercus showed an increase in the central Iberian Peninsula during the dust episodes when two meteorological phenomena occurred simultaneously: 1) prevailing winds came from large areas of the main wind-pollinated pollen sources at medium or short scale (mainly from western and southwestern areas); and 2) optimal meteorological conditions that favoured pollen release and dispersal into the atmosphere (mainly high temperatures and low humidity). Both these conditions often occur during Saharan-Sahel dust intrusions in the centre. The findings suggest that the proportion of long-range transport is lower than those produced in medium and short distance by dust intrusions of air masses. Therefore, maximum pollen peaks are most likely to occur during dust episodes in the central Iberian Peninsula dramatically increasing the risk of outbreaks of pollinosis and other respiratory diseases in the population. The negative effects of the mineral dust on public health are well known, even more so when allergenic biological agents are co-transported together by the air mass movements coming from desert areas. The findings of this study have very relevant implications for defining health-emergency alerts for severe Saharan-Sahel dust outbreaks.

Olea pollen concentrations have been studied in relation to the typology of air masses, pollen grain sources and marine nature during advections in a coastal enclave in the south-eastern Iberian Peninsula. Since Spain is the world's leading olive producer, and olive growing extends throughout the Mediterranean basin, this location is ideal for the study of long-distance transport events (LTD) during the main pollen season (MPS). The air masses were classified using the calculation of 48-h back trajectories at 250, 500 and 750 m above ground level using the HYSPLIT model. After that, the frequency of LDT events from Africa and Europe was found to be 8.7% of the MPS days. In contrast, regional air masses were found in 38.6% of the MPS days. This was reflected in pollen concentrations, with significantly higher concentrations (p-value

Airborne particulate matter such as mineral dust comes mainly from natural sources, and the African regions of Sahara and Sahel originate large amounts of the aerosols dispersed worldwide. There is little knowledge about the influence of dust episodes on airborne pollen concentrations, and although the centre and southeast of the Iberian Peninsula are frequently affected by dust intrusions, until now, no specific works have analysed the effect of these episodes on airborne pollen concentrations in these areas. The aims of this study were to analyse the simultaneous occurrence of airborne pollen peaks and Saharan-Sahel dust intrusions in the central and south-eastern Iberian Peninsula, and to study the weather conditions – air mass pathways and conditions of air temperature, relative humidity and atmospheric pressure – that influence the airborne pollen concentrations during dust episodes. The results showed that the rise in airborne pollen concentrations during dust episodes is apparent in inland Iberian areas, although not in coastal areas in the southeast where pollen concentrations are even observed to decrease, coinciding with prevailing easterly winds from the sea. Total pollen concentrations and specific pollen types such as Olea, Poaceae and Quercus showed an increase in the central Iberian Peninsula during dust episodes when two meteorological phenomena concur: 1) prevailing winds from extensive areas of major wind-pollinated pollen sources over a medium or short distance (mainly from western and southwestern areas); and 2) optimal meteorological conditions that favour pollen release and dispersal into the atmosphere (mainly high temperatures and subsequently low humidity in central areas). Both conditions often occur during the Saharan-Sahel dust intrusions in the centre. Maximum pollen peaks are therefore most likely to occur during dust episodes in the central Iberian Peninsula, thus dramatically increasing the risk of outbreaks of pollinosis and other respiratory diseases in the population.

The global consumption of plastic is increasing year by year. The usage of plastic materials may generate small plastic fragments known as microplastics (MPs) which affect the quality of the air we breathe. In this study, a procedure based on thermogravimetry coupled to mass spectrometry (TGA-MS) has been developed to quantify polystyrene (PS) microplastics found in the atmosphere nearby an agricultural area. The quantification of PM10 fractions of airborne PS microplastics has been scarcely studied. For this purpose, around 50 mg of the fiberglass filters used for the airborne sample collection were pyrolyzed on the TGA instrument (40–800 °C) at 10 °C min−1. At the same time, sample mass loss and MS signal intensity of typical PS pyrolysis compounds were recorded. Limits of detection and quantification were 7.7 and 25.8 ng m−3, respectively. PS microplastic has been found in the studied atmosphere area at an average of 35.97 ng m−3, the potential contamination source being mainly related to agricultural activities. This works shows the potential of the hyphenated TGA-MS methodology as a complementary technique for microplastics characterization.

The Olea pollen is currently an important allergy source. In some regions of Southern Spain, olive pollen is the main cause of allergic sensitization exceeding 40% of the sensitized individuals. Due to the scarce presence of olive trees in Northern Spain, limited to some cultivated fields in the South of the Galicia region where they also grow wild, only 8% of the sensitized individuals showed positive results for Olea pollen. The aim of the paper was to assess the behaviour pattern of the Olea pollen and its aeroallergens in the atmosphere, as this information could help us to improve the understanding and prevention of clinical symptoms. Airborne Olea pollen and Ole e 1 allergens were quantified in Cartagena (South-eastern Spain) and Ourense (North-western Spain). A volumetric pollen trap and a Burkard Cyclone sampler were used for pollen and allergen quantification. The Olea flowering took place in April or May in both biometeorological sampling areas. The higher concentrations were registered in the Southern area of Spain, for both pollen and Ole e 1, with values 8 times higher for pollen concentrations and 40 times higher for allergens. An alternate bearing pattern could be observed, characterized by years with high pollen values and low allergen concentrations and vice versa. Moreover, during some flowering seasons the allergen concentrations did not correspond to the atmospheric pollen values. Variations in weather conditions or Long Distance Transport (LDT) processes could explain the discordance. The back trajectory analysis shows that the most important contributions of pollen and allergens in the atmosphere are coincident with air masses passing through potential source areas. The exposure to olive pollen may not be synonym of antigen exposure.

Olive cultivation is of great importance in Southern Europe but olive pollen is the leading cause of allergy in many regions where it is grown. The best preventive measure for allergic patients is to avoid exposure. Thus, aerobiological monitoring networks must supply realistic pollen classes for the different types of allergic pollen. Even though those pollen classes are defined, they do not necessarily fit local data. Altogether, they should use predictive models to assess flowering intensity in advance. In this study, the Olea pollen degree of exposure classes (OPDEC) are defined based on percentiles and a predictive model is suggested for Cartagena, Spain. 24year (1993-2016) Olea pollen counts series was used to characterize the Main Pollen Season (MPS). The aerobiological samples were processed following the methodology proposed by Hirst and developed by the Spanish Aerobiology Network. The aerobiological database was completed with the meteorological data supplied by AEMET (Spanish State Meteorological Agency). MPS evolution over time, and its relation with temperature and rainfall, has been analysed. The study showed an increase in MPS duration and the amount of Olea pollen grains collected both in MPS and the peak day. The OPDEC should fit local data to improve preventive measures. Based on the 24year series, the proposed OPDEC for Cartagena are: Low (≤10grains/m3), Medium (between 10 and 50grains/m3), High (between 51 and 100grains/m3) and Very High (≥100grains/m3). Olea pollen estimations in the MPS and in the peak day were obtained by means of three Regression Methods and climatic factors. The analysis reveals that the Bagging for Regression Trees (BRT) method is a good predictive alternative and stablishes the importance for each meteorological variable.

