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This study aims to design the best off-grid integrated renewable energy (IRE) system for the electrification of twelve villages located in the Munsyari Block of district Pithoragarh, Uttarakhand state (India). Three off-grid IRE systems consisting of a solar photovoltaic (SPV) system/micro-hydro power (MHP)/biogas generator (BGG) and various battery energy storage (BES) devices like Lead-Acid (LA), Lithium-Ion (Li-Ion), and Sodium-Sulfur (NAS) have been proposed and optimized on the MATLAB to meet 8760-hour load demand. According to the simulation results, the total life cycle cost (LCC) and cost of energy (COE) of the SPV/MHP/BGG/NAS (base case) are INR 68.77 million and 16.77 INR/kWh, respectively. It offers approximately 20% and 100% lower LCCs than LA and Li-Ion battery-based IRE systems, respectively. The proposed system includes 676 SPV panels (NSPV), 648 BES devices (NBES), micro-hydro power of 25 kW capacity, biogas generator of 40 kW capacity, and power converter of 114 kW. Furthermore, the performance of the IRE system was evaluated by taking into account the load-resource associated uncertainties, and it was discovered that the LCC, COE, NSPV, NBES, and excess energy are increased by approximately 66%, 75%, 17%, 318%, and 373%, respectively, when compared to the base case. Finally, the sensitivity analysis has been conducted with the variable input parameters, such as inflation rate, discount rate, solar radiation, and dung collection efficiency. It is found that the variation in inflation rate significantly reduces the system LCC by 21.81 million INR. Whereas, variation in discount rate significantly increases the system COE by 5.72 INR/kWh. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nearly 1 billion people still lack electricity access. Developing countries are investing billions of dollars in "last-mile" electrification, although evidence on its economic impacts is mixed. We estimate the development effects of rural electrification in the context of India's national electrification program, RGGVY (Rajiv Gandhi Grameen Vidyutikaran Yojana), which reached over 400,000 villages. Using regression-discontinuity and difference-in-differences designs, we estimate that RGGVY meaningfully expanded electricity access. However, the program generated limited economic impacts after 3–5 years. Scaling our intent-to-treat estimates using instrumental variables, we find that "full electrification" reduces welfare in small villages but has a 33% internal rate of return in large villages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: PV/diesel microgrids are getting more popular in rural areas of sub-Saharan Africa, where the national grid is often unavailable. Most of the time, for economic purposes, these hybrid PV/diesel power plants in rural areas do not include any storage system. This is the case in the Bilgo village in Burkina Faso, where a PV/diesel microgrid without any battery storage system has been set up. This power plant is composed of three diesel generators operating in parallel (two of 16 kW and one of 24 kW), coupled with a photovoltaic field of 30 kWp. It was observed that for such power plants, the grid management is not always efficient due to constantly fluctuating solar output and loads. This inconsistency in energy output raises the question if integrating battery energy storage systems could improve the grid's performance. While many studies in the literature focus on hybrid energy systems, only a few of them have tackled the optimization of existing and operational systems. Methods: This study investigated three scenarios based on the existing microgrid's characteristics: conventional standalone diesel generators, PV/diesel without battery storage and PV/diesel with a battery storage system which are the main technologies used for off-grid rural electrification in Burkina Faso. The levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) was used to assess the economic performance of each scenario, and the calculations were made using the HOMER software. Results: It was found that the best among the scenarios considered is the PV/diesel/battery configuration which has the lowest LCOE of US$ 0.524/kWh. The battery storage system for the optimal configuration has a capacity of 182 kWh with about 8 h of autonomy. Conclusions: It can be inferred from this study that a storage unit is necessary for an optimal management of a PV/diesel microgrid. Indeed, the storage unit significantly reduces the operating and maintenance costs associated with running diesel generators, as well as the excess electricity. The storage system also allows for a greater reduction in CO2 emissions compared to systems without storage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rural electrification is a crucial step for the socio-economic development of isolated communities. Decentralized power generation, typically more favorable for renewable energies, requires an accurate analysis of the different electrification options, whose convenience depends on multiple factors. The application of Geographical Information Systems (GISs) to energy planning allows the assessment at a local level, considering the variability and demand distribution of spatial resources. This work introduces IntiGIS-local, a GIS-based model implemented in the ArcGIS environment, designed to calculate the levelized energy cost (LEC) for different electrification options. The model allows the comparison between three power generation alternatives: solar system, diesel generator set and solar–diesel hybrid system. Configurations are adjustable through input variables, with a special focus on the confrontation between individual systems and microgrids. The objective is to provide an adequate groundwork for developing a decision-making tool to assess diverse rural electrification options in future studies. The model IntiGIS-local is tested in the case study of the Guasasa community (Cuba). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Objective] It reveals the spatial distribution of carbon flow and the key path of carbon element transfer in Bin County, grasps the existing problems of Bin County's Production-Living-Ecological (PLE) space ecological environment, and then provides theoretical support for the future low-carbon rural planning and land-use resilience planning and management decisions in Bin County area. [Methods] Bin County was taken as an example. The overall metabolic network model of rural carbon elements' was constructed to identify and master the evolution law of the PLE spatial pattern, to quantitatively measure the characteristics of carbon sources, carbon sinks and the spatial-temporal dynamic changes of carbon elements in Bin County. [Results] (1) The predominant use of land continued to be for cultivation, while other types of land use displayed varying degrees of change, impacting the ecological environment. (2) Bin County's expanding residential areas had resulted in an initial surge, followed by a decrease in overall carbon emissions. In 2010, carbon emissions of Bin County spiked to 3.07 times of their previous levels, marking a crescendo. In 2020. the emissions of Bin County decreased by 2.25 million tons. The increase in the carbon sink was associated with the alteration in the area of the ecological space. (3) The spatial distribution of high carbon sink and source density mainly concentrated in the central and western parts of Bin County. The cultivated land production space and urban living space were the key components of carbon transfer in the two periods, respectively, and the mutual carbon transfer between the two land uses was also the dominant transfer path in different periods. [Conclusion] The spatial distribution of carbon flow and key paths of carbon element transfer in Bin County mainly concentrate in the areas with rapid urbanization process, where the ecological environment has serious problems. In the future, land use elasticity planning can promote regional sustainable development by formulating sustainable rural low-carbon emission reduction strategy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Literature shows that only 56% of Kenyan households had access to electricity, with rural areas having the lowest access rate at percent. The high cost of extending the power grid to remote areas and power losses on distribution are significant challenges facing rural electrification. In addressing power accessibility problems, especially in rural areas, there is a need for tapping hydropower generation through the invention and implementation of in‐duct turbines to maximize the utilization of already existing pressurized water ducts that supply water in various parts of Kenya for hydropower generation. Makueni County is endowed with gravity‐fed water ducts with high potential for hydropower which can innovatively be produced by application of in‐duct turbines. This paper focuses on the assessment of energy needs and applications in rural areas. The research design was exploratory and experimental in nature. It was exploratory because, through an assessment, it sought to explore and identify the potential areas within the water supply lines for the production of hydropower to supply hydropower in Makueni County. It was experimental because the researcher developed (designed and fabricated) a hydro turbine for use in the production of hydropower from gravity water ducts of a diameter raging 100 mm. The research revealed that 62% (98) used solar power for lighting their homes, while 17% (28), 12% (20), and 8% (12) used lanterns, electricity, and kerosene lamps, respectively. Among the fuels assessed was firewood which was identified as the most used fuel at 89% (140). This was followed at a distance far by paraffin at 6% (9) of respondents. The households at 100% (158) identified electricity as a potential source of lighting for their household. The study recommends harnessing hydropower to enhance reach to 100% of the rural communities. The energy availability will provide opportunities for communities and institutions in rural areas to open their minds to business development and engage in income‐generating activities like the rearing of poultry and the development of light industries like the gridding of maize and other cereals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mini‐grid electrification constitutes an increasingly important solution to universal access to energy, notably in off‐grid rural Africa. Rural electrification has important implications for mitigating the immigration trends of the rural population toward urban regions. In this study, we adopted a mediation model to investigate the direct and indirect effects of mini‐grid electrification on the urbanization process, and multivariate regression is employed as a robustness check. More specifically, with the support of a mini‐grid project in Ghana, we conducted a survey to assess the perception of the local population about the impact of rural electrification on healthcare, education, employment, and security and further examined the impact of these development outcomes on their willingness to immigrate to cities. The study's findings suggested that the development of rural electrification helped improve education, healthcare, security, and employment, significantly affecting urbanization. Our study concluded that increased electricity access through mini‐grids tends to reduce the urbanization trends in rural Ghana. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract A novel control mechanism is presented for rural microgrids, standing out in the current literature with its advanced approach to load prioritisation and energy allocation. The system's main goal is to maximise energy supply to essential loads while effectively managing available resources. Distinct from traditional methods, this mechanism dynamically classifies loads according to user‐defined priorities, adjustable based on the control system's computational power and complexity. A critical feature is the utilisation of the Particle Swarm Optimisation (PSO) algorithm to optimise demand side management (DSM). This innovative approach leverages day‐ahead load and generation forecasts to ensure optimal energy distribution across load levels, maintaining continuous power supply to high‐priority loads and reducing blackout risks due to generation and load fluctuations. Analyses under stochastic scenarios demonstrate the robustness of the control action, with percentile‐based day‐ahead forecasting allowing for adaptation to significant variations in renewable energy generation patterns. The implementation results are significant, maintaining 100% supply continuity to essential loads throughout the day, even with generation fluctuations up to ‐20%. This marks a considerable improvement in load satisfaction, increasing it from 83% to 96%. A significant advancement in microgrid control is contributed, providing an adaptive, user‐centric approach that enhances load management and energy distribution, and facilitates more resilient and efficient microgrid systems in the face of highly variable renewable energy sources (RESs).

