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The article is about the Blandings night tree snake (Toxicodryas blandingii), a tree-dwelling snake found in tropical Africa. Four species are identified in the genus Toxicodryas. The Blandings night tree snake prefers moist forests, is nocturnal, and can grow up to 250 cm long. In terrariums, they are usually calm and docile, but caution is advised as they have venomous teeth. Keeping them requires a spacious terrarium with plenty of climbing branches and plants for visual barriers. The snake can reproduce year-round, with a clutch of 5 to 7 eggs per year. The article also describes the rearing of Blandings night tree snakes, in which the female has attached two eggs to the outside of the hatching box. The first baby hatched after 115 days. The juveniles are raised individually in glass terrariums and fed with live mice. It is noted that the venom of Toxicodryas blandingii contains a neurotoxin that appears to be stronger than that of Boiga species. The text also includes a list of captive-bred snakes of various species in 2022, including venomous species such as Vipera ammodytes meridionalis and Trimeresurus insularis. [Extracted from the article]

The article describes the behavior and breeding of the horseshoe snake (Hemorrhois hippocrepis). The horseshoe snake is widespread in Europe, especially on the Iberian Peninsula, and prefers sunny places with sufficient cover. In the terrarium, they are lively and tend to be aggressive. Keeping them requires a spacious terrarium and patience in handling the animals. The horseshoe snake is an aggressive and food-competitive snake that mainly eats small mammals, birds, eggs, and lizards. Breeding horseshoe snakes in a terrarium is not very difficult as long as healthy and well-fed animals are used. The author reports that he keeps his breeding pairs together in a terrarium all year round and has not observed any problems with aggression between the animals. After hibernation, the animals regularly appear under the heat lamp. The male then shows increased restlessness and the female gains weight, indicating pregnancy. The female then seeks out the wet box to lay her eggs. The young horseshoe snakes are housed individually in plastic boxes and fed with nestling mice. The animals grow quickly and can become sexually mature after three years. Keeping and breeding horseshoe snakes requires experience in handling fast and sometimes aggressive snakes. The species is protected in Germany, and kept and bred animals must be registered with the relevant authority. [Extracted from the article]

Saw scaled vipers of the genus Echis belong to the family Viperidae and subfamily Viperinae. These vipers are widely distributed from East Africa to Southwest and Central Asia. Echis bite is one of the major causes of mortality in the world. Different populations of these medically important snakes have different venom composition, and the relevant antivenom is highly species-specific. Echis has a complex taxonomic history. For many years, only two species were recognized (i.e., Echis coloratus and E. carinatus). Over the past 50 years, the number of species have been raised to 12, of which six species reside in the Middle East. Phylogenetic studies show that the genus Echis fall into four species groups: the E. carinatus, E. coloratus, E. ocellatus and E. pyramidum groups. Until recently, only E. carinatus in Southwest Asia and India and E. coloratus in Arabia were assigned to the Middle East. Several morphological and phylogenetic studies raised the number of Echis species in the Middle East from two to six. These Middle Eastern vipers belong to three different species groups. An Asian, an Arabian and an African group. Distribution and basal split of the genus Echis, likely have been shaped by vicariance and tectonic events, which have separated or connected the land masses. In this study, a brief review on biogeography, taxonomy and distribution of the genus especially in the Middle East is presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new metaheuristic algorithm called green anaconda optimization (GAO) which imitates the natural behavior of green anacondas has been designed. The fundamental inspiration for GAO is the mechanism of recognizing the position of the female species by the male species during the mating season and the hunting strategy of green anacondas. GAO's mathematical modeling is presented based on the simulation of these two strategies of green anacondas in two phases of exploration and exploitation. The effectiveness of the proposed GAO approach in solving optimization problems is evaluated on twenty-nine objective functions from the CEC 2017 test suite and the CEC 2019 test suite. The efficiency of GAO in providing solutions for optimization problems is compared with the performance of twelve well-known metaheuristic algorithms. The simulation results show that the proposed GAO approach has a high capability in exploration, exploitation, and creating a balance between them and performs better compared to competitor algorithms. In addition, the implementation of GAO on twenty-one optimization problems from the CEC 2011 test suite indicates the effective capability of the proposed approach in handling real-world applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article describes the behavior and breeding of the island climbing snake Elaphe climacophora. The species was popular in terrariums for a long time but lost popularity with the emergence of Asian climbing snakes. The island climbing snake is a monotypic species of the genus Elaphe and has specific characteristics such as keeled dorsals and ventral keels. It inhabits the Japanese archipelago and is adaptable to different habitats. The species is diurnal and feeds on birds, mice, and rats. The island climbing snake hibernates for about 2-5 months and lays its eggs in decaying wood or compost heaps. In terrariums, they