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Acute infectious bursal disease (IBD) outbreak caused by virulent IBD virus undermines profitable chicken production in Nigeria. Veterinary clinic-based passive surveillance is carried out by postmortem diagnosis of clinical cases submitted during disease outbreaks. Records of IBD outbreaks from two veterinary hospitals in Maiduguri, Nigeria, were extracted among all disease outbreaks in chicken flocks in the period 2008-2018. Data showed that IBD outbreaks occurred in 493 (7.6%, [95% CI: 7.0-8.3%]) out of 6,486 disease outbreaks in chicken flocks within the period. The year-specific prevalence of outbreaks varied from 1.6% (95% CI: 0.9-2.3%) to 17.3% (95% CI: 12.9-21.7%) and fitted a linear trend (r = -0.73; P

Erythrocyte death by eryptosis or erythronecrosis may induce erythrocyte shrinking or swelling with increase in osmotic resistance or fragility as indication of cytotoxicity. We investigated heterogeneous cytotoxic outcomes during in vitro exposure of goat erythrocytes to aluminium chloride, lead acetate or mercuric chloride using erythrocyte osmotic fragility (EOF) testing. The metallic salt solution (MSS) was added to 4.0 μL of high (100 mosmol/L) and low (250 mosmol/L) hyposmolar sucrose media at 0.3 or 0.4 mosmol/L concentration during testing of the osmotic fragility of 5.0 μL of blood from 10 goats. Hemolysis induced in the media (with and without MSS) was estimated in the supernatant with spectrophotometer at 540 nm. Osmotic stabilization or destabilization was calculated with probability for each test. Inducible osmotic resistance (IOR) was the ratio of mean stabilization to destabilization in both high and low hyposmolar media. Each MSS induced both osmotic resistance (stabilization) and fragility (destabilization) in varied media concentrations, with greater likelihood (P) of stabilization (0.93) or destabilization (0.77) in high or low media hyposmolarity, respectively. The EOF outcomes of the goats diverged within the group. High IOR induced by mercuric chloride (2.90) and low IOR by lead acetate (0.07) and aluminium chloride (0.04) reflected high stabilizing and destabilizing outcomes, respectively. In conclusion, MSS induced dual EOF outcomes (stabilization or destabilization) on the fragility domain, suggesting occurrence of both eryptosis (as stabilization) and erythronecrosis (as destabilization) at low exposure level, whereby biphasic, nonmonotonic or hormetic response to MSS toxic action might exist.

Mineral mining activities with environmental pollution in Nigeria resulted in lead intoxication in humans and livestock. The likelihood of lead contamination of the environment from non-mining sources may exist in Maiduguri, Borno state, Nigeria. The study was carried out to evaluate the bioaccumulation of lead in extensively reared local scavenger chickens-LSC (Gallus gallus domesticus) in Maiduguri. Two hundred samples each of the liver, kidney, intestine, muscle and blood were tested for lead using standard methods in toxicologic evaluation. There were significant (p0.05) sex differences existed in the frequency of lead detection. Mean lead level in the liver of males was significantly (p

Bovine cachexia as a multi-factorial clinical syndrome of severe emaciation is a reason for salvage slaughter in Nigeria. Cachectic cows have sustained neck strength despite muscle atrophy and weakness in the limbs. This study evaluated the protein and electrolyte contents and histopathology of longus colli (neck chain) muscle in cachectic Red Bororo (RB) beef cows. Body condition score (BCS 1–9) was the basis for selection of slaughter cows in a case control study. At antemortem inspection, cachectic (n=39) and control (n=15) cows had BCS of 1–2 and ≥ 5, respectively. Longus colli muscle was collected after slaughter on ice pack. Protein and electrolyte (sodium, potassium, calcium, chloride, bicarbonate, inorganic phosphate ions) contents in aqueous supernatant of the muscle homogenate were estimated. Stained tissue sections were examined histologically for lesions and cross-sectional images were digitally analysed to estimate fascicular size as percentage fascicular myofibre area (PFA) and fascicular myofibre to interstitium ratio (FIR). Protein and electrolyte contents, PFA and FIR were not significantly affected by cachexia. Muscle lesions were myofibre atrophy (40.0%), myositis with myofibre necrosis (13.3%) and Sarcocystis cyst in myofibres (51.1%); and their frequencies were comparable in cachectic and control cows. Therefore, longus colli muscle was likely spared from electrolyte-mediated fatigue and cachexia-related muscle atrophy, but had lesions not associated with cachexia with implications linked to physical welfare and meat hygiene that could warrant further investigations.