Access to sustainable, clean, affordable, and reliable electricity is crucial for social and economic development, yet Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) struggles significantly in this context. In CHAD, only 11.3% of the population is able to access electricity, making it one of the least electrified countries in SSA with the lowest clean energy access. In rural areas, electricity access falls to just 1.3%. This research applies and executes a Multi-Objective Particle Swarm Optimization (MOPSO) algorithm using MATLAB R2023b to assess the techno-economic, environmental, and social impacts of a hybrid system based on optimal PV/Wind/Battery/Fuel Cell (FC)/Diesel generator (DG) sizing for rural electrification in CHAD. The proposed system's self-sufficiency index (SSSI) and the Annualized System Cost (ASC) were chosen as objective functions to guarantee the economic feasibility of the system, higher self-sufficiency, and lower dependence on external energy sources (DG). The simulation results show that the optimal size of the proposed system supplies the load demand by 100% of the renewable energy sources (RES) fraction, and the optimal capacities of the main components to supply the load demand are: Solar Power (493 KW), Wind Turbine (166 KW), Battery Energy Charge/Discharge (229180 kWh /221300 kWh), Hydrogen tank storage energy (83 874 kWh), Electrolyzer size (202 KW), Fuel cell size (144 KW). The evelized cost of electricity (LCOE) of 0.2982 $/kWh, which is 51.12% lower than the national unit production costs of electricity in rural areas of CHAD (0.61 $/kWh). This LCOE is also the lowest compared to previous works done using HOMER Pro for the country of CHAD. The results also give a levelized cost of hydrogen (LCOH) of 3.8563 US $/kg, lower than for all studies found in the literature for the country of Chad. The proposed system's yearly avoided greenhouse gas (GHG) emission is 374 640 kg. The proposed system will create five (5) new jobs (JCO) and improve the Human Development Index (HDI) of the study area by 17.66% (the obtained HDI is 0.4683, and the CHAD HDI is 0.398) with an SSSI of 51.14%. This study provides a better practical energy design tool in decision-making for designers, companies, investors, policymakers, and the Chadian government when implementing this type of system in particular rural locations.

