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The article describes the cases of two children in the U.S. who were infected with Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) in 2010. An 11-year-old girl was presented to a hospital with fever, headache and neck pain. She died after developing ventricular tachycardia and her autopsy showed histopathologic changes suggesting meningoencephalitis. JEV ribonucleic acid was also identified. A six-year-old boy was presented with fever, somnolence and headache. Examination showed JEV-specific immunoglobulin M and neutralizing antobodies. INSET: What is already known on the topic?.

The article deals with the investigation conducted by the Indiana State Department of Health and the Centers for Disease Control & Prevention (CDC) into a cluster of seven idiopathic granulomatous mastitis (IGM) diagnoses in multigravid Hispanic women from 2006 to 2008. According to the article, IGM is a rare inflammatory breast lesion prevalent in women of childbearing age. Particular focus is given on the etiology of the breast masses and associated epidemiologic and clinical features. Findings from histopathologic evaluations are presented. It details the case-control study initiated to determine the possible risk factors for disease. INSET: What is already known on this topic?.

Presents a case study of the medical treatment of a man with chest pain and glomerulonephritis. Details of the patient's symptoms and the results of initial examinations; Claim that the patient's employment as a pest exterminator exposed him to chemicals, rodents, and animal carcasses; Report that the patient returned after initial treatment with a myocardial infarction, fever, and deteriorating renal function; Results of blood tests showing positive results for Bartonella henselae and B. quintana transmitted from feral kittens; Improvement of the patient's condition with doxycycline; Reflections on the treatment decisions and diagnosis in the case.

Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) mediate host defense against viral and intracellular bacterial infections and tumors. However, the magnitude of CTL response and their function needed to confer heterosubtypic immunity against influenza virus infection are unknown. We addressed the role of CD8 + T cells in the absence of any cross-reactive antibody responses to influenza viral proteins using an adenoviral vector expressing a 9mer amino acid sequence recognized by CD8 + T cells. Our results indicate that both CD8 + T cell frequency and function are crucial for heterosubtypic immunity. Low morbidity, lower viral lung titers, low to minimal lung pathology, and better survival upon heterosubtypic virus challenge correlated with the increased frequency of NP-specific CTLs. NP-CD8 + T cells induced by differential infection doses displayed distinct RNA transcriptome profiles and functional properties. CD8 + T cells induced by a high dose of influenza virus secreted significantly higher levels of IFN-γ and exhibited higher levels of cytotoxic function. The mice that received NP-CD8 + T cells from the high-dose virus recipients through adoptive transfer had lower viral titers following viral challenge than those induced by the low dose of virus, suggesting differential cellular programming by antigen dose. Enhanced NP-CD8 + T-cell functions induced by a higher dose of influenza virus strongly correlated with the increased expression of cellular and metabolic genes, indicating a shift to a more glycolytic metabolic phenotype. These findings have implications for developing effective T cell vaccines against infectious diseases and cancer., Importance: Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) are an important component of the adaptive immune system that clears virus-infected cells or tumor cells. Hence, developing next-generation vaccines that induce or recall CTL responses against cancer and infectious diseases is crucial. However, it is not clear if the frequency, function, or both are essential in conferring protection, as in the case of influenza. In this study, we demonstrate that both CTL frequency and function are crucial for providing heterosubtypic immunity to influenza by utilizing an Ad-viral vector expressing a CD8 epitope only to rule out the role of antibodies, single-cell RNA-seq analysis, as well as adoptive transfer experiments. Our findings have implications for developing T cell vaccines against infectious diseases and cancer., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