African swine fever (ASF) is a highly contagious fatal infectious disease of pigs and wild suids. The disease has a worldwide occurrence and significant impact on pig production. Two adult intensively raised large white boars from two farms in Jos with a history of sudden death were diagnosed of ASF between July and August 2019. Post‐mortem examination of carcasses grossly showed splenomegaly, haemorrhagic lymphadenitis and hepatomegaly with severe congestion. The kidneys were enlarged and had generalized petechiae and blood clot in the pelvis. The heart was moderately enlarged. Microscopic examination of the spleen and lymph nodes revealed severe lymphocytic depletion, haemorrhage and severe haemosiderosis. The liver was severely congested with focal coagulative necrosis of the hepatocytes. The kidneys were severely congested and showed renal tubular necrosis with few tubular protein casts. Tissue samples were confirmed to be positive for African swine fever virus (ASFV) by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay, and phylogenetic analysis revealed that the isolate belonged to genotype I., African swine fever is a highly contagious fatal infectious disease of pigs with a worldwide occurrence and economic importance. Two adult large white boars from two farms in Jos were diagnosed with African swine fever in 2019 through gross and histopathological evaluations, viral isolation and polymerase chain reaction. Sequences obtained were compared and deposited in the GenBank and were accessioned MN888693 and MN888694 and the phylogram showed that the ASFV belongs to genotype I.

Vaccinations against diseases to prevent disease outbreaks are strategic to disease prevention, but vaccination failures may constitute a challenge in practice. This study was aimed at assessing the adoption and failure rates of vaccinations in 80 chicken farms in Jos, Nigeria. Data were obtained through a structured questionnaire validated by interviews and checking of farm and veterinary records. Vaccination score (0–1) from the vaccination checklist (5 for broilers and 12 for layers) and vaccination procedure score (0–1), based on scored adopted procedures, were calculated for each farm. Vaccine effectiveness was calculated for each vaccine using the odds ratio from the association of frequencies of disease outbreaks in vaccinated and unvaccinated flocks. Farmers used more of imported than local vaccines. Vaccination procedure and vaccination scores did not influence frequencies of disease outbreaks, but vaccination scores tended to non-robustly correlate (r = − 0.89, p > 0.05) with rates of disease outbreak. Vaccination rates were highest against Newcastle disease and infectious bursal disease, and their vaccinations also had the highest effectiveness. There was an association (p = 0.009) between composite vaccination rates and disease outbreaks with 2.1 odds of outbreaks in vaccinated than unvaccinated flocks. Vaccination failures occurred in the use of 11 out of 12 vaccines and the highest failure rate (47.9%) was in vaccination against coccidiosis. Therefore, vaccination failure is a critical factor in poultry vaccination practice within the locality. The adoption of poultry vaccinations needs to be strategised in the context of a national poultry vaccination policy in order to promote effective poultry disease prevention and control.

Aluminium (Al) is frequently accessible to animal and human populations to the extent that intoxications may occur. Intake of Al is by inhalation of aerosols or particles, ingestion of food, water and medicaments, skin contact, vaccination, dialysis and infusions. Toxic actions of Al induce oxidative stress, immunologic alterations, genotoxicity, pro-inflammatory effect, peptide denaturation or transformation, enzymatic dysfunction, metabolic derangement, amyloidogenesis, membrane perturbation, iron dyshomeostasis, apoptosis, necrosis and dysplasia. The pathological conditions associated with Al toxicosis are desquamative interstitial pneumonia, pulmonary alveolar proteinosis, granulomas, granulomatosis and fibrosis, toxic myocarditis, thrombosis and ischemic stroke, granulomatous enteritis, Crohn’s disease, inflammatory bowel diseases, anemia, Alzheimer’s disease, dementia, sclerosis, autism, macrophagic myofasciitis, osteomalacia, oligospermia and infertility, hepatorenal disease, breast cancer and cyst, pancreatitis, pancreatic necrosis and diabetes mellitus. The review provides a broad overview of Al toxicosis as a background for sustained investigations of the toxicology of Al compounds of public health importance.

Exposure to aluminium is associated with altered glycaemia, but this effect in relation to glucose tolerance and pancreatic islet pathology requires validation. The study was aimed at assessing the glycaemic changes, glucose tolerance and islet morphology of albino rats during oral aluminium chloride exposure. Twenty male albino rats weighing 189–270 g were randomly divided into two equal groups. The control group was sham-treated with normal saline and the treated group was administered aluminium chloride solution (100 g/L) by gavage at 12.5% of LD50 (50 mg/kg) daily for 28 days. Fasting blood glucose (FBG) and postprandial blood glucose (PBG) concentrations after glucose gavage at 1 g/kg were estimated and the pancreatic islet tissues were examined for histopathological changes. The treatment caused significant (p