are relatively peaceful but can suddenly bite. There are different color and pattern variations of the species. The author of the article keeps two females and one male of this endangered species and regularly breeds them. The animals are kept in terrariums and fed thawed rats. During hibernation, they are kept in plastic boxes with moist moss. The mating season begins in March, and the male attempts to fertilize the female. After mating, the male's hemipenis swells and there is a thickening of the female's cloacal region. During this time, the animals should not be disturbed. After about 40 days, the female lays the eggs and defends them against disturbances. The eggs are incubated in a moist and warm wet box, and the hatchlings emerge after approximately 80 days. The island climbing snake is a recommended and beautiful snake that adapts well to terrarium keeping. [Extracted from the article]

Objective: The black-headed ground snake, Rhynchocalamus melanocephalus, has a very narrow distribution area in the Hatay province of Turkey. A limited number of reported populations of this snake species is known. The present study aims to show that the distribution area of the species in Turkey can include different parts of the Hatay province or the surrounding provinces. Materials and Methods: One adult individual (1 ♂) was caught from Gözlüce, Yayladağı-Hatay (GPS Data, N: 36° 00' 54.1" and E: 35° 58' 51.6", 66 m a.s.l.). Sex was identified by the absence/presence of palpable hemipenis pockets. The morphometric features of the individual were measured to the nearest 0.01 mm using a digital caliper. Results: According to the literature, the known records of the species in Turkey were only limited to four localities in the Hatay province. The present study provided a new locality (Gözlüce) of the species in the Yayladağı district of the Hatay province. The number of supralabial plates (SRL) is 6-6 and the number of sublabial plates (SL) is 7-7 in the male specimen of Gözlüce. The number of ventral plates (V) is 182 and the number of longitudinal dorsal scale rows at mid-trunk between ventrals (LDS) is 15. Snout-vent length (SVL) is 231.84 mm and tail length (TL) is 50.73 mm. Pholidolial characteristics and morphometric measurements of the Gözlüce specimen were found similar to the other Turkish specimens given in the literature. Conclusion: The new locality record (Gözlüce-Yayladağı) of Rhynchocalamus melanocephalus revealed that the species can also be found in different parts of the Hatay province or in the surrounding provinces. In order to reveal the distribution area of this snake species in Turkey, it is necessary to conduct further field studies in the surrounding areas where the species can potentially spread. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Scuba-divers on tropical coral-reefs often report unprovoked "attacks" by highly venomous Olive sea snakes (Aipysurus laevis). Snakes swim directly towards divers, sometimes wrapping coils around the diver's limbs and biting. Based on a focal animal observation study of free-ranging Olive sea snakes in the southern Great Barrier Reef, we suggest that these "attacks" are misdirected courtship responses. Approaches to divers were most common during the breeding season (winter) and were by males rather than by female snakes. Males also made repeated approaches, spent more time with the diver, and exhibited behaviours (such as coiling around a limb) also seen during courtship. Agitated rapid approaches by males, easily interpreted as "attacks", often occurred after a courting male lost contact with a female he was pursuing, after interactions between rival males, or when a diver tried to flee from a male. These patterns suggest that "attacks" by sea snakes on humans result from mistaken identity during sexual interactions. Rapid approaches by females occurred when they were being chased by males. Divers that flee from snakes may inadvertently mimic the responses of female snakes to courtship, encouraging males to give chase. To prevent escalation of encounters, divers should keep still and avoid retaliation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses that how the term "snake" was still associated with long queuing for bananas or other rarities for everyday life. It mentions about the narrow travel corridor that only crossed south-east Europe to Ahtopol on the Black Sea. It discusses that breeding behavior of the Scheltopusik Pseudopus.

In this article, author talks about his visit to the Serra da Sao Mamede National Park in Portugal having species-rich herpetofauna including species of snakes. It mentions about the finding the horseshoe snake Hemorrhois hippocrepis and the western hooded snake Macroprotodon brevis ibericus. It discusses about the structures such as water points and stone walls in the park.

Cannibalism is a widespread behavioural trait in nature and snakes are no exception. In smooth snakes (Coronella austriaca) it has only been visibly observed in captive individuals or known from faecal/stomach content analyses. Between 2009 and 2018 one incidence of cannibalism, determined from a faecal sample, and one sighting, were recorded in wild smooth snakes in Wareham Forest plantations, UK. Analysis of faecal samples and visual encounter surveys were used to estimate its frequency. Both records occurred in early autumn and our results suggest that its incidence in wild smooth snakes in southern England is low (0.1-0.3%) and may be the result of low body condition. The circumstances resulting in cannibalism in the smooth snake may also be relevant to other animal species where cannibalism has been reported. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A personal narrative is presented which explores the author's experience of travelling northern Croatia Crcs island, which is located in the Kvarner region in the middle of the eponymous Kvarner sea bay, and observing different snakes found there.