Abstract This paper explores scenarios for powering rural areas in Gaita Selassie with renewable energy plants, aiming to reduce system costs by optimizing component numbers to meet energy demands. Various scenarios, such as combining solar photovoltaic (PV) with pumped hydro-energy storage (PHES), utilizing wind energy with PHES, and integrating a hybrid system of PV, wind, and PHES, have been evaluated based on diverse criteria, encompassing financial aspects and reliability. To achieve the results, meta-heuristics such as the Multiobjective Gray wolf optimization algorithm (MOGWO) and Multiobjective Grasshopper optimization algorithm (MOGOA) were applied using MATLAB software. Moreover, optimal component sizing has been investigated utilizing real-time assessment data and meteorological data from Gaita Sillasie, Ethiopia. Metaheuristic optimization techniques were employed to pinpoint the most favorable loss of power supply probability (LPSP) with the least cost of energy (COE) and total life cycle cost (TLCC) for the hybrid system, all while meeting operational requirements in various scenarios. The Multi-Objective Grey Wolf Optimization (MOGWO) technique outperformed the Multi-Objective Grasshopper Optimization Algorithm (MOGOA) in optimizing the problem, as suggested by the results. Furthermore, based on MOGWO findings, the hybrid solar PV-Wind-PHES system demonstrated the lowest COE (0.126€/kWh) and TLCC (€6,897,300), along with optimal satisfaction of the village's energy demand and LPSP value. In the PV-Wind-PHSS scenario, the TLCC and COE are 38%, 18%, 2%, and 1.5% lower than those for the Wind-PHS and PV-PHSS scenarios at LPSP 0%, according to MOGWO results. Overall, this research contributes valuable insights into the design and implementation of sustainable energy solutions for remote communities, paving the way for enhanced energy access and environmental sustainability.

Abstract In the context of modern agricultural production mode and domestic energy consumption, profound changes have taken place in agricultural and rural energy consumption, resulting in the demand for new technology development in various sectors of source, network, and load in rural energy systems. Agricultural energy internet (AEI) has promoted the development of renewable energy and agricultural electrification in villages. The construction of the AEI is crucial for achieving the synergistic development of agriculture, energy, and environment. The basic theory and key technologies of AEI are investigated and the prospects for the direction of agricultural energy technology are conducted. The research investigation shows that the AEI framework proposed by China Agricultural University is of great significance for realizing agricultural electrification and reducing agricultural carbon emissions. The article describes in detail the key data and characteristics of agricultural electrification loads. Digital twin technology and virtual power plant technology will be crucial to the construction of advanced AEI.

This paper compares the design feasibility and economic advantage of photovoltaic (PV)-diesel generator (DG)-battery, PV-wind-battery, and PV-biogas (BG)-battery hybrid systems. The objective of this study is to investigate the performance of the three hybrid renewable energy systems (HRES) for sustainable electricity supply in remote areas of Afghanistan. Hybrid optimization model for multiple energy resources (HOMER) software was utilized to perform modeling, optimization, economic, sensitivity, and multi-year analysis of the hybrid systems. The findings indicates that the PV-biomass-battery hybrid system with $175,938 net present cost (NPC) and $0.29/kWh cost of energy (COE) is the most appropriate approach than the PV-DG-battery, PV-wind-battery and diesel-only system. However, the COE in optimal HRES is higher than the COE supplied by Afghanistan's national grid to the household resident in large cities, but COE in the hybrid system is about 37% lower than the cost of energy in the study area and some provinces of Afghanistan. The multi-year analysis was performed on the PV-biogas-battery hybrid system with considering a 0.8% yearly degradation of PV panels and a 2% load increase annually. The results show about an 11.2% increase in NPC and a 6.2% decrease in COE compare to the system without multi-year consideration. Moreover, the outputs from HOMER were evaluated using the Simplex algorithm. The results indicate that there were no significant variations in the results from HOMER and Simplex algorithms. Therefore, this illustrates that the simulations were consistent. The study's findings are anticipated to be helpful to stakeholders, decision-makers, and investors to achieve the goals and increase the electricity access rate in remote areas of Afghanistan. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The welfare of the villages is one of the primary objectives of the rural electrification programmes. Compared to electrifying urban regions, electrifying rural areas is more expensive. Energy requirements in rural areas can be met using hybrid energy technologies. This study proposes a cost-effective power solution to reduce the net present cost (NPC), cost of energy (COE), unmet loads and CO2 emissions. Grey Wolf Optimizer (GWO) and Homer Pro are used to optimize the size of the components of the system. The combination of solar, wind and biogas with a battery storage system is cost-effective with zero unmet loads. Of the three combinations considered, the values of COE and NPC for combination-1 were 0.156 ($/kWh) and $2.05 M respectively. The comparative analysis of optimization between the GWO technique and Homer Pro carried out shows that the value of COE and NPC are reduced by 5.45% and 3.30% respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores scenarios for powering rural areas in Gaita Selassie with renewable energy plants, aiming to reduce system costs by optimizing component numbers to meet energy demands. Various scenarios, such as combining solar photovoltaic (PV) with pumped hydro-energy storage (PHES), utilizing wind energy with PHES, and integrating a hybrid system of PV, wind, and PHES, have been evaluated based on diverse criteria, encompassing financial aspects and reliability. To achieve the results, meta-heuristics such as the Multiobjective Gray wolf optimization algorithm (MOGWO) and Multiobjective Grasshopper optimization algorithm (MOGOA) were applied using MATLAB software. Moreover, optimal component sizing has been investigated utilizing real-time assessment data and meteorological data from Gaita Sillasie, Ethiopia. Metaheuristic optimization techniques were employed to pinpoint the most favorable loss of power supply probability (LPSP) with the least cost of energy (COE) and total life cycle cost (TLCC) for the hybrid system, all while meeting operational requirements in various scenarios. The Multi-Objective Grey Wolf Optimization (MOGWO) technique outperformed the Multi-Objective Grasshopper Optimization Algorithm (MOGOA) in optimizing the problem, as suggested by the results. Furthermore, based on MOGWO findings, the hybrid solar PV-Wind-PHES system demonstrated the lowest COE (0.126€/kWh) and TLCC (€6,897,300), along with optimal satisfaction of the village's energy demand and LPSP value. In the PV-Wind-PHSS scenario, the TLCC and COE are 38%, 18%, 2%, and 1.5% lower than those for the Wind-PHS and PV-PHSS scenarios at LPSP 0%, according to MOGWO results. Overall, this research contributes valuable insights into the design and implementation of sustainable energy solutions for remote communities, paving the way for enhanced energy access and environmental sustainability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