From October 4 to November 2, 2001, the first 10 confirmed cases of inhalational anthrax caused by intentional release of Bacillus anthracis were identified in the United States. Epidemiologic investigation indicated that the outbreak, in the District of Columbia, Florida, New Jersey, and New York, resulted from intentional delivery of B. anthracis spores through mailed letters or packages. We describe the clinical presentation and course of these cases of bioterrorism-related inhalational anthrax. The median age of patients was 56 years (range 43 to 73 years), 70% were male, and except for one, all were known or believed to have processed, handled, or received letters containing B. anthracis spores. The median incubation period from the time of exposure to onset of symptoms, when known (n=6), was 4 days (range 4 to 6 days). Symptoms at initial presentation included fever or chills (n=10), sweats (n=7), fatigue or malaise (n=10), minimal or nonproductive cough (n=9), dyspnea (n=8), and nausea or vomiting (n=9). The median white blood cell count was 9.8 X 10(3)/mm(3) (range 7.5 to 13.3), often with increased neutrophils and band forms. Nine patients had elevated serum transaminase levels, and six were hypoxic. All 10 patients had abnormal chest X-rays; abnormalities included infiltrates (n=7), pleural effusion (n=8), and mediastinal widening (seven patients). Computed tomography of the chest was performed on eight patients, and mediastinal lymphadenopathy was present in seven. With multidrug antibiotic regimens and supportive care, survival of patients (60%) was markedly higher (<15%) than previously reported.

A 27-year-old woman presented to a hospital with symptoms resembling pyelonephritis; respiratory distress did not develop until nearly a day after admission and she subsequently died. The Unexplained Deaths and Critical Illnesses Project of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention confirmed Sin Nombre virus infection by the results of serological testing and sequencing of the viral genome; staining of Sin Nombre virus antigen in the pulmonary capillaries was relatively weak.

Leptospirosis, a disease acquired by exposure to contaminated water, is characterized by fever accompanied by various symptoms, including abdominal pain. An acute febrile illness occurred in athletes who participated in an Illinois triathlon in which the swimming event took place in a freshwater lake. Of 876 athletes, 120 sought medical care and 22 were hospitalized. Two of the athletes had their gallbladders removed because of abdominal pain and clinical suspicion of acute cholecystitis. We applied an immunohistochemical test for leptospirosis to these gallbladders and demonstrated bacterial antigens staining (granular and filamentous patterns) around blood vessels of the serosa and muscle layer. Rare intact bacteria were seen in 1 case. These results show that leptospirosis can mimic the clinical symptoms of acute cholecystitis. If a cholecystectomy is performed in febrile patients with suspicious environmental or animal exposure, pathologic studies for leptospirosis on formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissues may be of great value.

In 1998, an outbreak of enterovirus 71-associated hand, foot, and mouth disease occurred in Taiwan. Pathologic studies of two fatal cases with similar clinical features revealed two different causative agents, emphasizing the need for postmortem examinations and modern pathologic techniques in an outbreak investigation.

Influenza virus typically causes a febrile respiratory illness, but it can present with a variety of other clinical manifestations. We report a fatal case of myocarditis associated with influenza A infection. A previously healthy 11-year-old girl had malaise and fever for approximately 1 week before a sudden, witnessed fatal collapse at home. Autopsy revealed a pericardial effusion, a mixed lymphocytic and neutrophilic myocarditis, a mild lymphocytic interstitial pneumonia, focal bronchial/bronchiolar mucosal necrosis, and histologic changes consistent with asthma. Infection with influenza A (H3N2) was confirmed by virus isolation from a postmortem nasopharyngeal swab. Attempts to isolate virus from heart and lung tissue were unsuccessful. Immunohistochemical tests directed against influenza A antigens and in situ hybridization for influenza A genetic material demonstrated positive staining in bronchial epithelial cells, whereas heart sections were negative. Sudden death is a rare complication of influenza and may be caused by myocarditis. Forensic pathologists should be aware that postmortem nasopharyngeal swabs for viral culture and immunohistochemical or in situ hybridization procedures on lung tissue might be necessary to achieve a diagnosis. Because neither culturable virus nor influenza viral antigen could be identified in heart tissue, the pathogenesis of influenza myocarditis in this case is unlikely to be the result of direct infection of myocardium by the virus. The risk factors for developing myocarditis during an influenza infection are unknown.