The article offers information the Dutch Arnhem the Herpetological Symposium on Venomous snakes hosted by Herpetofauna with the support of other sponsors, Edupet Education from October 10 to 12, 2019. It reports the event presented an extensive program with a representative cross-section of internationally renowned herpetologists and others indirectly implemented scientist.

We quantified and compared movement and microhabitat use of Eastern Copperheads (Agkistrodon contortrix) in fragmented and unfragmented habitats to determine the effects of fragmentation on movement and habitat use. We used thread bobbins to track movement and calculate straight-line distance (SLD) moved, total distance (TDM) moved, and occupied area for individual snakes. Microhabitat use was characterized by quantifying number of trees, woody vegetation stems, herbaceous vegetation stems, percent grass coverage, and percent canopy coverage at each location a snake was observed, and at an equal number of randomly selected locations. Neither SLD nor TDM differed between fragmented and unfragmented habitats. Overall average SLD moved was 24.1 m and TDM was 39.6 m over 48 h. Although SLD and TDM did not differ between sites, mean occupied area ± standard error was significantly greater at the unfragmented (2,310.9 ± 272.7 m) compared with the fragmented site (1,025.9 ± 314.9 m). Microhabitat features were similar between the fragmented and unfragmented sites, and herbaceous vegetation and high canopy cover were associated with locations where snakes were observed at both sites. It is likely that Eastern Copperheads can persist in a variety of habitats in the southeastern United States because their preferred microhabitat features are widely distributed and common in both fragmented and unfragmented environments, demonstrating that they retain characteristics of a habitat specialist within heterogeneous environments suitable for generalists. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using two examples, we report on the knowledge of snake behavior written down by antique authors already two millennia ago, and we discuss how this information can be interpreted today. The first example concerns the locomotion by sidewinding in desert-dwelling vipers, the second example is represented by the horned viper (in Greek "Kerastes") and its aggressive mimicry by tail luring to attract prey items. It seems possible that already at that time the only recently discovered spider-tailed viper might have played a role in these old writings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The emerging picture of non‐monophyly of scolecophidian snakes is increasingly indicative that fossorial lifestyle, myrmecophagous diet, and miniaturisation are powerful drivers of morphological evolution in squamate skulls. We provide a detailed description of the skull of Xenotyphlops grandidieri, with reference to the skulls of other scolecophidian snakes. The skull, which shows dramatic ventral inflection of the snout complex, is remarkably bizarre, and the mouth opening is more ventrally oriented than in other typhlopoids. The eyes are strongly reduced, and the enlarged and rather flat anterior head shield is covered in numerous sensillae. We put forward several potential explanations for the evolution of these unusual modifications. On the other hand, Xenotyphlops shares numerous synapomorphies with other typhlopoid snakes, including the highly specialized jaw mechanism. We argue that the key differences between the jaw mechanisms of Leptotyphlopidae, Anomalepididae, and Typhlopoidea provide compelling evidence for a strong role of convergence in the evolution of the scolecophidian bauplan, and these clades therefore cannot be interpreted as representative of ancestral anatomy or ecology among snakes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Zamenis scalaris is a generalist active forager Mediterranean snake for which knowledge on spatial ecology is very limited. We report insights into the spatial and temporal patterns, and habitat use of four snakes, obtained through one-year radio-tracking monitoring in a citrus orchard landscape, in Eastern Iberia. Snakes showed a highly secretive behaviour, remaining hidden most of the annual cycle (>96% of records). Annual home ranges and movements were reduced in contrast to the expected energetic requirements of the species. Despite a similar pattern of non-activity during winter and a subsequent increase of movement rate and home range size in spring, each snake adopted a distinct spatial behaviour in summer and autumn. Abandoned citrus orchards and accessory constructions were the most frequent habitats selected by snakes, offering abundant prey and shelter. These resources are likely playing a crucial role in the spatial ecology of Z. scalaris. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Antipredator behaviours and the ability to appropriately assess predation risk contribute to increased fitness. Predator avoidance can be costly; however, so we expect prey to most strongly avoid predators that pose the greatest risk (i.e., prey should show threat sensitivity). For invasive species, effectively assessing the relative risk posed by predators in the new environment may help them establish in new environments. We examined the antipredator behaviour of introduced Asian house geckos, Hemidactylus frenatus (Schlegel), by determining if they avoided shelters scented with the chemical cues of native predatory snakes (spotted pythons, Antaresia maculosa [Peters]; brown tree snakes, Boiga irregularis [Merrem]; common tree snakes, Dendrelaphis punctulata [Grey]; and carpet pythons, Morelia spilota [Lacépède]). We also tested if Asian house geckos collected from vegetation vs. anthropogenic substrates (buildings) responded differently to the chemical cues of predatory snakes. Asian house geckos did not show a generalised