From 1939 to 1941, the US Rural Electrification Administration conducted a nationwide educational campaign to share the benefits of electricity with rural Americans, known as the Electric Farm Equipment Show. A key part of the show was a series of appliance schools, which were run by female home economists and designed for a female audience. This article examines an appliance school organized for one REA women's club and the efforts of officials like REA chief home electrification specialist Clara O. Nale to navigate the disconnect between the official REA project, which assumed a gendered division of labor, and the real needs of the farm women they served. Through the Comanche County REA Women's Club, the article explores how REA administrators imagined that women would participate in its cooperative-led electrification efforts, women's engagement with and resistance to the REA's programming, and how technology adoption was ultimately mediated through women's priorities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the context of modern agricultural production mode and domestic energy consumption, profound changes have taken place in agricultural and rural energy consumption, resulting in the demand for new technology development in various sectors of source, network, and load in rural energy systems. Agricultural energy internet (AEI) has promoted the development of renewable energy and agricultural electrification in villages. The construction of the AEI is crucial for achieving the synergistic development of agriculture, energy, and environment. The basic theory and key technologies of AEI are investigated and the prospects for the direction of agricultural energy technology are conducted. The research investigation shows that the AEI framework proposed by China Agricultural University is of great significance for realizing agricultural electrification and reducing agricultural carbon emissions. The article describes in detail the key data and characteristics of agricultural electrification loads. Digital twin technology and virtual power plant technology will be crucial to the construction of advanced AEI. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study thoroughly investigates the potential of direct current (DC) microgrids to enhance electricity access in rural and remote areas of Indonesia that continue to face significant obstacles despite ongoing national electrification efforts. Utilizing a mixed-methods approach, this research comprehensively evaluates socio-economic and technical factors that influence the adoption of DC microgrids. The results indicate that DC microgrids offer significant potential for enhancing energy access, reliability, and sustainability, particularly when combined with renewable energy sources. This aligns with Indonesia's move towards renewable energy. Nevertheless, the analysis identifies significant obstacles, such as the substantial initial investment, the requirement for complete regulatory frameworks, and the technological complexities that need to be conquered. In conclusion, DC microgrids present a promising solution for rural electrification. However, the implementation requires a strategy that emphasizes strategic investments, policy innovation, and capacity-building initiatives. This research significantly contributes to the study of sustainable energy by evaluating the criticality of integrating policies and technology for implementing DC microgrids as a key factor in achieving sustainable energy access in Indonesia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Off-grid electrification planning increasingly recognizes the importance of productive use of electricity (PUE) to promote community value creation and (financial) project sustainability. To ensure a sustainable and efficient integration in the community and energy system, PUE assets must be carefully evaluated to match both the community needs and the residential electricity demand patterns. We propose a novel methodology interlinking qualitative interviews, statistical analysis and energy system modeling to optimize decision making for PUE integration in off-grid energy systems in rural Madagascar by aligning relevant PUE effectively with anticipated residential electricity demand patterns based on socio-economic determinants of the community. We find that a possible contribution of the PUE to reducing the electricity costs depends significantly on three factors: (1) The residential electricity consumption patterns, which are influenced by the socio-economic composition of the community; (2) The degree of flexibility of (i) PUE assets and (ii) operational preferences of the PUE user; and (3) The capacity of community members to finance and operate PUE assets. Our study demonstrates that significant cost reductions for PUE-integrated off-grid energy systems can be achieved by applying our proposed methodology. When matching PUE and residential consumption patterns, the integration of PUE assets in residential community energy systems can reduce the financial risk for operators, provided the PUE enterprise operates reliably and sustainably. We highlight that the consideration of local value chains and co-creation approaches are essential to ensure the energy system is addressing the community's needs, creates value for the community, enhances the project's financial sustainability and is achieving the overall objectives of decentralized energy system planning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article analyzes the conditions under which major infrastructural investments generate electoral returns. It addresses when and how the constraints imposed by myopic voters under democracy can be overcome. We argue that sustained policy spillovers are critical to broadening the pool of beneficiaries and yielding significant returns to the incumbent in the medium to long run. We make this case by analyzing Luz para Todos (LPT)—a large-scale rural electrification scheme implemented in Brazil by the Workers' Party (PT). Leveraging the LPT's quasi-experimental allocation, we document its positive and persistent impact on the PT's vote support several years after the program started running. We then illustrate the mechanism of policy spillovers by showing the impact of the LPT on the provision of education in targeted areas. Our findings suggest that infrastructure policies are more likely to generate electoral returns when the policy provision entails spillover effects through other policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper proposes an advanced Load Frequency Contol (LFC) strategy, using a hybrid adaptive particle swarm-spiral dynamic optimization algorithm (HAPSSDOA). The optimization algorithms iteratively adjust the PID gains based on the evaluation of the cost function and eventually find the optimal values that minimize the cost function and result in a satisfactory frequency value of 50Hz. The P-I-D parameters for the APSO, SDA, and HAPSSDOA algorithms were 3.5112, 2.9691 and 1.1972; 2.3712, 2.8479 and 0.9827; 2.3519, 1.7989 and 0.8864 respectively. The system’s performance showed the rise time, settling time, percentage overshoot and ITAE of 0.28s, 2.33s, 42.10%, and 0.1076 for APSO; 0.324s, 3.67s, 38.4%, and 0.3590 for SDA; 0.36S, 2.2S, 33.5%, and 0.2430 for HAPSSDOA respectively. The LFC strategy using the hybrid HAPSSDOA achieved better performance, improved robustness, and the best response. The optimized PID controllers’ values brought more stability to the designed microgrid network, by ensuring that the frequency remained at 50Hz. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As a new green energy‐harvesting technology, the electrification mechanism and output performance of triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs) have become the research focuses and difficulties. Based on the basic principles of contact and damage mechanics, a five‐stage micro‐contact model is proposed on the interface of sliding TENGs friction subsurface. Experimental bench is built to complete the experimental validation and factors affecting the output performance of TENGs are experimentally investigated. In the results, it is shown that the contact form of the asperities on the surface of the friction subsurface determines the real contact area and the form of energy conversion, and the dynamical processes between the asperities are influenced by the velocity, load, and material, which further affect the elastic/plastic change of the friction surface and the directional transfer of contact electrons. Normal loading promotes the density and efficiency of electron transfer between the interfaces of the friction sub‐interfaces, but the electrical output performance of the system is no longer enhanced when the load is too high (≥10 N). The faster sliding speed is conducive to improving the output performance of the horizontal sliding TENG in a certain range (0.005–0.100 m s−1). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The pursuit of electrifying rural areas has been a multi-decade quest, emblematic of Nigeria's longstanding efforts to diversify its energy sources and reduce dependence on traditional fossil fuels. Accordingly, this study aims to evaluate the electrification status and perform a techno-economic analysis of a hybrid system to ensure electricity reliability, bill reduction and reduced grid demand for three representative rural communities in Rivers State using HOMER Pro Software. Subsequently, five hybrid system scenarios that encompassed different combinations of the grid, PV modules, wind and battery, were examined using the CRITIC-PROMETHEE II methodologies. Each community was assessed based on its own hourly electricity demand, using data obtained from the injection substation. The Aluu, Choba and Rumuekini communities experienced an average daily electricity supply of 4.6, 5.4 and 6.2 h respectively from the national grid with energy usage of 5436.4 MW for Aluu, 3375.4 MW for Choba and 1626.1 MW for Rumuekini, in 2022. The findings indicate that the grid/PV module was the optimal choice for the three communities. Moreover, the cost of energy (COE) for the proposed systems ranged from 0.0181 $/kWh to 0.0185 $/kWh, significantly lower than the grid's COE of 0.08625 $/kWh in the respective communities. This research further includes a sensitivity analysis of the optimal system, examining variations in PV cost, discount rate, inflation rate, annual scaled solar irradiance and electrical demand. The results provide a comprehensive framework to support decision-making, optimize system design and align renewable energy solutions with project goals and stakeholder priorities.