The incidence of pollinosis in developed countries has been on the rise for the past few decades. It is an illness that leads to a large number of missed work and school days. Therefore, in addition to the direct costs associated therewith, it also causes significant indirect costs. Avoidance to exposure is the most effective preventive measure. With aerobiological data for homogeneous geographical areas, sick people can both take preventive measures and optimize the period of usage of drugs and thus improve the quality of their life. Aerobiological networks have to decide how to provide this information. In the case of information intended for the general public, it is more useful to give it as concentration ranges adjusted to categories of low, medium and high/very high threshold values than as specific numerical values, which might not achieve the desired goal.In this paper we have analyzed the data generated by the Aerobiological Network of the Region of Murcia, Spain, from aerobiological databases in the 2010-2016 period. Based on the analysis of the 90, 95, 97 and 99 percentiles of the time series, we have proposed threshold values —in four levels (low, medium, high and very high), for the Poaceae and Urticaceae pollen types in the towns of Cartagena, Lorca and Murcia— that enhance the information supplied by said Aerobiological Network and are aimed at allowing allergic people to take avoidance and pharmacological treatment measures. La prevalencia de la polinosis está aumentando en los países desarrollados en las últimas décadas, siendo una enfermedad que ocasiona un gran número de días de pérdida de actividad laboral o de asistencia a la escuela, por lo que, además de los costes directos ligados a la enfermedad, ocasiona importantes costes indirectos. La evitación de la exposición es la medida preventiva más eficaz. El disponer de datos aerobiológicos para áreas geográficas homogéneas permite a los enfermos, tanto poner en marcha medidas preventivas, como optimizar el periodo de uso de medicamentos y mejorar la calidad de vida. Las redes aerobiológicas deben decidir el modo en que suministra la información. En el caso de información destinada a la población general, es más útil difundirla como intervalos de concentraciones ajustados a categorías de valores umbrales bajos, medios, altos o muy altos, que a un dato numérico concreto que puede no alcanzar el objetivo perseguido.En este trabajo hemos analizado esta información para los datos generados en la Red Aerobiológica de la Región de Murcia y a partir de las bases de datos aerobiológicas del periodo 2010-2016 hemos propuesto, basado en el análisis de los percentiles 90, 95, 97 y 99 de la serie temporal, unos valores umbrales, en cuatro escalones, bajo, medio, alto y muy alto para los tipos polínicos Poaceae y Urticaceae en la ciudades de Cartagena, Murcia y Lorca, que mejoran la información suministrada por la Red Aerobiológica de la Región de Murcia encaminada a que los pacientes alérgicos emprendan las medidas de evitación y el tratamiento farmacológico. A prevalência da polinose tem vindo a aumentar nos países desenvolvidos nas últimas décadas, sendo uma doença que ocasiona um grande número de dias de absentismo laboral ou escolar, pelo que, além dos custos diretos associados à doença, determina consideráveis custos indiretos. Evitar a exposição é a medida preventiva mais eficaz. Dispor de dados aerobiológicos para áreas geográficas homogéneas permite aos doentes quer adotar medidas preventivas, quer otimizar o período do uso de medicamentos, melhorando a sua qualidade de vida. As redes aerobiológicas devem decidir a forma como disponibilizam a informação. No caso de informação destinada à população em geral é mais útil difundi-la como intervalos de concentrações ajustados a categorias de valores limite baixos, médios, altos ou muito altos, considerando que um dado numérico concreto pode não atingir o objetivo pretendido.Neste trabalho foi analisada esta informação para os dados gerados na Rede Aerobiológica da Região de Múrcia, já a partir das bases de dados aerobiológicas no período 2010-2016. Baseados na análise dos percentis 90, 95, 97 e 99 da série temporal, foram propostos valores limites, em quatro escalões (baixo, médio, alto e muito alto), para os tipos polínicos Poaceae e Urticaceae, nas cidades de Cartagena, Múcia e Lorca, visando melhorar a informação disponibilizada pela Rede Aerobiológica da Região de Múrcia, destinada a que os pacientes alérgicos empreendam medidas de redução da exposição e o tratamento farmacológico.

