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Considerable resources are invested each year into training to ensure trainees have the required competencies to safely and effectively perform their tasks/jobs. As such, it is important to develop effective training programmes which target those required competencies. One method that can be used at the start of the training lifecycle to establish the tasks and competencies that are required for a task/job and is considered an important activity to perform when developing a training programme is a Training Needs Analysis (TNA). This article presents a new TNA approach and uses an Automated Vehicle (AV) case study to demonstrate this new approach for a specific AV scenario within the current UK road system. A Hierarchical Task Analysis (HTA) was performed in order to identify the overall goal and tasks that drivers need to perform to operate the AV system safely on the road. This HTA identified 7 main tasks which were decomposed into 26 sub-tasks and 2428 operations. Then, six AV driver training themes from the literature were combined with the Knowledge, Skills and Attitudes (KSA) taxonomy to identify the KSAs that drivers need to perform the tasks, sub-tasks and operations that were identified in the HTA (training needs). This resulted in the identification of over 100 different training needs. This new approach helped to identify more tasks, operations and training needs than previous TNAs which applied the KSA taxonomy alone. As such, a more comprehensive TNA for drivers of the AV system was produced. This can be more easily translated into the development and evaluation of future training programmes for drivers of AV systems.

Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (MASS) are being introduced with high levels of autonomy. This means that not only the role of the human operator is changing but also the way in which operations are performed. MASS are expected to be un-crewed platforms that are operated from a Remote Control Centre (RCC). As such, the concept of human-machine teams is important. The operation of MASS however shares some resemblance to other un-crewed platforms (e.g. Un-crewed Aerial Vehicles; UAVs) and it may be that lessons could be learned in relation to the development of MASS systems. A systematic literature review has been conducted, focusing on decision making, to generate insights into operating un-crewed vehicle platforms and design recommendations for MASS. Seven themes were revealed: decision support systems, trust, transparency, teams, task/role allocation, accountability and situation awareness. A Network Model was developed to show the interconnections between these themes which was then applied to a case study of an UAV accident. The purpose of doing this was to demonstrate the utility of the model to real-world scenarios and showed how each theme applied within the human-machine team.

In this study, by employing the think-aloud model, schema theory and the perceptual cycle model (PCM) from the perspective of vulnerable road traffic participants, the current traffic imperfections of a target section in Wudaokou were analyzed to explore potential improvement measures to enhance safety. Specifically, the present study recruited 30 local volunteers, which were equally divided into a pedestrian group, bicyclist group and E-cyclist group. The research procedure was mainly divided into three steps. By using the think-aloud method, we analyzed and recorded the contents of oral reports of the experimental road section. Then, through translation, segmentation, coding, analysis and other techniques, we sorted and studied the report data and drew a conclusion that was universal in improving the current road traffic conditions. It is hoped that through this study, on the one hand, the applicability of the oral report method, schema theory and perceptual cycle model in road traffic safety can be verified, and, on the other hand, some better improvement measures can be extracted for the road traffic state of the Wudaokou section.

This study takes a qualitative approach to exploring the experiences (and differences therein) of individuals using either their car, bicycle, or motorcycle to navigate a ∼10.5 km urban route in a provincial UK city, with the aim of contributing to our understanding of the needs and requirements of different road users. Forty-six individuals provided concurrent verbal reports, using the ‘think aloud’ method, whilst using their vehicle to navigate the test route, the transcripts of which were subjected to a theory-agnostic, inductive, thematic analysis. A number of group differences were observed, revealing (among other factors) the importance of road surface quality to cyclists, the focus on vigilant observation in motorcyclists, and the heightened emotionality experienced by both two-wheeled groups, particularly those on bicycles. This affective component has, as yet, been under-explored in the academic domain and under-utilised in road transport policy and strategy; this is discussed, with attention drawn to the cyclists’ greater tendency to make negatively valenced value judgements. Results are also discussed in terms of the potential to improve road users’ experiences, foster inter-group empathy and understanding, and encourage a shift in mobility towards more sustainable modes.