The shift towards renewable energy is resulting in increased investment in energy infrastructure, affecting communities of all sizes worldwide. A study on Bugala Island in Lake Victoria, Uganda, explored how socioeconomic factors influence households' decision to adopt hybrid solar electricity. The study utilised a binary logistic regression analysis of cross-sectional research design to understand the significant socioeconomic factors influencing the adoption. The sex of the household head, education level, monthly income, tenure status, and wall and floor materials were the most significant factors for the adoption. However, results suggest that age, household size, marital status, and main occupation were not statistically significant factors in adopting hybrid solar electricity. Insights from these variables can enable policymakers to formulate more efficient and equitable policies geared towards fostering the widespread integration of clean energy solutions. It should be noted that the socioeconomic factors vary in context and location; solar energy systems should be tailored to the needs of each community rather than being implemented using a standardised approach.

This article explores how the public might actively participate in renewable energy projects by studying the role of local and credentialed experts in the development of micro-hydro technology for self-supply (off-grid electrification) or commercialization (on-grid electrification) in Central Java, Indonesia. All of the data were gathered qualitatively, including semi-structured interviews with local experts and energy experts, as well as interviews with local entrepreneurs, private companies, government agencies, end users, and civil society groups. Other methods included document analysis, observations, and site visits. The research found that credentialed and local experts have distinct sets of expertise and roles that complement one another. This challenges the "deficit" model of public understanding of science, which often claims that energy projects fail due to a lack of policy-relevant knowledge. The expertise of locals, their financial situation, and their geographic location are all considered to be linked with the design of micro-hydro technology, which is most typically run-of-river. While micro-hydro design is often related to "decentralization," standardized expertise has emerged as a critical impediment to alternative energy commercialization. This article concludes that public participation, supported by decentralized policies, is required to drive future growth and maintain the long-term viability of micro-hydro technology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Globally, rural areas suffer from less infrastructure relative to urban areas. Political and development economists have mainly attributed this disparity in infrastructure distribution to governance. The literature has sufficiently discussed the role that rural-urban infrastructure inequality plays in development outcomes such as poverty. However, not much is known about the effect of the rural-urban infrastructure gap on the environment. To contribute to knowledge and policy discussions, we investigate the impact of rural-urban energy access (in)equality on environmental degradation and the role governance plays using data from 47 sub-Saharan African countries from 2000–2020. Evidence from the heteroskedasticity-based instrumental variable regression consistent with Driscoll and Kraay's estimation revealed that bridging rural-urban energy access inequality is associated with reduction in environmental degradation. We also documented that the direct effect of the governance-related variables used is mixed. The moderation and marginal effect estimates showed that improving governance quality conditions equality in rural-urban energy access to reduce environmental degradation. From a policy perspective, these findings suggest that the implementation of rural electrification policies supported by a good governance system would play a crucial role in mitigating environmental degradation in developing countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Developing countries are facing many electricity crises such as low production, worst power outages, blackouts, and poor inadequate supplies. Most of their rural areas have no basic power infrastructure as it requires long transmission lines, which causes high installation, operation, maintenance costs and line losses issues. The people of these unconnected rural areas belong to low-income families and use kerosene oil, candles, small solar panels, and batteries to meet their basic electricity needs. As an alternative, renewable-based hybrid energy systems have enormous potential. It is also environmentally friendly and low-cost, sustainable, and promising solution to electrify rural off-grid areas. This research work focuses on the economic and optimal design of a renewable-based hybrid energy system for the rural off-grid area of Pakistan. HOMER (Hybrid Optimization of Multiple Energy Resources) software is used to perform techno-economic and environmental analysis. The optimization results show that the most economical and optimal configuration is PV/diesel generator with batteries having lower harmful emissions. Furthermore, the sensitivity analysis is performed to refine the results which show that the most optimal system will remain sustainable if variations occur in the sensitivity variables in the future. Moreover, the results and findings of this study can help the government to make effective policies and planning to provide reliable and affordable electricity to the off-grid areas, to improve the electrification rate in the country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