There is a generalized consensus about the need to know the local aeropalynology in order to be able to properly understand pollinosis and make a correct etiological diagnosis. On the other hand, the aerobiological data provided by monitoring networks allow effective measures to be taken to prevent exposure.The aeropalynological characterization of the atmospheric aerosol is traditionally carried out by sampling by volume the particles suspended in the atmosphere and subsequently counting the pollen and fungus types present in the samples. One of the most commonly used sampling methods is based on the one proposed by Hirst in 1952. The correct identification of the pollen and fungus types present in the samples requires an important, previous education and training so as to be able to recognize the morphological features that would lead to a correct identification of the former.In the last decades of the 20th century data began to appear in scientific publications that drew the interest of researchers to the quantification of pollen allergens. In addition, the lack of a link between pollen grain counts and pollinosis symptoms (rhinitis, conjunctivitis and asthma) has been pointed out. On the other hand, there is controversy around the size of pollen grains and their likelihood to penetrate deeply into the respiratory tract. All this evidence led to the introduction of the concept of allergen load and the need to quantify it in the atmospheric aerosol.A lot of work has been done in this regard. In this paper we will supplement our experience in the subject matter with a review of the published literature in an attempt to determine whether we can answer the question posed by Beggs back in 1998: do we have to take pollen or pollen allergens into account? The analysis of the subject matter shows that there is not always a close correlation between pollen grain counts and the allergen load. In some cases, this behavior was expected and can be explained easily; in others, the reasons are not as clear. However, it has not been possible up until now to quantify all of the airborne allergens that are present in the bioaerosol. Thus, we are not ready to replace traditional aeropalynological counts yet and need to keep researching in this field to be able to develop a airborne allergen sampling and quantification methodology that can be implemented in aerobiological atmosphere monitoring networks. Based on the literature review we have conducted, we propose other possible avenues for aerobiological studies and voice our opinions about their future prospects. Existe un consenso generalizado sobre la necesidad de conocer la aeropalinología local para poder comprender de modo adecuado la polinosis y realizar un diagnóstico etiológico correcto. Por otro lado, los datos aerobiológicos suministrados por las redes de vigilancia permiten implantar medidas eficaces para evitar la exposición.La caracterización aeropalinológica del aerosol atmosférico se realiza tradicionalmente mediante el muestreo volumétrico de las partículas en suspensión en la atmósfera y posterior recuento de los tipos polínicos y fúngicos presentes en las muestras. Uno de los métodos de muestreo más utilizado se basa en el propuesto por Hirst en 1952. La correcta identificación de los tipos polínicos y fúngicos en las muestras requiere una formación altamente especializada, para poder reconocer las características morfológicas que permiten la adecuada adscripción a un tipo polínico o fúngico.A lo largo de las últimas décadas del siglo XX fueron apareciendo en publicaciones científicas datos que dirigieron el interés de los investigadores hacia la cuantificación de los alérgenos polínicos. Además, se ha señalado la falta de relación encontrada entre los recuentos de granos de polen y los síntomas de la polinosis (rinitis, conjuntivitis y el asma). Por otro lado, existe una controversia alrededor del tamaño de los granos de polen y su posibilidad de penetrar profundamente en las vías respiratorias. Este conjunto de evidencias propiciaron la introducción del concepto de carga alergénica y la necesidad de su cuantificación en el aerosol atmosférico.Son muchos los esfuerzos que se han realizado en este sentido, en este trabajo complementaremos nuestra experiencia en el tema con una revisión de la bibliografía publicada, tratando de examinar si se puede contestar a la pregunta formulada por Beggs ya en 1998; ¿qué hay que considerar el polen o los alérgenos polínicos?. El análisis del tema permite evidenciar que no siempre hay una correlación estrecha entre los recuentos de granos de polen y la carga alergénica, en algunos casos este comportamiento es fácilmente justificable y era previsible, en otros casos las razones no son tan evidentes. Sin embargo, hasta el momento no todos los aeroalérgenos han podido ser cuantificados en el bioaerosol, por lo que todavía no nos encontramos en condiciones de sustituir los recuentos aeropalinológicos tradicionales y se requiere seguir investigando en este campo para poder desarrollar una metodología de toma de muestras y cuantificación de aeroalérgenos que pueda ser implementada en las redes de vigilancia aerobiológica de la atmósfera. Siguiendo con la revisión bibliográfica realizada se apuntan otras opciones posibles para los estudios aerobiológicos y se recoge la opinión de los autores sobre sus posibilidades de futuro. Existe um consenso generalizado sobre a necessidade de conhecer a aeropalinologia local para poder compreender de modo adequado a polinose e realizar um diagnóstico etiológico correto. Por outro lado, os dados aerobiológicos fornecidos pelas redes de vigilância permitem implementar medidas eficazes para evitar a exposição.A caracterização aeropalinológica do aerossol atmosférico realiza-se tradicionalmente através da amostragem volumétrica de partículas em suspensão na atmosfera e posterior contagem dos tipos polínicos e fúngicos presentes nas amostras. Um dos métodos de amostragem mais utilizado baseia-se no proposto por Hirst em 1952. A correta identificação dos tipos polínicos e fúngicos nas amostras requer uma importante formação prévia, que permita reconhecer as caraterísticas morfológicas necessárias a uma correta identificação.Ao longo das últimas décadas do século XX foram surgindo em publicações científicas dados que direcionaram o interesse dos investigadores para a quantificação de alergénios polínicos. Além disso, assinalou-se a falta de relação encontrada entre as contagens de grãos de pólen e os sintomas de polinoses (rinites, conjuntivites e asma). Por outro lado, existe uma controvérsia em redor do tamanho dos grãos de pólen e a sua possibilidade de penetrar profundamente nas vias respiratórias. Este conjunto de evidências propiciou a introdução do conceito de carga alergénica e a necessidade da sua quantificação no aerossol atmosférico.São muitos os esforços que se realizaram nesse sentido, neste trabalho complementaremos a nossa experiência neste tema com uma revisão da bibliografia publicada, apreciando se é possível responder à pergunta formulada por Beggs já em 1998; “O que se deve considerar, o pólen ou os alergénicos polínicos?”. A análise do tema permite evidenciar que nem sempre há uma correlação estreita entre as contagens de grãos de pólen e a carga alergénica, em alguns casos esta situação é facilmente justificável e era previsível, em outros casos as razões não são tão evidentes. Porém, até ao momento nem todos os aeroalergénios podem ser quantificados no bioaerossol, pelo que não nos encontramos em condições de substituir as contagens aeropalinológicas tradicionais, sendo necessário dar continuidade à investigação neste campo no sentido de se desenvolver uma metodologia de colheita de amostras e quantificação de aeroalergénios que possam ser implementadas nas redes de vigilância aerobiológica da atmosfera. Em consequência da revisão bibliográfica realizada registam-se outras opções possíveis para os estudos aerobiológicos e recolhe-se a opinião de outros autores sobre as possibilidades futuras.

Species of the Amaranthaceae family are abundant in the Southeast of Spain, one of the driest areas in Europe. The Amaranthaceae include species of interest from the point of view of allergic diseases. With the expansion of aridity, many species belonging to this family will be favoured. The objectives of this study were: first, to define the prevalence of sensitization to Amaranthaceae pollen in allergic patients in the Southeast of Spain; second, to present the aerobiological features of this taxon; and, finally, to demarcate those periods of increased risk of suffering allergic symptoms with the aim of improving the diagnosis and prevention of hay fever. Skin prick tests with extracts of pollen were performed on patients with symptoms of respiratory allergy referred for consultation for the first time in Almeria and Murcia. Samples of the atmospheric bioaerosol were taken using a Lanzoni VPPS 2000 volumetric sampler, samples treatment and subsequent counts being carried out according to the methodology approved by the Spanish Aerobiological Network. The statistical significance of the correlation between aerobiological and meteorological data from this arid region in 2010–2014 was determined. The aerobiological study revealed the presence of two distinct peaks responsible for pollen symptoms. The flowering of this taxon is especially noteworthy in the city of Cartagena, where it supposes 94% of the total pollen collected in these periods. This situation converts Amaranthaceae pollen in the second leading cause of hay fever in the Southeast of Spain. With the expansion of aridity, an increase in the presence of these species is expected. Bearing in mind their prevalence in the spring and summer/autumn periods and their extensive presence in the bioaerosol, this makes data from Southeastern Spanish a benchmark with respect to the aerobiology of this type of pollen.

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African dust outbreaks over the Iberian Peninsula have been related to four synoptic patterns responsible for the advection of dust: 1. A North African high located at surface level. 2. An Atlantic depression centered over northwestern Africa, western Iberia or the southwest of the Portuguese coast with an associated high or ridge over the Mediterranean Sea. 3. A North African depression. 4. A North African high located at upper levels. Consequently, particulate matter (PM) levels in Iberia are expected to rise when any of these atmospheric synoptic scenarios prevail. Nevertheless, PM levels might not increase due to wet deposition, as Spain receives the most African-derived dust rain events of any European country. In this study, a meteorological scenario different than the above situations is evaluated.