Interest in Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (MASS) is increasing as it is predicted that they can bring improved safety, performance and operational capabilities. However, their introduction is associated with a number of enduring Human Factors challenges (e.g. difficulties monitoring automated systems) for human operators, with their ‘remoteness’ in shore-side control centres exacerbating issues. This paper aims to investigate underlying decision-making processes of operators of uncrewed vehicles using the theoretical foundation of the Perceptual Cycle Model (PCM). A case study of an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) accident has been chosen as it bears similarities to the operation of MASS through means of a ground-based control centre. Two PCMs were developed; one to demonstrate what actually happened and one to demonstrate what should have happened. Comparing the models demonstrates the importance of operator situational awareness, clearly defined operator roles, training and interface design in making decisions when operating from remote control centres. Practitioner Summary: To investigate underlying decision-making processes of operators of uncrewed vehicles using the Perceptual Cycle Model, by using an UAV accident case study. The findings showed the importance of operator situational awareness, clearly defined operator roles, training and interface design in making decisions when monitoring uncrewed systems from remote control centres.

Human Factors play a significant role inthe development and integration of avionic systems to ensure that they are trusted and can be used effectively. As Unoccupied Aerial Vehicle (UAV) technology becomes increasingly important to the aviation domain this holds true. This study aims to gain an understanding of UAV operators’trust requirements when piloting UAVs by utilising a popular aviation interview methodology (Schema World Action Research Method), in combination with key questions on trust identified from the literature. Interviews were conducted with six UAVoperators, with a range of experience. This identified the importance of past experience to trust and the expectations that operators hold. Recommendations are made that target training to inform experience, in addition to the equipment, procedures and organisational standards that can aid in developing trustworthy systems. The methodology that was developed shows promise for capturing trust within human-automation interactions

As flight deck touchscreen implementation continues to rise, more research is required to understand how task performance is impacted by turbulence. Previous work found that for basic dragging gest...

Engine failure events during critical phases of flight are a rare yet very real possibility on commercial aircraft. The response of the pilots to these events is vital to minimizing possible adversity. New technologies are in development that provide enhanced information on the status of the aircraft engine after sustaining engine damage in order to guide pilot’s decision making. It is important that this enhanced information is aligned with the requirements of the user. This paper describes how user input can effectively be incorporated early on in the design process of new technologies to understand how current systems may be improved. The Perceptual Cycle Model (PCM) is applied to in-depth interview reports from commercial airline pilots on their responses to different engine failure events caused by bird-strikes to the engine. Application of the PCM demonstrates where current processes may be better supported to enhance pilot decision making from such events. From this, areas where improvements could be made using future avionic systems are presented, with user-led design recommendations.

Considerable research and resources are going into the development and testing of Automated Vehicles. They are expected to bring society a huge number of benefits (such as: improved safety, increased capacity, reduced fuel use and emissions). Notwithstanding these potential benefits, there have also been a number of high-profile collisions involving Automated Vehicles on the road. In the majority of these cases, the driver’s inattention to the vehicle and road environment was blamed as a significant causal factor. This suggests that solutions need to be developed in order to enhance the benefits and address the challenges associated with Automated Vehicles. One such solution is driver training. As drivers still require manual driving skills when operating Automated Vehicles on the road, this paper applied the grounded theory approach to identify eight “key” themes and interconnections that exist in current manual vehicle driver training. These themes were then applied to the limited literature available on Automated Vehicle driver training, and a ninth theme of trust emerged. This helped to identify a set of training requirements for drivers of Automated Vehicles, which suggests that a multifaceted approach (covering all nine themes and manual and Automated Vehicle driving skills) to driver training is required. This framework can be used to develop and test a training programme for drivers of Automated Vehicles.

The Schema World Action Research Method (SWARM) has previously been used as a means to explore the underlying decision-making processes involved in retrospective incident reports. The approach has been fruitful in capturing all interacting processes involved in managing incidents. This paper proposes that SWARM may also be used prospectively within the early phases of the design lifecycle for new behavioural-based intervention strategies. Six pilot interviews were conducted to explore pilots’ perceptual cycle processing when faced with a suspected engine oil leak. The aim was to explore whether there may be any deficiencies within current practise and explore ways in which pilots may be better supported in dealing with abnormal system parameters such as this. A number of design recommendations are proposed for a new avionic system capable of supporting and guiding pilots through the decision making process.