European states gradually established colonial rule in Africa between the mid nineteenth century and the beginning of the First World War. Historians have assessed the infrastructure introduced during this period through the lens of colonial state-building and resource extraction. This article offers another perspective by reconstructing the early history of electrification in Lagos Colony, one of the first British colonies in West Africa, within the contexts of African agency (that is, knowledge and socio-political influence) and class. It argues that electricity was not a novelty to Africans when the government opened the first power station in 1898. The principles of electricity were already being taught in the classroom and through public lectures in the 1860s, and temporary exhibitions of electric light had been a feature of Lagos society since the 1880s. Furthermore, because of some demographic advantages, the Africans of nineteenth-century Lagos were able to shape colonial policies, including on financing electricity. Lastly, contrary to colonial African case studies in which scholars have argued that racial politics affected access to electricity, extensive primary sources affirm that a rising number of Africans in Lagos enjoyed electric lighting on the streets, at religious centres and at home from 1898. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dependence on fossil fuel has significantly resulted in global climate change and harms the ecosystem. The process of integration of electricity production with renewable energy sources can significantly improve the economics and energy balance, especially in rural areas. The optimization of decentralized energy generation in India is done by HOMER Pro software. It performs energy balance calculations and determines the least net present cost for each system configuration. In the present study, design of hybrid renewable energy system (HRES), i.e. solar PV, wind and biomass for a rural village in North Sikkim, has been done as a case study. The village is mainly dependent on agriculture and livestock economy. Daily load consumption by 160 houses in village calculated for two distinct seasons was 262.4 kWh with a peak energy demand of 63.45 kW. The optimized simulation results gave the best possible configuration combinations made up of 1.9 kW PV array, 20 kW biogas generator, 63 strings batteries, 1.96 kW inverter and a 2.3 kW rectifier. Results for the combination showed electricity generation was mainly from biogas generator which was cost-effective and sustainable alternative to grid extension. Moreover, the most economical HRES was strongly dependent on the available energy sources at the location. In addition to this, the system has internal rate of return of 7.42% and payback period of 4.53 years. The software helps in determining feasibility of the configuration and estimates the cost of installing and operating the system over the project lifetime. This techno-economic approach is viable and will meet the power demand of 160 households of the village and is therefore recommended for future electrification projects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mini Hydropower Plants (MHPPs) are increasingly popular for rural electrification in developing nations due to their ecologically friendly operation. However, constant load fluctuation in these facilities poses a speed control issue. The mechanical, hydraulic governor, commonly used to face this challenge, cannot provide the best speed control due to its mechanical component system. Thus, an electrohydraulic PIDbased governor is proposed to control the frequency and speed of MHPPs in a distribution network. This governor's suitability for regulating the system's frequency in response to significant load variations within the distribution network is going to be determined in this study. The small hydropower plant and distribution system are modeled using the PSCAD software. A comparison between the mechanical hydraulic governor and the electro-PID governor was conducted by analyzing load fluctuations between 5% and 20%. The electro-PID governor responded faster and more actively to load connections and disconnections than the mechanical hydraulic governor, as the latter reduces large overshoots and undershoots, which can be dangerous and damaging to equipment. The electro-PID governor also helps to maintain a stable frequency within acceptable limits, ensuring smooth operation and minimizing the risk of system failures or disruptions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main objective of this investigation is to propose a comprehensive decision-making checklist to evaluate the utilization of hybrid renewable configurations in each remote area. By considering the exergetic performance, financial, environmental, and social perspective approaches, the decision-making between the grid extension and the use of local renewable resources is performed, and the optimal solutions are recognized. To create this novel checklist, the methodologies of Geographic Information System (GIS), exergy evaluation, and HOMER Pro software are integrated. The proposed checklist also includes several sensitivity analyses to generalize the obtained findings to other remote villages. To investigate the extension of the central grid based on the geographical analysis, the breakeven point for each village is obtained. After that, by computing the value of the Cost-Effective Index (CEI), the most cost-efficient solar tracker mode could be introduced. For instance, the PV/DG/BG/Bat option with a cost of energy of 0.138 and CO2 emission of 30,917 kg/year is found as the optimum configuration for the village related to cold & dry climate. The overall exergetic proficiency is calculated to be 37.27%, as well as it was determined that about 92% of overall irreversibility belonged to the PV modules. The highest value of CEI is related to the vertical tracker mode (40.17), as well as the breakeven distance is gained as 6.21 km. By employing the vertical tracker system, the overall exergetic efficiency reached 41.31%. Evaluation of the outcomes illustrated that the presented checklist could be a powerful tool for feasibility investigation of applying combined renewable systems and grid extension for each remote rural anywhere in the world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Solar photovoltaics are considered the practical solution to energy access and climate change issues, especially in tropical countries that receive relatively more sunlight throughout the year. However, questions arise on the reliability of these systems in providing sufficient supply to meet the users' electricity needs. This paper looks at the reliability of a solar project installed on two rooftops on an off-grid island in Cebu, Philippines, that provides increased electricity access to 11 households. PVSyst and HOMER Pro software analyzed solar PV systems performance and techno-economics. The simulations yielded the annual mean values of reference yield, array yield, final yield, array capture loss, system loss, performance ratio, and capacity factor are 5.66 kWh/m2/day, 3.51 kWh/kWp/day, 3.23 kWh/kWp/day, 2.15, 0.278, 57.10%, and 18.96%, respectively. The peak PV resource of 3.30 kWp/day can supply the 1.66 kWp/day of the consumer's electrical demand. It was concluded that the current installation could supply the electrical load demand of the residents; however, consideration for the potential increase in demand must be in place. While renewable energy sources are relevant in achieving 100% electrification in rural communities, their ability to address the energy demands of the users must be carefully considered in planning and design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of decentralized renewable energy systems will continue to play a significant role in electricity generation especially in developing countries where grid expansion to most remote areas is uneconomical. The income levels of these off-grid communities are often low, such that there is a need for the delivery of cost-effective energy solutions through optimum control and sizing of energy system components. This paper aims at minimizing the net present cost (NPC) and the levelised cost of energy (LCOE). The study presents a hybrid power system involving a hydroelectric, solar photovoltaic (PV), and battery system for a rural community in Cameroon. The optimization of the system was done using HOMER Pro and validated using a meta-heuristic algorithm known as genetic algorithm (GA). The GA approach was programmed using the MATLAB software. After the HOMER simulation, the optimal power capacity of 3 kW solar PV, 334.89 Ah battery, and 32.2 kW microhydropower was used to meet the load. The village load profile had a daily energy usage of 431.32 kWh/day and a peak power demand of 38.49 kW. The optimized results showed an NPC and LCOE of $90,469.16 and 0.0453 $/kWh, respectively. The system configuration was tested against an increase in hydropower capacity, and it was observed that increasing the hydropower capacity has the ability to significantly reduce the LCOE as well as the battery and solar PV size. A comparative analysis of the two approaches showed that the optimization using GA was more cost-effective than HOMER Pro with the least LCOE of 0.0344 $/kWh and NPC of $86,990.94 as well as a loss of power supply probability (LPSP) of 0.99%. In addition, the GA method gave more hydropower generation than HOMER Pro. This supports the fact that stochastic methods are more realistic and economically viable. They also accurately predict system operation than deterministic methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Electrification is a centerpiece of global decarbonization efforts. Yet there are reasons to be skeptical of the inevitability, or at least the optimal pace, of the transition. We discuss several underappreciated costs of full, or even deep, electrification. Consumer preferences can operate in favor of and in opposition to electrification goals, and electrification is likely to encounter physical and economic obstacles when it reaches some as-yet-unknown level. Although we readily acknowledge the external benefits of decarbonization, we also explore several underappreciated external costs. The credibility and eventual success of decarbonization efforts will be enhanced by foreseeing and ideally avoiding predictable but nonobvious costs of promising abatement pathways. Thus, even with all of its promise, the degree of electrification may ultimately reach a limit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy systems across the world are becoming localized, decarbonized, and digitalized. This is the era of local energy system integrating heat, power, and transport. Local energy system refers to arrangements that operate locally at a scale less than the traditional centralized model to maximize social, economic, environmental benefits for people or organization in a specific geographical area. Beyond decarbonization, local energy systems are expected to provide a wide range of other benefits such as alleviating fuel poverty, community income generation. The increase in the deployment of local energy systems has been the subject of intensive research and development in recent era. This article aims to review the recent local energy system developments in India and United Kingdom. Specifically, this will focus on local energy system taxonomy, landscape, challenges, pilot projects, policies, energy storage technologies in India and United Kingdom. Further, this work will also discuss how local energy system can be used for electrification of rural India. Thus, this work will put forward the latest developments of local energy system in a developed and developing country. This work will conclude by presenting the way forward for local energy system adoption and development in India and United Kingdom. It is expected that this work will help power and energy system researchers to track down the recent developments and landscape, and lessons of local energy system. This article is categorized under:Sustainable Energy > Other RenewablesClimate and Environment > Net Zero Planning and DecarbonizationEnergy and Power Systems > Energy Infrastructure [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nigeria is the seventh most populous country in world being the highest in Africa. The country is blessed with vast natural resources and is one of the highest producers of oil in the world. However, the inadequate supply of electrical energy is a major setback in the nation's economic development. Thus, there is need for an urgent and immediate solution to address the electricity access situation in Nigeria. It is in view of this that we first present an overview of the electrical energy situation of Nigeria (especially in the rural areas). The benefits of rural electrification and it impacts are discussed to buttress the need for electrifying rural areas and an overview of the abundant renewable energy resources in Nigeria is presented. As a proposed solution to improve the electricity situation, the concept of a reuse solar photovoltaic system based on e-waste components and old materials is presented. The system comprises repurposed Power Supply Unit (PSU) from old desktop computers, old thermal car Lead-acid batteries, old solar panels and Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) units. The possibility of adopting this solution in Nigeria depends on the amount of e-wastes generated annually thus necessitating the need for an analysis to see the annual impact of this system on electricity access based on the amount of available e-waste. Using the huge amount of e-waste generated/received annually in Nigeria, the feasibility of our solution is assessed by estimating the possible number of households that could be electrified by the second life renewable energy systems we propose. Due to the lack of official data in this field, certain constraints and assumptions were defined for the purpose of this analysis which resulted in obtaining a range of results that showed the possible impacts of adopting the reuse system. The analysis showed the minimum and maximum impacts the reuse solution could have on electricity access in Nigeria, based on best and worst case scenario respectively. The results further showed that an average of 287,000 households can be electrified annually if this solution is adopted, causing 2.2 % increment in population with electricity access in a year (between 620 thousand and 4.1 million individuals). Thus, the result is an indication that it is possible to achieve immediate growth in electricity access based on renewable energy integration, frugal innovation and reuse/repurposing of e-waste materials. In addition, this extension of their lifespan reduces their ecological footprint. It is expected that the energy demands of the continuously growing population can be met by strict adherence to set targets including adoption of smart-grids, generation diversification and focusing on rural electrification.