We report a fatal case of enterovirus type 71 (EV 71) infection in an 8-year-old girl during a summer outbreak of hand, foot, and mouth disease in 1998 in Taiwan. The clinical course was rapidly progressive, with manifestations of hand, foot, and mouth disease, aseptic meningitis, encephalomyelitis, and pulmonary edema. The patient died 24 hours after admission. Postmortem study revealed extensive inflammation in the meninges and central nervous system and marked pulmonary edema with focal hemorrhage. Brain stem and spinal cord were most severely involved. The inflammatory infiltrates consisted largely of neutrophils involving primarily the gray matter with perivascular lymphocytic cuffing, and neuronophagia. The lungs and heart showed no evidence of inflammation. EV 71 was isolated from the fresh brain tissues and identified by immunofluorescence method with type-specific EV 71 monoclonal antibody. It was also confirmed by neutralization test and reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction with sequence analysis. The present case was the first example in which EV 71 was demonstrated to be the causative agent of fatal encephalomyelitis during its epidemic in Taiwan.

An outbreak of encephalitis occurred in New York City in late August 1999, the first caused by West Nile virus in North America. Histopathologic and immunopathologic examinations performed on human autopsy materials helped guide subsequent laboratory and epidemiologic investigations that led to identification of the etiologic agent.

During 10-19 March 1999, 11 workers in 1 of 2 Singaporean abattoirs developed Nipah-virus associated encephalitis or pneumonia, resulting in 1 fatality. A case-control study was conducted to determine occupational risk factors for infection. Case patients were abattoir A workers who had anti-Nipah IgM antibodies; control subjects were randomly selected abattoir A workers who tested negative for anti-Nipah IgM. All 13 case patients versus 26 (63%) of 41 control subjects reported contact with live pigs (P=.01). Swine importation from Malaysian states concurrently experiencing a Nipah virus outbreak was banned on 3 March 1999; on 19 March 1999, importation of Malaysian pigs was banned, and abattoirs were closed. No unusual illnesses among pigs processed during February-March were reported. Contact with live pigs appeared to be the most important risk factor for human Nipah virus infection. Direct contact with live, potentially infected pigs should be minimized to prevent transmission of this potentially fatal zoonosis to humans.

Black Creek Canal (BCC) virus is a hantavirus associated with hantavirus pulmonary syndrome in southeastern North America. The virus was isolated from the spleen of a cotton rat (Sigmodon hispidus) trapped in southern Florida. Our previous studies have shown that we could consistently infect male cotton rats with BCC virus in the laboratory. These animals became persistently infected and virus could be detected in salivary glands, urine, and feces. In this report we show: (1) female and male cotton rats are equally susceptible to BCC virus infection, (2) susceptibility to infection was not influenced by age, (3) all inoculated rats transmitted the infection to uninoculated cage mates, and (4) offspring of infected rats became infected despite the presence of high maternal antibodies. The course of BCC virus infection, as determined by antibody response and the ability to isolate or detect virus, appeared to be similar regardless of whether the rats obtained their infection by inoculation or contact with inoculated rats. J. Med. Virol. 60:70-76, 2000. Published 2000 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

At present, little is known about the pathogenesis of acute virus-induced shock and pulmonary failure. A chief impediment in understanding the underlying disease mechanisms and developing treatment strategies has been the lack of a suitable animal model. This study describes a mouse model of virus-induced systemic shock and respiratory distress, and shows that blockade of the lymphotoxin beta receptor pathway reverses the disease.