The majority of cross-cultural research on traffic safety has investigated driver behaviour, yet in most low- and middle-income countries, where the weight of the road fatality burden is felt, motorisation rates are significantly lower than in higher-income countries. As such, this approach necessarily excludes large parts of the populations in those settings. In order to investigate the link between traffic safety attitudes and road user behaviours, this study used a self-report measure of pedestrian behaviour, applying it in six countries; Bangladesh, China, Kenya, Thailand, the UK, and Vietnam. Focus was on the relationships between a respondent’s attitude towards risky or rule violating on-road behaviours (of other road users, or more generally, not specific to pedestrians), and the extent to which they reported performing three types of risky pedestrian behaviours (i.e., intentional rule violations, errors in judgement or memory, and aggressive behaviours). Data from a sample of 3,423 individuals was subjected to a series of regression models, revealing significant links between attitudes and pedestrian behaviours in all countries, in all three behavioural factors, after controlling for age, gender, and exposure to the road environment. Differences were found between countries in the strength of these relationships, with weaker connections between attitudes and behaviours in Kenya, and stronger connections in China (with other countries in-between the two). Results are discussed in terms of the need to understand the relationships between social cognitive constructs in the specific country in which a road safety intervention is intended to be implemented.

A large component of Neville Stanton's work has focused on situation awareness in domains such as defence, transport, and process control. A significant contribution has been to initiate a shift from considering individual human operator situation awareness to considering the situation awareness of human and non-human teams, organisations, and even sociotechnical systems. Though controversial when introduced, the distributed situation awareness model has become increasingly relevant for modern day systems and problems. In this article we reflect on Stanton's contribution and point to a pressing need to consider a. The situation awareness of advanced technologies, and b. situation awareness at a sociotechnical system, societal and even global level. This is demonstrated via discussion on two contemporaneous issues: automated vehicles and the COVID-19 pandemic. It is concluded that, given advances such as artificial intelligence, the increased connectedness of society, emerging issues such as disinformation, and an increasing set of global threats, Stanton's distributed situation awareness model and associated analysis framework provide a useful toolkit for future Human Factors and Ergonomics applications.

Future visions of transport systems include both a drive towards automated vehicles and the need for sustainable, active, modes of travel. The combination of these requirements needs careful consideration to ensure the integration of automated vehicles does not compromise vulnerable road users. Transport networks need to be resilient to automation integration, which requires foresight of possible challenges in their interaction with other road users. Focusing on a cyclist overtake scenario, the application of operator event sequence diagrams and a predictive systems failure method provide a novel way to analyse resilience. The approach offers the opportunity to review how automation can be positively integrated into road transportation to overcome the shortfalls of the current system by targeting organisational, procedural, equipment and training measures.

Commercial airline pilots are required to make efficient, justifiable and safety-critical decisions when faced with adverse events such as engine failures. Although these are rare events, the consequences are severe, and the pilot response is critical. This paper reviews pilot decision-making when faced with a dual engine failure on take-off using three different decision models; the Recognition Primed Decision Model, Decision Ladders and the Perceptual Cycle Model. In-depth interviews with eight experienced airline pilots were conducted to capture their decision-making processes in response to a dual engine failure on take-off event. The analysis of these interviews using the three different decision models provide recommendations for a proposed decision assistant. The different decision models are discussed in relation to the insight they can bring to developing a future decision assistant tool within the flight deck of commercial aircraft.

Pedestrians are the most vulnerable road users in low- and middle-income countries, hence understanding their attitudes towards traffic safety and the pedestrian behaviours associated with those attitudes is vital. The current study identifies the factor structure of a self-report questionnaire on pedestrian behaviours and road safety attitudes and explores the relationships between them. It also assesses demographic effects. A total of 532 people were surveyed. The questionnaire sections related to attitudes and behaviours were developed for use in different, largely high-income settings, hence their suitability for use in the low-income setting of Bangladesh was first assessed using Principal Component Analysis (PCA). A structural equation model was then developed to examine the relationships between attitudes and pedestrian behaviours. It was found that positive attitudes towards traffic safety were associated with safer pedestrian behaviours, and that males, younger respondents, and less educated respondents reported performing riskier behaviours and holding more dangerous attitudes to road safety. Results are discussed in terms of the factors likely to influence such behaviours, as well as a discussion on the need for validation of the research tools which have been developed in high-income settings for low-income settings.