antipredator response, that is, they did not respond to the chemical cues of all snakes in the same way. Asian house geckos avoided the chemical cues of carpet pythons more strongly than those of other snake species, providing some support for the threat‐sensitivity hypothesis. There was no difference in the antipredator behaviour of Asian house geckos collected from buildings vs. natural vegetation, suggesting that individuals that have invaded natural habitats have not changed their antipredator behaviour compared to urban individuals. Overall, we found some evidence indicating Asian house geckos are threat‐sensitive to some Australian predacious snakes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Animal movements govern most ecological interactions, from predation to reproduction and survival. How animals move through the environment depends on available sensory information. Some snakes are able to perceive infrared (IR) radiation in addition to visible light. Research on this sensory system has been almost exclusively focused on predation, and researchers have largely found that vision and IR compensate for each other when one or the other is absent. However, IR sensing likely has much broader functions, including navigation in the environment. Many features in the environment of pit vipers are both visually and thermally salient and could be used for orientation. Here, we tested how vision and IR sensing interact in sidewinder rattlesnakes, Crotalus cerastes , in a simple navigation task in the field. Unlike in a predatory context, IR sensing did not compensate for the lack of vision. Snake movement paths were more tortuous, and snakes were less likely to encounter landmarks when eyes where occluded but were unaffected when pit organs were occluded. These findings suggest that the interaction between visual and IR cues may depend on context, and have important implications for our understanding of the evolution of IR sensing. Highlights • Rattlesnakes can see both infrared (IR) and visible light. • We tested whether snakes use thermal vision to find warm bushes at night. • We blocked IR organs and/or eyes and observed snake movement paths in an arena. • Snakes relied heavily on their eyes, and not pit organs, to find their way at night. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present a considerable range extension, approximately 100 km to the north, for the Palestine Viper, Vipera palaestinae in the Mediterranean ecozone of south-eastern Turkey (Alahan village, Antakya district, Hatay province). It is also the first record of the occurrence of Palestine viper from Turkey. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

At their range limits, animal populations are often small and endangered. Moreover, they may use habitats in different ways than core populations, making the determination of habitat requirements an important aspect for effective long‐term conservation of these populations. We assessed habitat requirements of the Aesculapian snake (Zamenis longissimus) in an isolated population at the northern limits of its range, southeastern Poland. We analyzed factors affecting the species' distribution at different spatial scales. We used the area of its current distribution (22,754 ha) in Poland to analyze macrohabitat patterns at the landscape scale and used the area currently occupied by the largest local population (2,192 ha) to analyze macro‐ and microhabitat use. Additionally, at 25 sites delimited around individual and clusters of snake records (140.7 ha), we characterized the detailed forest composition. Landscape‐scale analyses confirmed the Aesculapian snake's preference for deciduous forest. At the medium spatial scale, anthropogenic macro‐ and microhabitat features had a positive effect on the presence and abundance of the species. Its distribution was positively associated with warm river valleys, and we recorded the highest numbers of snakes in areas with average annual temperatures between 5.95°C and 6.30°C. At a fine scale, the relative abundance of the Aesculapian snake was negatively associated with dense deciduous forest cover but positively associated with open broad‐leaf woodlands. To conserve northern populations of the Aesculapian snake, clearings should be maintained in forest stands, tree planting and natural succession should be reduced in open areas, and alder forests (Alnetum incanae) and small beech forest (Dentario glandulosae‐Fagetum) stands should be protected. Active conservation should include the creation of artificial reproduction sites and permanent rocky shelters to assist dispersal and connectivity among subpopulations. © 2018 The Wildlife Society. Anthropogenic land cover types are the major limiting factor in the northern range of the Aesculapian snake. Effective conservation of the species should include the creation of artificial reproduction and shelter sites and the maintenance of clearings in forests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many snakes are uniquely adapted to ingest large prey at infrequent intervals. Digestion of large prey is metabolically and aerobically costly, and large prey boluses can impair snake locomotion, increasing vulnerability to predation. Cessation of foraging and use of refugia with microclimates facilitating digestion are expected to be strategies employed by free‐ranging snakes to cope with the demands of digestion while minimizing risk of predation. However, empirical observations of such submergent behavior from field experiments are limited. The brown treesnake (Serpentes: Colubridae: Boiga irregularis) is a nocturnal, arboreal, colubrid snake that was accidentally introduced to the island of Guam, with ecologically and economically costly consequences. Because tools for brown treesnake damage prevention generally rely on snakes being visible or responding to lures or baits while foraging, cessation of