The electricity demand is highly stochastic and unpredictable. This is due to the fact that it is significantly impacted by a number of factors, including the type of load, weather, time of day, seasonality, economic limitations, customers’ way of living, and other randomness factors. An accurate load model is one of the main inputs for the design of an economical and reliable renewable-based rural electrification system for rural communities and demand management systems. This paper presents a generic methodology for determining a rural community's energy consumption load profile, which is used to determine the most cost-effective size of renewable energy sources for rural electrification purposes. To determine the load profile parameters, such as the types of appliances used, their functioning times, functioning windows, and expected minimum and maximum cycle time, a field survey was conducted in four rural electrified Ethiopian villages. Since the survey findings will not fully explain the stochastic nature of the load profile, the load parameters are randomly generated, and a bottom-up approach is used to estimate the rural community's energy usage. In this study, household loads, public institution loads, business loads, and small industrial loads are the main consumer types taken into account. These loads are classified according to their energy usage as weekdays, weekends, and national and religious holidays. A MATLAB program is developed and implemented to obtain the load profiles of different customer groups. The results of this study are assessed in accordance with the multi-tier criterion and verified through the use of the well-known software HOMER Pro- and LoadProGen.

In least-developed countries (LDCs), electricity shortages are the primary barrier to economic and social growth. Some remote areas in LDC rely on diesel-based systems. However, renewable energy must be taken into account for generating electricity because of the uncertainty of diesel fuel prices and the emissions of carbon dioxide. Hybrid energy systems (HES) are becoming increasingly popular, which is unsurprising given the rapid advancement of renewable energy technologies, which have made them the preferred method to respond to the current unreliable electricity supply, reduce the impact of global warming that occurs from electricity production, and contribute to cost reduction. This study explores the feasibility of utilizing a combination of solar PV, wind energy, and battery systems with the existing diesel generator in four different locations in Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, and Bangladesh. Hybrid optimization multiples for electric renewables (HOMER) is used as a tool for techno-economic analysis and finding the possible combination of solar PV, wind, diesel, and battery. The multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) technique was used to verify all configurations obtained from HOMER’s results. This approach considers environmental, economic, and technological factors by utilizing the AHP, TOPSIS, EDAS, and PROMETHEEE II techniques. The results show that PV/diesel with batteries is the optimum solution. This hybrid system comprises 89% PV penetration, a cost of electricity (COE) of 0.257 $/kWh, an initial capital cost (IC) of $244,277, and a net present cost (NPC) of $476,216 for a case study in Cambodia. Furthermore, this system can reduce almost 51,005 kg/year of carbon dioxide compared to a diesel-only system, while the cost of electricity is reduced.