There have been a number of high-profile collisions involving Automated Vehicles on the road. Although car manufacturers are making considerable investments into the development of Automated Vehicles, these collisions may deter the public from purchasing and using them. Therefore, solutions need to be developed to prevent these collisions from occurring in the future. One such solution is driver training. A previous literature review identified nine themes which are essential in Automated Vehicle driver training. In this article, a deductive thematic analysis was conducted on five high-profile Automated Vehicle collisions in order to demonstrate the relevance of these themes and to gain insights into how the driver’s behaviour contributed to each collision, thus understand the potential role of training in reducing collisions of this nature. By creating interconnection models for each collision, a consistent pattern emerged. A link was made with the drivers’ attitudes, the accuracy of their mental models and their level of trust in the automation. The automation caused the drivers to become underloaded, which impaired their ability to effectively monitor the automation and the road environment. This could have impaired their situation awareness and their ability to identify and avoid hazards in the path of their vehicle. This analysis suggests that future Automated Vehicle driver training programmes should be multifaceted and cover all nine themes. This analysis has validated these nine driver training themes, so these themes and interconnections can help in the development of a comprehensive training programme for drivers of Automated Vehicles in the future.

Road safety strategies adopted worldwide have made significant progress in reducing road trauma, but have stagnated more recently. The situation in low- and middle-income countries is even worse with no significant decrease in fatality rates. Safety researchers have argued that adopting sociotechnical systems approach is necessary to make significant advancements and improvements. The aim of this study was to develop a control structure model of the Bangladesh road safety system by identifying the actors and organisations involved across the system. Expert stakeholders were identified and interviewed, and relevant information was gathered in order to generate the Systems Theoretic Accident Model and Process control structure model. Throughout the analysis of this model, differences in the control and feedback mechanisms of the system were identified, and road safety intervention recommendations were made. Future research should also predict potential risks within the system and propose proactive and preventative countermeasures. Practitioner summary: In this article, a Systems Theoretic Accident Model and Process control structure model of the Bangladesh road safety system is developed, and the involved actors are identified. Based on interviews and workshops with expert stakeholders, differences in the controls and feedback mechanisms in the system were identified, and road safety intervention recommendations were made. Abbreviations: BUET: Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology.

Introduction: As sports systems become increasingly more complex, competitive, and technology-centric, there is a greater need for systems ergonomics methods to consider the performance, health, and safety of athletes in context with the wider settings in which they operate. Therefore, the purpose of this systematic review was to identify and critically evaluate studies which have applied a systems ergonomics research approach in the context of sports performance and injury management. Material and methods: Five databases (PubMed, Scopus, ScienceDirect, Web of Science, and SPORTDiscus) were searched for the dates 01 January 1990 to 01 August 2017, inclusive, for original peer-reviewed journal articles and conference papers. Reported analyses were underpinned by a recognised systems ergonomics method, and study aims were related to the optimisation of sports performance (e.g. communication, playing style, technique, tactics, or equipment), and/or the management of sports injury (i.e. identification, prevention, or treatment). Results: A total of seven articles were identified. Two articles were focussed on understanding and optimising sports performance, whereas five examined sports injury management. The methods used were the Event Analysis of Systemic Teamwork, Cognitive Work Analysis (the Work Domain Analysis Abstraction Hierarchy), Rasmussen's Risk Management Framework, and the Systems Theoretic Accident Model and Processes method. The individual sport application was distance running, whereas the team sports contexts examined were cycling, football, Australian Football League, and rugby union. Conclusions: The included systems ergonomics applications were highly flexible, covering both amateur and elite sports contexts. The studies were rated as valuable, providing descriptions of injury controls and causation, the factors influencing injury management, the allocation of responsibilities for injury prevention, as well as the factors and their interactions underpinning sports performance. Implications and future directions for research are described.

Degraded visual conditions present a great challenge to rotary-wing aircraft. These conditions can obscure cues used to interpret speed, location and approach. With such cues obscured, pilots must rely on in-cockpit instrumentation, increasing workload, whilst reducing situation awareness. When operating within degraded visual conditions, pilots require easy access to flight critical information, presented in a way that minimises additional workload and maximises situation awareness. One technology that can be beneficial within such conditions is a head-up display (HUD). This study explores the impact of an iteratively designed HUD on pilots’ workload and situation awareness during the safety-critical descent and landing flight phases, during both clear and degraded visual conditions across a series of simulated trials. Results suggest that access to the HUD facilitated pilot awareness, whilst maintaining workload in all conditions. Results support the view that HUDS are beneficial to rotary-wing pilots, particularly in degraded visual environments.