Background: Associations found in time-series studies on hospital emergency room (ER) visits due to asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) with single air pollutants show some lack of consistency. The respiratory effects of aeroallergens in the air pollution mix are not well established. Non-linear relationships of different airborne pollen types with certain respiratory diseases have also been described. We aim to study the short-term effects of major air pollutants and aeroallergen pollen on asthma and COPD hospital ER visits in the industrial and Mediterranean Spanish city of Cartagena during 1995-1998. Methods: The association of asthma and COPD to ER visits with mean levels of sulphur and nitrogen dioxides (SO 2 and NO 2), total suspended particles (TSP), ozone (O 3), and the main allergenic airborne pollen types were analysed using Poisson regression with Generalised Additive Models, taking into account delayed effects and adjusting for long-term trends, seasonality, weather conditions, holidays and flu notifications. Results: Multipollutant models showed a similar relative risk (RR) increase (in %), of around 5% in asthma and COPD ER visits per 10μg/m 3 SO 2increments. The risk of an ER visit for the same NO 2 increment was 2.6% for asthma and 3.3% for COPD. Visits to the ER due to asthma showed a positive increase with both Urticaceae and Poaceae levels, but did not substantially modify the previous percentages. Conclusions: Air levels of SO 2 and NO 2 were associated with a substantial increased risk in ER visits due to asthma and COPD. The inclusion of Poaceae and Urticaceae pollen did not alter that association. © 2011 SEICAP., BACKGROUND Associations found in time-series studies on hospital emergency room (ER) visits due to asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) with single air pollutants show some lack of consistency. The respiratory effects of aeroallergens in the air pollution mix are not well established. Non-linear relationships of different airborne pollen types with certain respiratory diseases have also been described. We aim to study the short-term effects of major air pollutants and aeroallergen pollen on asthma and COPD hospital ER visits in the industrial and Mediterranean Spanish city of Cartagena during 1995-1998. METHODS The association of asthma and COPD to ER visits with mean levels of sulphur and nitrogen dioxides (SO(2) and NO(2)), total suspended particles (TSP), ozone (O(3)), and the main allergenic airborne pollen types were analysed using Poisson regression with Generalised Additive Models, taking into account delayed effects and adjusting for long-term trends, seasonality, weather conditions, holidays and flu notifications. RESULTS Multipollutant models showed a similar relative risk (RR) increase (in %), of around 5% in asthma and COPD ER visits per 10μg/m(3) SO(2)increments. The risk of an ER visit for the same NO(2) increment was 2.6% for asthma and 3.3% for COPD. Visits to the ER due to asthma showed a positive increase with both Urticaceae and Poaceae levels, but did not substantially modify the previous percentages. CONCLUSIONS Air levels of SO(2) and NO(2) were associated with a substantial increased risk in ER visits due to asthma and COPD. The inclusion of Poaceae and Urticaceae pollen did not alter that association.

Aerobiological monitoring of Olea europaea L. is of great interest in the Mediterranean basin because olive pollen is one of the most represented pollen types of the airborne spectrum for the Mediterranean region, and olive pollen is considered one of the major cause of pollinosis in this region. The main aim of this study was to develop an airborne-pollen map based on the Pollen Index across a 4-year period (2008-2011), to provide a continuous geographic map for pollen intensity that will have practical applications from the agronomical and allergological points of view. For this purpose, the main predictor variable was an index based on the distribution and abundance of potential sources of pollen emission, including intrinsic information about the general atmospheric patterns of pollen dispersal. In addition, meteorological variables were included in the modeling, together with spatial interpolation, to allow the definition of a spatial model of the Pollen Index from the main olive cultivation areas in the Mediterranean region. The results show marked differences with respect to the dispersal patterns associated to the altitudinal gradient. The findings indicate that areas located at an altitude above 300ma.s.l. receive greater amounts of olive pollen from shorter-distance pollen sources (maximum influence, 27km) with respect to areas lower than 300ma.s.l. (maximum influence, 59km).

The allergens of different grass species share similar physicochemical and immunological features that account for the high incidence of allergenic cross-reactivity. We aimed to gain more information on the correlation between Poaceae airborne pollen and allergen concentration and hence make a reliable assessment of true pollen exposure in different bioclimatic areas. The release of Lol p 1 allergen from grass pollen differs between years and areas depending on variables like meteorological factors, biological sources, and cross-reactions with homologous allergens. This study monitored airborne pollen concentrations of grasses and Lol p 1 aeroallergen in Leon and Ourense, two cities with different climatic conditions located in northwestern Spain. Lol p 1 content in aerosol samples was quantified using specific ELISA antibody plates. Some our results show that Lol p 1 concentration increases when the atmospheric relative humidity is below 70%. This could explain the appearance of protein peaks at times when little or no grass pollen is present, especially after a short and heavy storm.

In aerobiological studies, the Parietaria pollen type usually includes all Parietaria and Urtica species found in the area. Given that Urtica is a nonallergenic plant, the pollen counts report incomplete information on the presence of allergens in the atmosphere. Discordance between the pollen concentrations of Urticaceae and allergic symptoms has been observed in patients with pollinosis.To compare the Urticaceae pollen counts with the Par j 1 and Par j 2 aeroallergen concentrations from 2 different Spanish geographic areas to determine the allergenic load in the atmosphere.Hirst-type volumetric traps and Burkard Cyclone samplers were used for pollen counts and aeroallergen capture, respectively. The quantification of Par j 1 and Par j 2 allergens was performed using specific 2-site antibody enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Transmission electron microscopy and immunocytochemical techniques were applied to localize these allergens in the orbicules.Differences between areas and years were obtained in both pollen and aeroallergen concentrations. Despite the lower pollen counts recorded in Cartagena, higher aeroallergen concentrations were registered compared with Ourense. A lower correlation was achieved between Urticaceae pollen concentrations and aeroallergen levels, with a maximum positive significant correlation (adjusted R2 = 0.466, P.001). Intense labeling of Par j 1 and Par j 2 proteins was observed in the orbicules, the tapetal membrane, and the tapetal tissue remnants.This method may be valuable for epidemiologic research to establish correlations between concentrations of Parietaria aeroallergens and clinical symptoms. Therefore, the measurement of aeroallergens should be incorporated into the aerobiological studies with clinical applications.