After the large-scale outbreak of Ebola hemorrhagic fever (EHF) in Bandundu region, Democratic Republic of the Congo, a program was developed to help detect and prevent future outbreaks of EHF in the region. The long-term surveillance and prevention strategy is based on early recognition by physicians, immediate initiation of enhanced barrier-nursing practices, and the use of an immunohistochemical diagnostic test performed on formalin-fixed skin specimens of patients who die of suspected viral hemorrhagic fever. The program was implemented in September 1995 during a 4-day workshop with 28 local physicians representing 17 of 22 health zones in the region. Specimen collection kits were distributed to clinics in participating health zones, and a follow-up evaluation was conducted after 6 months. The use of a formalin-fixed skin specimen for laboratory confirmation of EHF can provide an appropriate method for EHF surveillance when linked with physician training, use of viral hemorrhagic fever isolation precautions, and follow-up investigation.

A patient with undiagnosed Ebola (EBO) hemorrhagic fever (EHF) was transferred from Kikwit to a private clinic in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo. A diagnosis of EHF was suspected on clinical grounds and was confirmed by detection of EBO virus-specific IgM and IgG in serum of the patient. During the course of the disease, although she had no known predisposing factors, the patient developed a periorbital mucormycosis abscess on eyelid tissue that was biopsied during surgical drainage; the abscess was histologically confirmed. Presence of EBO antigen was also detected by specific immunohistochemistry on the biopsied tissue. The patient survived the EBO infection but had severe sequelae associated with the mucormycosis. Standard barrier-nursing precautions were taken upon admission and upgraded when EHF was suspected; there was no secondary transmission of the disease.

Laboratory diagnosis of Ebola hemorrhagic fever (EHF) is currently performed by virus isolation and serology and can be done only in a few high-containment laboratories worldwide. In 1995, during the EHF outbreak in the Democratic Republic of Congo, the possibility of using immunohistochemistry (IHC) testing of formalin-fixed postmortem skin specimens was investigated as an alternative diagnostic method for EHF. Fourteen of 19 cases of suspected EHF met the surveillance definition for EHF and were positive by IHC. IHC, serologic, and virus isolation results were concordant for all EHF and non-EHF cases. IHC and electron microscopic examination showed that endothelial cells, mononuclear phagocytes, and hepatocytes are main targets of infection, and IHC showed an association of cellular damage with viral infection. The finding of abundant viral antigens and particles in the skin of EHF patients suggests an epidemiologic role for contact transmission. IHC testing of formalin-fixed skin specimens is a safe, sensitive, and specific method for laboratory diagnosis of EHF and should be useful for EHF surveillance and prevention.

In October 1995, epidemic "hemorrhagic fever," without jaundice or renal manifestations, was reported in rural Nicaragua following heavy flooding; 2259 residents were evaluated for nonmalarial febrile illnesses (cumulative incidence, 6.1%) and 15 (0.7%) died with pulmonary hemorrhage. A case-control study found that case-patients were more likely than controls to have ever walked in creeks (matched odds ratio [MOR], 15.0; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.7-132.3), have household rodents (MOR, 10.4; 95% CI, 1.1-97.1), or own dogs with titers >/=400 to Leptospira species (MOR, 23.4; 95% CI, 3.6-infinity). Twenty-six of 51 case-patients had serologic or postmortem evidence of acute leptospirosis. Leptospira species were isolated from case-patients and potential animal reservoirs. This leptospirosis epidemic likely resulted from exposure to flood waters contaminated by urine from infected animals, particularly dogs. Leptospirosis should be included in the differential diagnosis for nonmalarial febrile illness, particularly during periods of flooding or when pulmonary hemorrhage occurs.

An outbreak of 25 cases of Andes virus-associated hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS) was recognized in southern Chile from July 1997 through January 1998. In addition to the HPS patients, three persons with mild hantaviral disease and one person with asymptomatic acute infection were identified. Epidemiologic studies suggested person-to-person transmission in two of three family clusters. Ecologic studies showed very high densities of several species of sigmodontine rodents in the area.