Use of touchscreens in the flight deck has been steadily increasing, however, their usability may be severely impacted when turbulent conditions arise. Most previous research focusses on using touchscreens in static conditions; therefore, this study assessed touchscreen use whilst undergoing turbulent representative motion, generated using a 6-axis motion simulator. Touchscreens were tested in centre, side and overhead positions, to investigate how turbulence affected: (1) error rate, movement times and accuracy, (2) arm fatigue and discomfort. Two touchscreen technologies were compared: a 15" infra-red and a 17.3" projected capacitive touchscreen with force sensing capability. The potential of the force sensing capability to minimise unintentional interactions was also investigated. Twenty-six participants undertook multi-direction tapping (ISO 9241; ISO 2010 ) and gesture tasks, under four vibration conditions (control, light chop, light turbulence and moderate turbulence). Error rate, movement time and workload increased and usability decreased significantly, with screen position and increasing turbulence level. Practitioner Summary: This study evaluated the use of infra-red and projected capacitive touchscreen technologies using multi-directional tapping and gesture tasks, whilst being subjected to different levels of turbulence representative motion. Performance degraded significantly with increasing turbulence level and touchscreen location. This has implications for future flight deck design.

Road safety has become a worldwide public health concern. Although many factors contribute to collisions, pedestrian behaviors can strongly influence road safety outcomes. This paper presents results of a survey investigating the effects of age, gender, attitudes towards road safety, fatalistic beliefs and risk perceptions on self-reported pedestrian behaviors in a Chinese example. The study was carried out on 543 participants (229 men and 314 women) from 20 provinces across China. Pedestrian behaviors were assessed by four factors: errors, violations, aggressions, and lapses. Younger people reported performing riskier pedestrian behaviors compared to older people. Gender was not an influential factor. Of the factors explored, attitudes towards road safety explained the most amount of variance in self-reported behaviors. Significant additional variance in risky pedestrian behaviors was explained by the addition of fatalistic beliefs. The differences among the effects, and the implications for road safety intervention design, are discussed. In particular, traffic managers can provide road safety education and related training activities to influence pedestrian behaviors positively.

The Perceptual Cycle Model (PCM) presents a process-orientated approach to understanding decision making by exploring the interaction between a person’s cognitive schema, the actions they undertake and information available in the world. This paper presents the work undertaken to refine and subcategorize the three elements of the PCM; schema, action and world, to gain a more detailed understanding of the aeronautical decision making process. Critical decision Method interviews were conducted with twenty rotary wing pilots to generate a set of critical incidents. These incidents were qualitatively analyzed using a coding scheme generated from the PCM and then the constant comparison technique was employed to generate the refined PCM coding scheme. The final PCM coding scheme contained 7 ‘schema types’, 14 ‘action types’ and 12 ‘world types’. Three critical incident case studies are presented to demonstrate the insights gained from using the refined coding scheme. Potential applications and plans for future research are discussed.

The introduction of temporary instructions to amend standard operating procedures, to address emerging safety risks, is an example of the well-intentioned decision-making that occurs every day in organisations that manage safety. These organisations typically assess these changes for potential risks; however, even simple changes can have unpredictable and emergent effects in complex sociotechnical systems. A case study of a procedural change in UK air traffic control, to address the risk from unintentional flight level deviations, is explored through the use of a model of adaptation to understand the unexpected and unpredicted effects of the change and uncover the adaptations that already existed within normal work that were a source of safety. Recommendations on the need for systemic safety methodologies that can identify and enhance the features of sociotechnical systems that support this adaptive capacity are identified with reference to this model for adaptation in complex sociotechnical systems.

Recently, ergonomics and safety researchers have turned their attention towards applying combinations of sociotechnical methods rather than using single methods in isolation. In the current research, a mixed-method approach combining two systems-based methods, Accimaps and the Systems Theoretic Accident Model and Process - Causal Analysis using Systems Theory (STAMP-CAST), and one cognitive approach, the Perceptual Cycle Model (PCM), were employed in analysing a rail-level crossing incident in Bangladesh. Each method was applied individually to investigate the collision, and interventions were proposed corresponding to incident events at different risk management framework levels. The three methods provided different perspectives of the whole picture, together identifying an array of contributory factors. The complementary nature of these methods aided in proposing a comprehensive set of safety recommendations, thereby demonstrating the benefit of a mixed-method approach for collision investigation in low-income settings.