foraging activities after feeding would complicate management. We sought to characterize differences in brown treesnake activity, movement, habitat use, and detectability following feeding of large meals (rodents 33% of the snake's unfed body mass) via radio telemetry, trapping, and visual surveys. Compared to unfed snakes, snakes in the feeding treatment group showed drastic decreases in hourly and nightly activity rates, differences in refuge height and microhabitat type, and a marked decrease in detectability by trapping and visual surveys. Depression of activity lasted approximately 5–7 days, a period that corresponds to previous studies of brown treesnake digestion and cycles of detectability. Our results indicate that management strategies for invasive brown treesnakes need to account for cycles of unavailability and underscore the importance of preventing spread of brown treesnakes to new environments where large prey are abundant and periods of cryptic behavior are likely to be frequent. Characterization of postfeeding behavior changes provides a richer understanding of snake ecology and foraging models for species that consume large prey. Many snakes exhibit remarkable physiological adaptations for ingestion of large prey; despite theoretical and laboratory‐based investigations of changes in snake behavior following ingestion of large meals, field experiments documenting such behaviors are limited. We document reduction in movement and changes in refuge site selection by invasive brown treesnakes on the island of Guam following experimental feeding of rodent mass equal to one third of the snake's body mass. These changes in postfeeding movement likely reflect evolution of behaviors favoring predator avoidance and meeting metabolic demands of digestion, and can reduce the effectiveness of invasive snake control tools based on snake foraging behavior for several days after ingesting a large meal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

OBJECTIVE To determine antinociceptive efficacy, behavioral patterns, and respiratory effects associated with dexmedetomidine administration in ball pythons (Py- thon regius). ANIMALS 12 ball pythons. PROCEDURES Antinociception was assessed by applying an infrared heat stimulus to the cranioventral surface of snakes during 2 experiments. Thermal withdrawal latency was measured at 0, 2, and 24 hours after SC injections of dexme- detomidine (0.1 or 0.2 mg/kg) or saline (0.9% NaCI) solution and at 0 to 60 minutes after injection of dexmedetomidine (0.1 mg/kg) or saline solution. Behaviors were recorded at 0, 2, and 24 hours after administration of dex- medetomidine (0.1 mg/kg) or saline solution. Tongue flicking, head flinch to the approach of an observer's hand, movement, and righting reflex were scored. Respiratory frequency was measured by use of plethysmography to detect breathing-related movements after injection of dexmedetomidine (0.1 mg/kg) or saline solution. RESULTS Mean baseline withdrawal latency was 5 to 7 seconds; saline solution did not alter withdrawal latency. Dexmedetomidine increased withdrawal latency by 18 seconds (0.2 mg/kg) and 13 seconds (0.1 mg/kg) above baseline values at 2 hours. Increased withdrawal latency was detected within 15 minutes after dexmedetomidine administration. At 2 hours after injection, there were few differences in behavioral scores. Dexmedetomidine injection de- pressed respiratory frequency by 55% to 70%, compared with results for saline solution, but snakes continued to breathe without prolonged apnea. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Dexmedetomidine increased noxious thermal withdrawal latency without causing excessive sedation. Therefore, dexmedetomidine may be a use- ful analgesic drug in ball pythons and other snake species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Snakes are controversial animals, therefore a better understanding of public attitudes is critical for their effective protection and future survival. The attitudes towards snakes of 951 adults in Greece were investigated in personal interviews. Factor analysis revealed a dual mode of attitudes: respondents were highly intolerant of snakes, while they supported their conservation at the same time. Respondents had high knowledge about the behavior of snakes, medium knowledge of their biology and were strongly affected by folklore. Structural models revealed that tolerance was a positive mediator of conservation. Knowledge about snake behavior and biology was positively correlated with attitudes towards snakes. Moralistic and naturalistic attitudes were positively, and dominionistic attitudes negatively, correlated with snake tolerance and conservation attitudes. Younger, more educated people were more snake-tolerant than older, less educated people. Females were less snake-tolerant and more conservation-oriented than males. These findings increased the understanding of human attitudes towards snakes and helped identify factors critical for their conservation. As such they could be used to design environmental education programs incorporating both information-based and experiential activities that will improve attitudes, behaviors and, eventually, the chances for the survival of these uncharismatic animals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current proposal about the variation of standard metabolic rates (SMR) in snakes predicts that SMR is influenced by the feeding frequency (frequent or infrequent feeders). However, feeding frequency in snakes is poorly studied and hard to quantify under natural conditions. Alternatively, foraging strategy was studied for a large number of species and is usually related to the feeding frequency. In this work, we performed a meta-analysis on the SMR of compiled data from 74 species of snakes obtained from the literature and five more different species of lanceheads (genus Bothrops), after