Background: Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHF) is a potentially fatal disease that occurs in parts of Africa, Asia, and eastern Europe, and that is caused by a recently emerged bunyavirus. Rapid laboratory diagnosis of CCHF infection is essential and is currently performed by virus isolation and serology. Histopathologic studies have been limited to a small number of cases, and little is known about the cellular tropism of CCHF virus and the pathogenesis of this disease., Design: We conducted a retrospective case analysis of 12 patients with a diagnosis of CCHF infection, confirmed by virus isolation, who were evaluated at the Special Pathogens Unit, National Institute for Virology, South Africa. The clinicopathologic features of CCHF and the diagnostic role of virus isolation as compared with serology, immunohistochemistry, and in situ hybridization were evaluated. Additionally, the distribution of CCHF virus in human tissues was examined., Results: The clinical and histopathologic features of CCHF resemble those of other viral hemorrhagic fevers. Of the 12 patients with virus isolation-confirmed CCHF infection, 5 were positive by serology, 10 by immunohistochemistry, and 5 by in situ hybridization. Immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization analyses showed that the mononuclear phagocytes, endothelial cells, and hepatocytes are main targets of infection. Association of parenchymal necrosis in liver with viral infection suggests that cell damage may be mediated by a direct viral cytopathic effect., Conclusions: The diagnosis of CCHF, suspected by history and clinical features, can be supported histopathologically. However, since the pathologic features resemble those of other viral hemorrhagic fevers, an unequivocal diagnosis can be made only by laboratory tests. The utility of immunohistochemistry as a sensitive and rapid diagnostic modality was established by the high degree of concordance with virus isolation. Infection of mononuclear phagocytes, endothelial cells, and hepatocytes may play a critical role in the pathogenesis of CCHF.

Partitioning of assimilated carbon among sink organs is a critical factor that controls the rate and pattern of plant growth. Time-course measurements of plant and organ growth rates are useful for determining how regulation of carbon partitioning controls plant growth. Measuring growth rates over a 24 h period reveals the current pattern of carbon partitioning that can be used to predict growth rates of specific sinks. Comparison of growth rates among sinks under defined conditions can point out key factors that regulate partitioning of recently assimilated carbon among sinks. Internal control of carbon partitioning by developmental programmes regulates the timing and site of carbon distribution among developing parts, thereby establishing the adaptive traits of a species, cultivar or transgenic construct. Regulation of partitioning in response to environmental factors establishes or restores allometric growth among plant parts and functional balance between the supply and use of carbon. Environmental stress often restricts resource availability while successful acclimation sets in motion processes that restore the supply. A key mechanism contributing to regulation of carbon partitioning is an expression of genes that control activity of the enzymes which initiate sucrose metabolism at specific sites and stages of ontogeny.

Some mothers produce antibodies to the platelet antigens of their fetuses. Exposure to these antigens may occur owing to prior transfusions or through feto-maternal hemorrhage during gestation or delivery. The sensitizing antigen is usually an epitope of one of the glycoproteins (GP) found on the platelet membrane. Specific GPs act as receptors for factors important in hemostasis, such as von Willebrand's Factor (vWF), fibrinogen, fibronectin, and collagen. Molecular biological techniques have identified single base pair substitutions resulting in antigenic specificity owing to one amino acid difference in a particular GP. Human platelet antigen (HPA) 1a is the most antigenic of the GPs. Neonatal alloimmune thrombocytopenia (NAT) results when a mother lacking an antigen present on fetal platelets develops the specific antibody. The incidence of NAT ranges from 1/1,500 to 1/5,000 births. An affected child is born with thrombocytopenia and may suffer consequences varying from petechiae and minor bleeding to central nervous system hemorrhage and death. Approximately 50 percent of the time, NAT is evident with the first pregnancy. Recent advances in obstetrical care permit percutaneous umbilical blood sampling (PUBS) early in pregnancy to determine whether or not the fetus is being adversely affected. Treatment through the use of cordocentesis and infusion of the mother's platelets or other compatible platelets may be performed. Clear identification of antibodies against platelets remains problematic for the routine clinical laboratory. Reagents to identify platelet antigens and antibodies are not readily available. Postnatal treatment of NAT requires infusion of the mother's platelets or platelets which are antigenetically compatible with the mother.