Advances in safety science point towards an approach to the management of safety-related risks within complex sociotechnical systems that focuses on the understanding of adaptation. The study of adaptation would benefit from the use of structured and formalised approaches at, and across, all levels of the organisational hierarchy (individual, team and organisation). However, with a large number of potential Human Factors methods available to the safety practitioner, it is unclear which methods are most appropriate for an exploration of this important tenet of systems thinking. A 3-round ranking Delphi study has been conducted to survey the range of methods to determine a soft consensus amongst subject matter experts. In each of the three rounds the list was successively refined. Cognitive Work Analysis (CWA) and Critical Decision Method (CDM) were recommended for the micro level (which could be complemented by HTA). At the meso level, CDM and CWA together with complementary methods, such as Systems Theoretic Accident Modelling and Processes (STAMP), Functional Resonance Analysis Method (FRAM) and the Event Analysis for Systemic Teamwork (EAST) method. STAMP and FRAM were recommended at the macro level, which could be complemented with Hierarchical Task Analysis (HTA), Ethnographic Analysis, EAST and the Human Factors Analysis and Classification System (HFACS). The methods, taken together, should provide a means of exploring adaptation at all of the sociotechnical system levels. This work provides safety practitioners with consolidated guidance on the methods that could be used to explore adaptation as a source of safety in complex sociotechnical systems.

The introduction and uptake of technology within road vehicles has readily advanced the capabilities and the functions that the driver of a road vehicle has available to them. While this has benefited the drivers’ productivity and entertainment behind the wheel, it has also heightened the possibility for distraction. Research into driver distraction to date has identified how technologies inside the vehicle may be used ineffectively and can compromise the safety of the road transport system. Yet, the factors that drivers state impact on their decision to engage with distracting technologies are less well known. This paper presents the first diary study into driver distraction. The study asked drivers to record all technological distractions that they engaged with across a 4-week period, as well as interactions that they ignored or choose not to engage with. The diary entries include the technologies drivers interacted with and the conditions surrounding this, as well as external factors that drivers cited to influence their decision to interact. Primarily, factors relating to the task itself were found to be of most importance to the drivers’ decision to engage. Differences were also found in how drivers stated they compensated for any engagement with distracting tasks. This has important consequences for the design and integration of technological devices into the vehicle. The novel application of the method offers insights into the naturalistic conditions surrounding drivers’ involvement with distracting technologies. The method is also reviewed on its applicability to the study of driver distraction.

Dynamic Risk Analysis (DRA) is a continuous, adaptive process of risk evaluation that can play a fundamental role in the prevention, control and mitigation of new or changing risks in real time. In order to better understand DRA, a systematic review was conducted, followed by thematic analysis and the development of a network model. This model depicts weighted and directional connections to reveal the significance of information and decision making in managing dynamic risk. The research also reveals that people follow rules to a point but will then adapt to meet the challenge of unexpected circumstances. The influence of the environment is also evident, as it cannot only create unique risks but exacerbate existing ones. Throughout the literature there is some debate regarding the use of qualitative and quantitative risk assessment methods in managing dynamic risks. However, when allied with DRA, greater resilience may be added to safety management systems. Considering the factors identified in this research offers a new approach to the problem of managing new or changing risks. What this now means in practical terms is that there is potential to develop a syllabus for DRA training.

This paper reports on an exploratory investigation of the influence of five different fatalistic belief constructs (divine control, luck, helplessness, internality, and general fatalism) on three classes of self-reported pedestrian behaviours (memory and attention errors, rule violations, and aggressive behaviours) and on respondents’ general attitudes to road safety, and how relationships between constructs differ across countries. A survey of over 3400 respondents across Bangladesh, China, Kenya, Thailand, the UK, and Vietnam revealed a similar pattern for most of the relationships assessed, in most countries; those who reported higher fatalistic beliefs or more external attributions of causality also reported performing riskier pedestrian behaviours and holding more dangerous attitudes to road safety. The strengths of relationships between constructs did, however, differ by country, behaviour type, and aspect of fatalism. One particularly notable country difference was that in Bangladesh and, to a lesser extent, in Kenya, a stronger belief in divine influence over one's life was associated with safer attitudes and behaviours, whereas where significant relationships existed in the other countries the opposite was true. In some cases, the effect of fatalistic beliefs on self-reported behaviours was mediated through attitudes, in other cases the effect was direct. Results are discussed in terms of the need to consider the effect of locus of control and attributions of causality on attitudes and behaviours, and the need to understand the differences between countries therein.