categorization according to the foraging mode (ambush or active foraging) and regarding their phylogenetic history. We tested the hypothesis that foraging mode (FM) is a determinant factor on the interspecific variation of SMR despite the phylogenetic relationship among species. We demonstrated that FM predicted SMR, but there is also a partial phylogenetic structuration of SMR in snakes. We also detected that evolution rates of SMR in active foragers seem to be higher than ambush-hunting snakes. We suggested that foraging mode has a major effect over the evolution of SMR in snakes, which could represent an ecophysiological co-adaptation, since ambush hunters (with low feeding rates) present a lower maintenance energetic cost (SMR) when compared to active foragers. The higher SMR evolution rates for active foraging snakes could be related to a higher heterogeny in the degree of activity during hunting by active foragers when compared to ambush-hunting snakes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Backgrounds: Envenomation is common in Asia including Iran that induces morbidity and mortality. This study investigated the epidemiological characteristics of cases with snake, spider and scorpion bites. Methods: In this cross-sectional design, epidemiologic data of admitted cases to the Toxicology Department of Imam Reza Hospital of Mashhad, Iran were analyzed across a 7-yr period, from 2004 to 2011. SPSS was used for data analysis. Results: This study reports 686 admissions due to animal envenomation with an incidence rate of 2.9 per 100000. Mean (SD, min-max) age of admitted patients was 30 (19, 1-90) yr, and 471 (69%) were male. Snakebite (n, percentage, annual incidence) (299, 44%, 1.3 per 100000) and spider bite (188, 27%, 0.8 per 100000) and scorpion sting (126, 18.4%, 0.5 per 100000) were most frequent cases. Overall, case fatality rate was 0.09 per 100000 which were due to scorpion and unknown bite. No cases of snakebites died in this period. The highest age-specific incidence rate was 4.6 per 100000 and related to 10-20 yr of age. Conclusion: Animal envenomation is frequent in this area and a matter of health concern. While deaths related to snake bite are no longer reported-presumably due to using effective anti-venom - managing unknown and scorpion bites need to be addressed. Envenomation was not overtly an agespecific event in this province. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Secondarily marine tetrapods have evolved adaptations to maintain their osmotic balance in a hyperosmotic environment. During the transition to a marine habitat, the evolution of a euryhaline physiology likely encompassed successive changes in behavior and physiology that released organisms from regular access to fresh water. Deciphering these key steps is a complicated task. In this study, we investigated a species of freshwater natricine snake in which some populations are known to use marine environments. We experimentally subjected 30 adult Dice snakes ( Natrix tessellata ) from a population inhabiting the Black Sea coast to three salinities corresponding to freshwater (~ 0.1‰), brackish water (~ 15.0‰), and full-strength seawater (~ 34.0‰) in order to investigate their physiological (variation of body mass, osmolality) and behavioral (activity, drinking behavior) responses to salinity. Our results show that coastal Dice snakes from the study population are relatively tolerant to salinity close to that recorded in the Black Sea, but that prolonged exposure to full-strength seawater increases osmolality, stimulates thirst, decreases the activity of snakes and may ultimately jeopardize survival. Collectively with previously published data, our results strongly suggest specific physiological adaptations to withstand hyperosmolality rather than to reduce intake of salt, in coastal populations or species of semi-aquatic snakes. Future comparative investigations of Dice snakes from populations restricted to freshwater environment might reveal the functional traits and the behavioral and physiological responses of coastal N . tessellata to life in water with elevated salinity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biologists have traditionally been reluctant to study arboreal snakes due to low rates of capture. Overlooking such taxa can mislead interpretations of population trends for data-deficient species. We used regularly spaced transect searches and standard capture-mark-recapture techniques to describe population structure, growth rates, survival and capture probability in a population of the pale-headed snake (Hoplocephalus bitorquatus) in southern Queensland. We obtained data from 194 captures of 113 individual snakes between 2009 and 2015. Using the Cormack-Jolly-Seber method, we estimated apparent annual survival in subadult snakes at 0.23±0.01 (s.e.) and 0.81±0.08 for adults. Capture probability was estimated at 0.16±0.14 per session in subadult snakes and 0.33±0.06 for adults. Within the red gum forests of our study site, we estimate pale-headed snake density at ~13±7ha-1. Using von Bertalanffy growth modelling, we predict that snakes reach sexual maturity after about four years and may live for up to 20. Our results suggest that the species is a 'k' strategist, characterised by slow maturation and low fecundity. These traits suggest that populations will recover slowly following decline, exacerbating the risk of local extinction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We report on a second population of the recently described Vipera anatolica senliki from Mühür Dağ, Geyik Mountains in eastern Antalya Province, Turkey. The new population is located 10 km farther southeast on Barçın Dağ, yet the two populations are separated by interjacent mountains. We briefly compare both populations morphologically, as well as include aspects of ecology and conservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Birds