Exposure to allergens represents a key factor among the environmental determinants of asthma. The most common information available for pollinosis patients is the concentration of pollen grains in the bioaerosol and their temporal distribution. However, in recent years, discordance between pollen concentrations and allergic symptoms has been detected. The purpose of this research is to evaluate the relationship between pollen counts and the atmospheric aeroallergen concentrations in different Spanish bioclimatic areas. For the monitoring of allergen content in the air, a quantitative antigen–antibody technique combined with the Cyclone sampling methodology was used. The study was conducted during 2007 by considering some of the most common allergens that induce pollinosis in each area: Platanus and Urticaceae in Ourense and Cartagena, and Poaceae in Ourense and Leon. In Ourense, pollen counts and aeroallergen concentrations coincided for the three pollen types studied, and the pollen and allergen data associated with the meteorological factors were highly significant for the pollen counts. In Cartagena (for Platanus and Urticaceae) and Leon (for Poaceae), the low correlations between pollen counts and allergen concentrations obtained could be due to the specific bioclimatic conditions. In contrast, the higher allergen concentrations found in the atmosphere in Cartagena and Leon compared to Ourense could be related to the existing pollutant levels there, inducing a higher expression of plant pathogenesis-related proteins in the plants of polluted cities. The combination of pollen counts and allergen quantification must be assessed to reliably estimate exposure of allergic people to allergens in different bioclimatic areas.

Human semen quality may be declining due to environmental pollutants, occupational exposures or changes in lifestyle. Nonetheless, we still know little about the impact of those factors on male fertility. Some heavy metals, volatile organic compounds or xenoestrogens may compromise reproductive male function. This process could take place along the human life cycle and not only in certain stages of development. We review the main factors that affect human male fertility and their possible influence in current human reproduction.

Source apportionment analysis was used to identify the factors contributing to atmospheric pollution at a monitoring location in the Southeast of Spain, a well documented area with an arid climate and high insolation favouring two sources of particulate matter: secondary transformation in the atmosphere and resuspension of crustal dry soils to the air. These conditions are further complicated by numerous industrial facilities in the area of the historical city of Cartagena. This paper describes the air quality of an area which includes a zinc metallurgical industry, a petrochemical factory, an oil power station, a shipyard and natural phenomena including African dust transport and resuspension of regional and/or local crustal materials. Major and trace element concentrations in PM10 and PM2.5 were determined at two monitoring stations in Cartagena (one PM10 sampler located at a traffic hotspot and the PM2.5 sampler at a suburban station), during 2004 and 2005. Results showed that in the PM10 fraction, the zinc metallurgical activity was linked to high levels of Cd, Zn and Pb; shipyard emission was associated with high levels of Cr and Ni; and high Ni and V levels were associated with the secondary aerosol indicating the contribution from oil combustion (oil-fired power station or petrochemical facilities). In the PM2.5 size fraction, the zinc source is defined by Zn and Pb; V, Ni and As appear with the oil combustion emissions. In contrast to PM10, shipyard activity is not consistently defined. Consistent sources found in both size fractions include crustal materials and traffic emissions.

Despite their significant role in source apportionment analysis, studies dedicated to the identification of tracer elements of emission sources of atmospheric particulate matter based on air quality data are relatively scarce. The studies describing tracer elements of specific sources currently available in the literature mostly focus on emissions from traffic or large-scale combustion processes (e.g. power plants), but not on specific industrial processes. Furthermore, marker elements are not usually determined at receptor sites, but during emission. In our study, trace element concentrations in PM10 and PM2.5 were determined at 33 monitoring stations in Spain throughout the period 1995–2006. Industrial emissions from different forms of metallurgy (steel, stainless steel, copper, zinc), ceramic and petrochemical industries were evaluated. Results obtained at sites with no significant industrial development allowed us to define usual concentration ranges for a number of trace elements in rural and urban background environments. At industrial and traffic hotspots, average trace metal concentrations were highest, exceeding rural background levels by even one order of magnitude in the cases of Cr, Mn, Cu, Zn, As, Sn, W, V, Ni, Cs and Pb. Steel production emissions were linked to high levels of Cr, Mn, Ni, Zn, Mo, Cd, Se and Sn (and probably Pb). Copper metallurgy areas showed high levels of As, Bi, Ga and Cu. Zinc metallurgy was characterised by high levels of Zn and Cd. Glazed ceramic production areas were linked to high levels of Zn, As, Se, Zr, Cs, Tl, Li, Co and Pb. High levels of Ni and V (in association) were tracers of petrochemical plants and/or fuel-oil combustion. At one site under the influence of heavy vessel traffic these elements could be considered tracers (although not exclusively) of shipping emissions. Levels of Zn–Ba and Cu–Sb were relatively high in urban areas when compared with industrialised regions due to tyre and brake abrasion, respectively.

Resumen La preocupacion publica y cientifica acerca del riesgo potencial de los contaminantes y los toxicos ambientales para la salud reproductiva masculina se esta incrementando, sobre todo debido al aumento de publicaciones que recogen una tendencia decreciente de la calidad seminal, asi como un aumento de las tasas de anomalias en el desarrollo del tracto urogenital y cancer testicular. Los toxicos y contaminantes principales que afectan a la calidad seminal son varios, y de ellos podemos destacar los metales pesados. Actualmente los estudios son limitados y no permiten proporcionar conclusiones definitivas sobre si estos toxicos afectan a la calidad seminal humana. Los cientificos estan incrementado su capacidad de cuantificar los contaminantes y toxicos ambientales en muestras humanas, con el fin de identificar el papel del ambiente que nos rodea en la fertilidad humana.

Airborne pollen monitoring is an effective tool for studying the reproductive phenology of anemophilous plants, an important bioindicator of plant behavior. Recent decades have revealed a trend towards rising airborne pollen concentrations in Europe, attributing these trends to an increase in anthropogenic CO2 emissions and temperature. However, the lack of water availability in southern Europe may prompt a trend towards lower flowering intensity, especially in herbaceous plants. Here we show variations in flowering intensity by analyzing the Annual Pollen Index (API) of 12 anemophilous taxa across 12 locations in the Iberian Peninsula, over the last two decades, and detecting the influence of the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO). Results revealed differences in the distribution and flowering intensity of anemophilous species. A negative correlation was observed between airborne pollen concentrations and winter averages of the NAO index. This study confirms that changes in rainfall in the Mediterranean region, attributed to climate change, have an important impact on the phenology of plants.

Air quality is a major issue for humans owing to the fact that the content of particles in the atmosphere has multiple implications for life quality, ecosystem dynamics and environment. Scientists are therefore particularly interested in discovering the origin of airborne particles. A new method has been developed to model the relationship between the emission surface and the total amount of airborne particles at a given distance, employing olive pollen and olive groves as examples. A third-degree polynomial relationship between the air particles at a particular point and the distance from the source was observed, signifying that the nearest area to a point is not that which is most correlated with its air features. This work allows the origin of airborne particles to be discovered and could be implemented in different disciplines related to atmospheric aerosol, thus providing a new approach with which to discover the dynamics of airborne particles.