It is evident that out of the 1.3 billion people worldwide that lack access to electric energy are rural dwellers. Furthermore, the majority of them are living in rural areas of developing countries which are often remote, dispersed populated, and categorized by pitiable infrastructure and services. Given this, the rising contemplation concerning the target of worldwide access to energy has stressed the role of rural electrification and off-grid hybrid power generation system. To this effect, the present work focuses on the overview of rural electrification programs in Nigeria and offers a general framework. The Mini-grid Value Chain for the effective implementation of mini-grid projects was developed. Furthermore, to overcome the issue of affordability of cost of energy in rural areas of the country and to promote sustainability of the off-grid electrification projects, an Improved Local Electrification Committee Model (ILEC) was developed. The main aim of this is to guarantee the reliability of the power supply network to the off-grid rural areas and also to overcome the major demerit of the overall high initial capital cost that is associated with the establishment of mini-grid projects for off-grid rural electrification.

Electricity is one of the essential requirements for the economic development of a country. In Ethiopia, more than half of the total population does not have access to electric power. Micro-hydropower (MHP) is one of the most feasible renewable energy options for providing reliable electricity to rural areas. However, in low-income countries such as Ethiopia, the high price of a purpose-made turbine to generate electricity from MHP resources is difficult. This paper presents the feasibility study of a pump as a turbine (PAT) for MHP applications with and without impeller blade modification. The analysis was conducted in terms of initial investment cost, the net present value, payback periods, and the cost of energy. Decreasing blade thickness, blade tip rounding, adjusting blade inlet angle, and blade grooving, then comparing the result with PAT without modification and cross-flow turbine are the modification techniques considered in this research. Based on the projected system lifetime, the equivalent cost of power for the PAT and cross-flow turbines are 0.065 and 0.100 $/kWh respectively. The cross-flow turbine's payback period is 6.04 years, which is significantly longer than the PATs payback period of 3.42 years. From the entire study, it can be concluded that the MHP coupled with PAT provides a lower payback period and cheaper power production. Whereas, impeller blade modification has no significant advantage from the economic point of view. Generally, the impeller modification cost needs to be less than or equal to 25% of the initial cost of the PAT to use the less cost advantage of the PAT.

The present paper examines, based on literature review and data from Africa Energy Outlook 2019, the feasibility of adoption of renewable energy from the ocean for socioeconomic development in sub-Saharan Africa, given the enormous potential the region has for ocean-based sources of energy. The study concludes that mini tidal power plants and salt gradient power are the ocean energy sources most suitable for coastal development. It recommends a gradual reduction in subsidies of fossil fuel-based energy sources in favour of support to renewable energy, building human resources and technical capacity, the establishment of smart partnerships and mobilisation of resources for an effective promotion of ocean renewable energy. It recommends further, that community engagement is needed to assure ownership and acceptance.

The main objective of this review paper is to examine the lessons learnt from 16 solar home system (SHS)-based World Bank projects implemented between 2000 and 2020 in the remote rural areas of developing countries. This study emphasises the role of SHS as a technology option in providing electricity to the remaining 10% of the world’s population without access to electricity. This study identifies three major internal factors and two external factors that may affect the successful implementation. The internal factors that emerge within the project and arise primarily during its design and implementation include financial barriers (barriers on subsidies and investment support, risk management and commercial viability, credit services and support, and partnerships with the local banking sector and micro-finance institutions), technical barriers (barriers on effective operation, maintenance and after-sales technical service, qualified technical entities and professionals, product quality assurance and monitoring, and the availability and feasibility of other complementary energy technology applications) and project design and implementation barriers (barriers on the monitoring, evaluation and sustainability of the project, the development of local capacity, and clearly defined project objectives). The external factors that have emerged outside the project and are already existing in the societal context include political and institutional barriers (barriers on the institutional framework and its sustainability, and political support and commitment from the community and local political leaders) and social and cultural barriers (barriers on building trust, relationships, confidence and partnerships among stakeholders, the sociocultural perceptions of SHSs, maintaining ongoing dialogues, coordination and cooperation among stakeholders, and adapting to changing international and local conditions). Subsequently, this study considers policy implications that are valuable for the current and upcoming challenges of rural electrification in achieving Sustainable Development Goal 7 – electricity for all – by 2030.

The use of artificial intelligence (AI) – based tools in the optimization of renewable energy (RE) systems is increasing. These tools could even be more useful to developing countries like Cameroon with abundant RE resources, yet low rural electrification rate. However, the optimization of these energy systems especially in hybrid forms is still a challenge. This paper uses an AI-based Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) and Differential Evolution (DE) for the design and optimization of a stand-alone hybrid solar PV – hydro- battery power system. These algorithms were developed using the MATLAB software. The proposed smart algorithms ensure that the load is met at a minimum levelized cost of energy (LCOE) and acceptable loss of power supply probability (LPSP). After simulation, DE gave an optimum LPSP of 0.0499 and optimum LCOE of 0.06192 $/kWh after the 19th iteration under set operational limits while PSO gave an optimum LPSP of 0.0492 and optimum LCOE of 0.06358 $/kWh after the 40th iteration. The optimal net present value (NPC) obtained from the PSO and DE were USD $ 96,175.26 and USD $ 93,958.07 respectively. While DE gave a lesser LCOE than PSO, the LPSP obtained using the PSO technique was smaller, signifying more system reliability. The optimum system size of DE showed the least LCOE with the proposed capacities of 1 kW PV, 33.96 kW hydropower and zero battery. The optimized system ensures a proper power management within the hybrid system. An appraisal of the two algorithms showed that the DE tool is accurate and a better option than PSO in terms of cost and speed of convergence. Further statistical analysis revealed that PSO was more robust. The optimal cost function obtained from both algorithms is acceptable for rural electrification projects.