often mob potential predators, which alerts other prey individuals of the danger and drives the predator away. Participation in, or increased intensity of mobbing is often associated with breeding activity suggesting an important function in the defense of nests and young. Less is known about bird mobbing of snakes, however, although these are important predators of birds, particularly at nests in tropical forests. Here, we report observations of mobbing behavior, some escalating into fatal attacks, of snakes by individuals of a tropical bird species, the Fasciated Antshrike ( Cymbilaimus lineatus). In addition, we conducted snake-model presentations when Fasciated Antshrike pairs had active nests, and when not nesting, to examine the extent that pairs maintain a mobbing response outside of the nesting period. Pairs approached the snake model on average within 59 s (range 15-120 s) and 0.9 m (0.1-5 m) with no difference with nesting status. Our observations of mobbing behavior and fatal attacks suggest that passerines can also present a threat to potential snake predators and that mobbing is likely important in influencing predation rate. Mobbing when not nesting may be important in predator deterrence in bird species with year-round residency, and could influence territory quality and reproductive success. Forest birds that hunt large insects or other potentially dangerous prey may have morphological and cognitive specializations that help them to effectively mount a successful attack against predatory snakes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An important question related to the survival of dehydrating animals is whether feeding provides a net gain of water - contributing postprandial free water and metabolic water - or, alternatively, whether digestion and assimilation of ingested food incur a net loss of water because of requirements for digestion and the excretion of resulting metabolic wastes. Here, I address the question whether voluntary drinking increases or decreases following the ingestion of food. Increased postprandial drinking implies that food consumption increases rather than decreases the requirement for free water, whereas decreased postprandial drinking suggests there is a net profit of water from food. Snakes are ideally suited for such inquiry because they feed intermittently, and the temporal separation of meals allows relatively clear examination of the associated patterns of pre- and postprandial drinking. Voluntary drinking associated with meal consumption was quantified during consecutive feeding trials in four species representing two families of snakes. Postprandial relative to preprandial drinking increased in all four species, indicating that eating increases the physiological requirement for water. These data add to a growing literature pointing to some generality that eating can have negative rather than positive consequences for fluid homeostasis in some dehydrating animals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An animal’s life history, physiology, and behaviour can be shaped by selection in a manner that favours strong associations among these aspects of an integrated phenotype. Recent work combining animal personality and life-history theory proposes that animals with faster life-history strategies (i.e., fast growth, high annual reproductive rate, short lifespan) should exhibit higher general activity levels relative to those with slower life-history strategies, but empirical tests of within-species variation in these traits are lacking. In garter snakes from ecotypes which are known to differ in ecology, life-history strategy, and physiology, we tested for differences in tongue-flick rate as a measure of information gathering and movement patterns as a measure of general activity. Tongue flicks and movement were strongly positively correlated and both behaviours were repeatable across trials. Snakes from the fast-living ecotype were more active and showed evidence of habituation. The slow-living ecotype maintained low levels of activity throughout the trials. We propose that environmental factors, such as high predation, experienced by the fast-living ecotype select for both increased information-gathering and activity levels to facilitate efficient responses to repeated challenges. Thus, we offer evidence that behaviour is an important component of co-evolved suites of traits forming a general pace-of-life continuum in this system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigated the characteristics of a small smooth snake population in central Germany after it experienced a rapid loss of habitat between 1955 and 1990. We hypothesised that local smooth snakes might demonstrate abnormalities in population characteristics such as age of maturity, growth rates, sex-ratio, reproduction, movement behaviour or in population density, indicating degradation. To address this issue, we analysed data of a 17-year visual encounter survey (VES) accompanied by mark-recapture methods and complemented by a short-term radiotelemetry study of nine adult snakes. We then compared the population and behavioural characteristics with those from other European smooth snake populations. Our results indicated a healthy population despite the severe habitat loss. The population was characterised by a balanced sex-ratio and large litter sizes. Gender specific differences in migration behaviour and home ranges were typical for this species. However, the home ranges were unusually small which agrees with the noticeably high population density and the short time periods tracked. Although adult migration to adjacent habitats was never detected, some migration to and from other suburban sites likely occurred, evidenced annually by the high rate of first-captures of previously unregistered adults. Our results suggested that even a very small area could be