This paper presents our reply to two questions posed by Dr. Millard concerning our paper Martinez-Garcia et al. [Martinez-Garcia MJ, Moreno JM, Moreno-Clavel JM, Vergara N, Garcia-Sanchez A, Guillamon A, Porti M, Moreno-Grau S. Heavy metals in human bones in different historical epochs. Sci Total Environ 2005;348:51–72], namely, whether diagenetic changes operating in human bones after burial and consideration of the physiological plausibility of the metal concentrations measured in such bones could invalidate the results presented in the aforementioned paper. In our reply, we show that diagenetic effects are not meaningful in our study and that the mathematical approach used by Millard to derive circulating blood concentration from bone levels is based on the incorrect manipulation of a statistical regression analysis and therefore is not valid. After exhaustively reviewing the two phenomena involved in Dr. Millard's questions as well as other concerns raised in his letter to the editor, we deem the three conclusions presented in Martinez-Garcia et al. [Martinez-Garcia MJ, Moreno JM, Moreno-Clavel J, Vergara N, Garcia-Sanchez A, Guillamon A, Porti M, Moreno-Grau S. Heavy metals in human bones in different historical epochs. Sci Total Environ 2005;348:51–72] to be entirely appropriate.

The concentration of the metals lead, copper, zinc, cadmium and iron was determined in bone remains belonging to 30 individuals buried in the Region of Cartagena dating from different historical periods and in eight persons who had died in recent times. The metals content with respect to lead, cadmium and copper was determined either by anodic stripping voltammetry or by atomic absorption spectroscopy on the basis of the concentrations present in the bone remains. In all cases, zinc and iron were quantified by means of atomic absorption spectroscopy. The lead concentrations found in the bone remains in our city are greater than those reported in the literature for other locations. This led to the consideration of the sources of these metals in our area, both the contribution from atmospheric aerosols as well as that from the soil in the area. Correlation analysis leads us to consider the presence of the studied metals in the analysed bone samples to be the consequence of analogous inputs, namely the inhalation of atmospheric aerosols and diverse contributions in the diet. The lowest values found in the studied bone remains correspond to the Neolithic period, with similar contents to present-day samples with respect to lead, copper, cadmium and iron. As regards the evolution over time of the concentrations of the metals under study, a clear increase in these is observed between the Neolithic period and the grouping made up of the Bronze Age, Roman domination and the Byzantine period. The trend lines used to classify the samples into 7 periods show that the maximum values of lead correspond to the Roman and Byzantine periods. For copper, this peak is found in the Byzantine Period and for iron, in the Islamic Period. Zinc shows an increasing tendency over the periods under study and cadmium is the only metal whose trend lines shows a decreasing slope.

The use of meteorological autocorrelation variables and pollen concentrations from previous days, coupled with classification of meteorological data according to multivariate analysis techniques, is shown to improve the predictive power of multiple regression models for daily pollen forecasts. This paper presents an investigation of the meteorological and autocorrelation variables which influence pollen counts in Cartagena, from 1995 to 1999, as a basis for the development of predictive models. The analysis of total pollen concentrations, and especially Chenopodiaceae‐Amaranthaceae, was determined. Initially, forecasting models for total pollen counts were developed, using data from 1995 to 1998, and autocorrelation and meteorological variables. Secondly, predictive models were developed for different meteorological situations, which improved the results by decreasing the number of predictive parameters. Finally, data from 1999 were used to validate the predictive models.

In this article we report the relationships between heavy metals (Pb, Cd, Zn, Cu) in soil and settleable particulate matter using data from 6 yr at six different sampling points within Cartagena, a Spanish Mediterranean city. The use of enrichment factors and factor analysis allowed us to predict the major sources of these metals. Soils were classified as one of three types: soils from polluted zone L, soils from polluted zone Z, and non-polluted soils. Settleable particulate matter was also classified in the following three groups: Industrial zone, Urban zone, and Intermediate zone. Enrichment factors showed that soils from polluted zone L are enriched in Pb and Cd when compared with soils from polluted zone Z, and soils from polluted zone Z are enriched in Zn and Cu when compared with soils from polluted zone L. In this context, soils from polluted zones L and Z are identified as specific sources of metals in the settleable particulate matter samples. We also suggest the importance of anthopogenic contribution of metals to soil-enrichment from ancient times up to the present. This process was most severe during the XIX century, when our city suffered an important industrial development. The concentration of these heavy metals are also affected by regional meteorological conditions, which include scarce rainfalls and a significant wind dispersion of soil aerosols.

Shed deciduous teeth lead and cadmium content of children from Cartagena (Spain) was assessed. Parents were provided with an interview containing different questions concerning family socioeconomic status, child's health history, zone of residence, or home antiquity. Besides, physiological variables were considered, i.e., sex of donor, presence of caries, type of tooth donated, tooth weight, age of shedding, and position within the mouth. Tooth lead and cadmium data showed a positively skewed distribution and were log-normalized for further analyses. No statistically significant differences could be observed for lead and cadmium values according to the sex of donor. Both heavy metals decreased in content from incisors to molars and with age of shedding. The one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) displayed both environmental and physiological risk factors contributing to high tooth lead and cadmium values. When a multifactor ANOVA was carried out, the associations between home antiquity, nail biting habit, and jaw with tooth lead levels, as well as those between zone of residence and tooth cadmium levels were found to persist. However, the only common factor for both heavy metals in the multiple analyses was the type of tooth.

Zygophyllum fabago is a herbaceous plant withairborne pollen found widely in the MurciaRegion, in the Southeast of Spain. Although itsallergenicity has been recently reported,little is known of its involvement inpollinosis. Aerobiological study andsensitization in pollinotics weremeasured using a Hirst volumetric trap. Wehave measured the atmospheric concentrationsof this pollen and other allergenicpollen types in our region, between March 1993 andMarch 1997. Z. fabago pollen wascollected for a morphometric study of thepollen grain, and a lyophilized extract wasprepared for skin prick tests. We haveconducted skin tests with different pollen typesfrom our region and with Z. fabago in1736 patients with symptomssuggesting pollinosis. The size of the pollengrain averages 15.17 × 17.35 µm. Thepollination period extends from May to August,with a mean accumulated concentration of 448grains/m3. Out of 1736 pollinotics,263 (15.15%) showed a positive skin test forZ. fabago, 6 were monosensitized and 257were sensitized to other common pollen types fromour Region. Specific IgE to Z. fabago wasequal or higher than 0.35 ku/l in 86.56% ofsensitized patients. Chenopodiaceae pollinateduring spring and autumn and sensitize a largernumber of patients; Urticaceae reach thehighest pollen concentrations for a longerperiod but are not the primary cause ofpollinosis. This study shows that Z. fabagopollen becomes airborne, elicits an IgEresponse and, like other pollens, contributestowards triggering allergic symptoms.It should therefore be considered arelevant allergen and accordingly beincluded in skin test procedures.