sufficient for the survival and maintenance of a viable population of smooth snakes if the habitat provides a high abundance of essential microhabitats. Comparing our population variables with those from other studies help (1) to reduce potential threats at a regional level and (2) to define specific conservation actions for the population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Examination of the gastrointestinal contents of museum specimens is routinely used as a method for assessing diet in a wide variety of reptiles. However, this method might be biased toward detecting prey items that are less digestible and larger in size because these food items are digested more slowly. In this study, we used fixed videography on free-ranging Puff Adders ( Bitis arietans) as a comparative, data-collecting technique to assess the accuracy of the traditional method of examination of the gastrointestinal tracts of museum specimens as a measure of diet. The data-collecting method affected our measures of diet: Analyses relying on museum specimens showed a much narrower diet breadth compared to fixed videography, and measures of mean relative prey mass were more than three times larger using museum specimens compared to fixed videography. Our findings demonstrate that data collected through fixed videography and examination of museum specimens provide different perspectives of a snake's diet because of the biases associated with museum specimens. As a result, the use of museum specimens to assess diet should be interpreted cautiously and with knowledge of these biases, as the technique might only reveal certain aspects of a species trophic ecology. In particular, we suggest that the routine use of methods such as examination of museum specimens and palpation of live snakes might have led to a biased interpretation of the feeding ecology of ambush-foraging snakes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rattlesnakes use prey chemical cues for ambush site selection and for relocating envenomated (E) prey following a predatory strike. The ability to discriminate between E and non-envenomated (NE) prey cues has been widely studied in rattlesnake species that produce type I venoms, which show high levels of snake venom metalloproteinase (SVMP) activity and low lethal toxicity [lethal dose which kills 50% of test animals (LD) >1.0 µg/g]. However, E vs. NE prey discrimination studies have not been conducted on rattlesnake species that produce a type II venom that consists of low SVMP activity and high lethal toxicity (LD <1.0 µg/g). In the current study, long-term captive Crotalus oreganus concolor, which produce a type II venom, were tested for their ability to discriminate between chemical cues of natural ( Sceloporus undulatus and Peromyscus maniculatus) and non-natural ( Hemidactylus frenatus and Mus musculus) prey cues, as well as for their ability to discriminate between E and NE mouse carcasses, when prey envenomation occurred by a conspecific. Snakes showed significant levels of tongue flicking towards the chemical extracts of P. maniculatus and M. musculus, suggesting that C. oreganus concolor exhibit both innate and experience-based plasticity in response to prey chemical cues. In addition, C. oreganus concolor were able to discriminate between E and NE prey sources, when envenomation occurred by a conspecific, indicating that a type II venomous species can also discriminate between E and NE chemical cues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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In the present paper color and pattern variations of Hierophis gemonensis, a snake with little morphological variation, are described. For the first time, partially melanistic individuals were observed and described for this species. The identity of one of these snakes was corroborated by genetic means. Taxonomical circumstances and environmental causes of this color and pattern variation are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Across the diversity of vertebrates, bite force has been studied and suggested to have important ecological and evolutionary consequences. However, there is a notable lineage of vertebrates that use this performance trait yet are missing from the bite-force literature: the snakes. Snakes often rely on biting during prey subjugation and handling. Many snakes bite and hold prey while a constriction coil is formed or while venom is being delivered, or both. Others use biting exclusively without employing any additional prey-handling behaviors. In addition to biting, constriction is an important predation mechanism. Here, I quantify bite force and constriction pressure in kingsnakes ( Lampropeltis getula). Furthermore, I explore the proximate determinants of bite force as well as the relationship between biting and constriction performance. Bite force increased linearly with all head and body measures. Of these, head height was the best predictor of bite force. Bite force in kingsnakes was within the range of values reported for lizards, but their relative performance was lower for their head size compared to lizards. Peak constriction pressure also increased with all body measures. Biting and constricting use 2 different parts of the musculoskeletal system and are positively and significantly correlated with one another. Future work targeting a greater diversity of snakes that rely more heavily on biting may reveal a greater range of bite performance in this diverse and successful vertebrate group. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article reports on the oviposition, the act of laying eggs, by Thelotornis kirtlandii snake in an ant nest. Topics mentioned include the importance of thermoregulation in snake to maintain high and balanced body temperatures throughout their active period, the multiple reproduction seasons for snakes, and the incubation of snake eggs.