This article presents the results of the analysis of the metals lead, cadmium, copper, zinc and aluminum, conducted on a total of 112 soil samples arising from 57 sampling points, distributedthroughout the Cartagena area in southeastern Spain. Both, totalmetal content and soluble fraction (1 M nitric acid medium, exchangeable fraction) were analyzed. Soil samples were taken on the surface of the terrain and at a depth of 35 cm from eachsampling point. For the purposes of this study, sampling points were classified in three groups based on the results of previous research on air pollution in the region: clean areas,contaminated areas and vacant industrial areas. The statisticalanalyses of the results show no significant differences betweenthe surface samples and the 35 cm deep samples from all three areas. Lead, zinc and copper (soluble and total fractions) aresignificantly higher, and pH significantly lower, in the samples coming from the contaminated and vacant industrial areasthan in samples coming from the clean area. Total lead and cadmium are significantly higher in the vacant industrial areas(150 g kg-1 Pb and 9.3 g kg-1 Cd) than in the contaminated areas (5.2 g kg-1 Pb and 2.1 g kg-1 Cd).Iso-concentration maps have been prepared in order to correlatethe presence of metals with the industrial and mining activities in the region under study. These maps show a clear relationship between human activities and metal concentrationgradients, with peaks corresponding to both active and abandoned industrial and mining facilities.

In the presented study the airborne fungal spores of the semiarid city of Cartagena, Spain, are identified and quantified by means of viable or non-viable sampling methods. Airborne fungal samples were collected simultaneously using a filtration method and a pollen and particle sampler based on the Hirst methodology. This information is very useful for elucidating geographical patterns of hay fever and asthma. The qualitative results showed that when the non-viable methodology was employed, Cladosporium, Ustilago, and Alternaria were the most abundant spores identified in the atmosphere of Cartagena, while the viable methodology showed that the most abundant taxa were: Cladosporium, Penicillium, Aspergillus and Alternaria. The quantitative results of airborne fungal spores identified by the Hirst-type air sampler (non-viable method), showed that Deuteromycetes represented 74% of total annual spore counts, Cladosporium being the major component of the fungal spectrum (62.2%), followed by Alternaria (5.3%), and Stemphylium (1.3%). The Basidiomycetes group represented 18.9% of total annual spore counts, Ustilago (7.1%) being the most representative taxon of this group and the second most abundant spore type. Ascomycetes accounted for 6.9%, Nectria (2.3%) being the principal taxon. Oomycetes (0.2%) and Zygomycestes and Myxomycestes (0.06%) were scarce. The prevailing species define our bioaerosol as typical of dry air. The viable methodology was better at identifying small hyaline spores and allowed for the discrimination of the genus of some spore types. However, non-viable methods revealed the richness of fungal types present in the bioaerosol. Thus, the use of both methodologies provides a more comprehensive characterization of the spore profile.

Total suspended particulate matter (TSP) and lead (Pb) concentrations were monitored at three sampling stations in Cartagena, Spain, from February 1990 to December 1998, and copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), and cadmium (Cd) atmospheric concentrations were measured from January 1991 to December 1998. TSP and Pb values were analysed from samples collected on glassfibre filters, and the concentrations of Pb, Cu, Zn, and Cd were calculated from cellulose ester filters, showing no statistically significant difference (95% C.L.) for Pb analysed in both filter types. The geographical and temporal distribution patterns were investigated. There was a trend to find the highest TSP levels during winter and autumn, and the highest Pb concentrations during the winter season. The Pb/Cd average ratios for each sampling point showed a direct anthropogenic contribution for the industrial areas, when compared with Pb/Cd ratio reported for global natural emissions. The correlation among heavy metals displayed similar results, differing from the residential area to the urban and industrial ones.

We have studied the effects of various meteorologicalparameters and plant distribution on the airborneconcentrations of three different pollen types:Chenopodiaceae-Amaranthaceae, Quercus and Olea, in the city of Cartagena, situated in SouthwestEurope. The aerobiological study has been carried outfrom March 1993 to March 1997, using a Hirst-typeLanzoni 2000 trap, situated on the roof of the citytrain station. Meteorological data were supplied bythe Environmental Service of Cartagena's Town Hall.Daily pollen concentrations were standardised.Correlation analysis showed the importance ofmeteorological data on airborne pollen concentrations.On the other hand, ANOVA analyses depicted theinfluence of vegetation distribution in relation tosampler location and wind directions. Finally,multiple regression analyses allowed us to developcorrelation models for the three different pollentypes considered, accounting for 32%(Chenopodiaceae-Amaranthaceae), 19% (Quercus),and 26% (Olea) of the variation in the airbornepollen concentration.

PURPOSE: The problems of air pollution became noticeable in Cartagena in the seventies, high SO2 and particle levels having been reached from time to time. Our aim is to assess, using the EMECAM methodology, the acute impact of SO2 and particle air pollution on the daily mortality of the city of Cartagena in the 1992-1996 period. METHODS: A daily listing is provided of the total number of non-accidental deaths within the population as a whole and for those over age 70, the cardiovascular and the respiratory deaths due to the sulfur dioxide and particle air pollution for the 1992-1996 period using autoregressive Poisson models which control seasonality, weather, time of year, flu, special events, and time lags. RESULTS: In the period under study, there has been a drop in the SO2 air pollution as compared to previous years, which was not as marked for the particles. The analyses reveal significant relationships in the total non-accidental deaths in those over age 69, with the average particle count and those particles with cardiovascular deaths for the months of May to October. In the six-month period of the year when the weather is cold, we found a positive statistically significant relationship to exist in the maximum daily hourly value of the particles and the deaths due to cardiocirculatory and respiratory diseases. However, there is no consistency in the between on assessing the reliability of the models.

This paper presents a simple, reliable, economical, safe, accurate and reproducible method for atmospheric aerosol lead determination in glass fiber filters, consisting on an acid digestion procedure and atomic absorption spectrometry quantification. The acid digestion is accelerated by the use of a microwave oven with capped Teflon PFA vessels, and a two steps power and time program. The mixture of 10 mL HNO3 and 1 mL HF was selected between many tries, for both economic and environmental reasons. The use of direct standards for quantification is proposed instead of added standards on filters, using background correction (deuterium lamp). The filter lead content quantification was carried out through blank analyses. Lead determinations were carried out then in 2629 samples of atmospheric aerosol at three sampling points in the city of Cartagena (Spain), from 1990 to 1994. We present the annual average of these values for each year and sampling location.

Zygophyllum fabago is a widespread herbaceous plant in the Medi terranean area that belongs to the Zygophyllaceae family (order of the Sapindaceae). The genus Zygophyllurn, with about 90 species, grows mainly between northern Africa and central As ia? The pollen is both insect and wind borne and the plant has a flowering period that lasts from May to August. The pollen grains are isopolar, suboblated, tricolporated, and reticulated. The octoaperture is large, the apocolpium is small, and the endoaper ture is longitudinally elongated. 2 An aerobiologic study in Cartagena, Murcia, Spain, found that Zygophyllum pollen grains accounted for 6.06% of the total pollen during the period of pollination. The presence of the pollen in the atmosphere may be related to the exertive disposition of the stamen and the abundant biomass of this plant. The only previous mention of the Zygophyllaceae family as a possible inducer of allergic diseases was by Small and Smell in 1946. 3 We therefore conducted a prospective study to determine the allergenicity and aerobiologic characteristics of this pollen.

It has been hypothesized that exposure to heavy metals may impair male reproduction. To measure the effect produced by low doses of heavy metals on semen parameters, it is necessary to clarify in which body fluids those measurements must be performed. Sixty-one men attending infertility clinics participated in our study. Concentrations of lead, cadmium, and mercury were measured in whole blood, blood plasma, and seminal plasma using spectroanalytical and electrochemical methods. Semen analyses were performed according to World Health Organization criteria. For statistical analysis, Spearman's rank correlations, mean comparison tests, and discriminant analysis were calculated. Significant correlations between the measured concentrations of the three heavy metals in the same biological fluids were observed. However, no similar relationship was seen when comparing the concentrations in different body fluids of the same metal. According to our results and previous publications, seminal plasma might be the best body fluid for assessing impairment of human semen parameters.

Background Animal studies have shown the reproductive toxicity of a number of heavy metals. Very few human observational studies have analyzed the relationship between male reproductive function and heavy metal concentrations in diverse biological fluids. Methods The current study assessed the associations between seminal and hormonal parameters and the concentration of the 3 most frequent heavy metal toxicants (lead, cadmium and mercury) in three different body fluids. Sixty one men attending infertility clinics that participated in a case-control study to explore the role of environmental toxins and lifestyles on male infertility were analyzed. Concentration of lead, cadmium and mercury were measured in blood and seminal plasma and whole blood using anodic stripping voltammetry and atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Serum samples were analyzed for follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone and testosterone. Semen analyses were performed according to World Health Organization criteria. Mann-Whitney test and Spearman's rank correlations were used for unadjusted analyses. Multiple linear regression models were performed controlling for age, body mass index and number of cigarettes per day. Results There were no significant differences between cases and controls in the concentrations of heavy metals in any of the three body fluids. In multivariate analyses using all subjects no significant associations were found between serum hormone levels and metal concentrations. However there was a significant positive association between the percentage of immotile sperms and seminal plasma levels of lead and cadmium. Conclusions Our results suggest that the presence of lead and cadmium in the reproductive tract of men may be related to a moderate alteration of their seminal parameters.

Ten years of public health interventions on industrial emissions to clean air were monitored for the Mediterranean city of Cartagena. During the 1960s, a number of large chemical and non-ferrous metallurgical factories were established that significantly deteriorated the city's air quality. By the 1970s, the average annual air concentration of sulfur dioxide (SO2) ranged from 200 to 300 A mu g/m(3) (standard conditions units). In 1979, the Spanish government implemented an industrial intervention plan to improve the performance of factories and industrial air pollution surveillance. Unplanned urban development led to residential housing being located adjacent to three major factories. Factory A produced lead, factory B processed zinc from ore concentrates, and factory C produced sulfuric acid and phosphates. This, in combination with the particular abrupt topography and frequent atmospheric thermal inversions, resulted in the worsening of air quality and heightening concern for public health. In 1990, the City Council authorized the immediate intervention at these factories to reduce or shut down production if ambient levels of SO2 or total suspended particles (TSP) exceeded a time-emission threshold in pre-established meteorological contexts. The aim of this research was to assess the appropriateness and effectiveness of the intervention plan implemented from 1992 to 2001 to abate industrial air pollution. The maximum daily 1-h ambient air level of SO2, NO2, and TSP pollutants was selected from one of the three urban automatic stations, designed to monitor ambient air quality around industrial emissions sources. The day on which an intervention took place to reduce and/or interrupt industrial production by factory and pollutant was defined as a control day, and the day after an intervention as a post-control day. To assess the short-term intervention effect on air quality, an ecological time series design was applied, using regression analysis in generalized additive models, focusing on day-to-day variations of ambient air pollutants levels. Two indicators were estimated: (a) appropriateness, the ratio between mean levels of the pollutant for control days versus the other days, and (b) effectiveness, the ratio between mean levels of the pollutant for post-control days versus the other days. Ratios in regression analyses were adjusted for trend, seasonality, temperature, humidity and atmospheric pressure, calendar day, and special events as well as the other pollutants. A total of 702 control days were made on the factories' industrial production during the 10-year period. Fifteen reductions and five shutdown control days took place at factory A for ambient air SO2. At factory B, more controls were carried out for the SO2 pollutant in the years 1992-1993 and 1997. At factory C, the control days for SO2 decreased from 59 reductions and 14 shutdowns to a minimum from 1995 onwards, whereas the controls on TSP were more frequent, reaching a maximum of 99 reductions and 47 shutdowns in the last year. SO2 ambient air mean levels ranged from 456 to 699 A mu g/m(3) among factories on reduction control days and between 624 and 1,010 A mu g/m(3) on shutdown days. The TSP ambient air mean levels were 428 and 506 A mu g/m(3) on reduction and shutdown days, respectively. For all types of control days and factories, a mean ratio of 104% (95% confidence interval [CI] 88 to 121) in SO2 levels was obtained and a mean ratio of 67% (95% CI 59 to 75) in TSP levels. Post-control days at all factories showed a mean ratio of -16% (95% CI -7 to -24) in SO2 levels and a mean ratio of -13% (95% CI -7 to -19) in TSP levels. Interventions on industrial production based on the urban SO2 and TSP ambient air levels were justified by the high concentrations detected. The best assessment of the interventions' effectiveness would have been to utilize the ambient air pollutant concentration readings from the entire time of the production shutdowns or reductions; however, the daily hourly maximum turned out to be a useful indicator because of meteorological factors influencing the diurnal concentration profile. A substantial number of interventions were carried out from 1 to 3 am, when vehicular traffic was minimum. On the other hand, atmospheric stability undergoes diurnal cycling in the autumn-winter period due to thermal inversion, which reaches maximum levels around daybreak. Therefore, this increases the ambient air levels and justified the interventions carried out at daybreak in spite of the traffic influence. All the interventions for SO2 and TSP were carried out when the measured ambient air levels of pollutants were exceeded, which shows the appropriateness of the intervention program. This excess was greater when intervening on SO2 than on the TSP levels. For both ambient air levels of SO2 and TSP, significant drops in air pollution were achieved from all three factories following activity reductions. The production shutdown controls were very effective, because they returned excess levels, higher than in the reduction controls, to everyday mean values. The Cartagena City observational system of intermittent control has proven to effectively reduce industrial emissions' impact on ambient air quality. This experienced model approach could serve well in highly polluted industrial settings. From a public health perspective, studies are needed to assess that the industrial interventions to control air pollution were related to healthier human populations. Legislation was needed to allow the public administration to take direct actions upon the polluting industries.