The aim of this study was to determine the haematological reference values of a population of dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius) in northern Nigeria to provide data required during laboratory investigation of health. The haematological variables were determined with EDTA anti-coagulated blood samples collected from the jugular veins of 121 camels during antemortem sessions at the abattoir in Maiduguri (Borno State). Serum total protein, albumin and globulin concentrations were estimated with serum samples harvested from clotted blood samples collected from the same animals. The haematological data were normally distributed (except monocyte and basophil counts) and values were presented as means, standard deviations, medians, minimum and maximum limits. Packed cell volume (PCV) significantly (p

The study was conducted to assess the effect of zinc on erythrocyte osmotic fragility and hemogram of rats following chronic oral exposure to glyphosate-based herbicide (BUSHFIRE®) at daily doses of 14.4–750 mg/kg of glyphosate. The erythrocyte osmotic fragility, estimated as percentage hemolysis in hypotonic saline, was significantly (p

Objectives To assess the effects of zinc pretreatment on hepatorenal toxicity following chronic exposure to glyphosate-based herbicides in male rats. Methods Following zinc pretreatment (50 mg/kg and 100 mg/kg), 14.4 to 750 mg/kg of oral glyphosate (Bushfire® herbicide) was administered daily for 36 weeks. Thereafter, serum samples were obtained following jugular venipuncture. Liver and kidney samples were processed for histopathological examination. Results Serum aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, and alkaline phosphatase activity as well as levels of bicarbonate, calcium, creatinine were significantly increased following chronic exposure to Bushfire®. Serum levels of sodium, potassium, chloride, total protein, albumin, globulin and urea were unchanged. Moderate to severe coagulative necrosis of hepatocytes as well as glomerular and renal tubular necrosis were observed in herbicide-treated rats. Zinc pretreatment reduced the elevation of serum enzymes associated with hepatobiliary lesions, abrogated hypercalcemia and metabolic alkalosis, and mitigated serum accumulation of creatinine following Bushfire® exposure, but was ineffective in completely preventing histological lesions. Conclusion Chronic Bushfire® exposure in rats caused hepatorenal toxicity. The effects of exposure on serum parameters were ameliorated by zinc pretreatment, but the histopathological changes associated with toxicity persisted in milder forms in zinc-pretreated animals.

African swine fever is a highly contagious fatal infectious disease of pigs with a worldwide occurrence and economic importance. Two adult large white boars from two farms in Jos North, Plateau State-Nigeria kept under intensive management system were diagnosed of African swine fever between the last week of July and the first week of August 2019 at the Veterinary Teaching Hospital University of Jos. In both cases the farmers complained of sudden deaths of pigs. At post mortem examination carcasses grossly showed splenomegaly, hemorrhagic lymphadenitis, and hepatomegaly with severe congestion. The kidneys were enlarged and had generalized petechiae and blood clot in the pelvis.The heart was moderately enlarged.On microscopy, the spleen and lymph nodes, showed severe lymphocytic depletion, haemorrhage and severe haemosiderosis. The liver was severely congested with focal coagulative necrosis of the hepatocytes. The kidneys were severely congested and showed renal tubular necrosis with few tubular protein casts. Tissue samples were confirmed to be positive for ASFV by polymerase chain reaction and phylogenetic analysis revealed that the isolate belonged to genotype-I. Sequences obtained were compared and deposited in the GenBank and were accessioned MN888693 and MN888694. Keywords: African swine fever; laboratory; diagnosis; smallholder farms; pig; Nigeria

Objectives To assess the toxicopathologic effects of chronic exposure to the glyphosate-based herbicide Bushfire® on the pancreas of Wistar rats and the protective role of zinc. Methods We exposed the rats to daily doses of 14.4 to 750 mg/kg body weight of the glyphosate-based herbicide Bushfire® and to 50 or 100 mg/kg zinc, and measured blood glucose levels and serum insulin levels. Tissue samples were evaluated for histopathological alterations. Results Levels of both blood glucose and serum insulin increased in glyphosate-exposed rats, and moderate to severe degenerative changes were observed in both glandular pancreatic acinar cells and islets of Langerhans in all rats exposed to glyphosate. These effects were prevented by pretreatment with zinc. Conclusion Chronic exposure to glyphosate can alter pancreatic function and histoarchitecture, but zinc supplementation can mitigate these toxicopathologic effects.

Apparently healthy male Nigerian Sahel goats (n = 125) aged 18–30 months old and weighing 10–25 kg were selected at slaughter by stratified quota sampling, into 5 groups of 25 each with varying testicular sizes, in order to investigate the occurrence of dyspermatogenesis. Testicular sizes were categorized as very small, small, medium, large and very large using gonadosomatic index values of 1–2, >2–3, >3–4 and >4 g/kg, respectively. Left testes and epididymides were homogenized with formalized normal saline for sperm cell count by manual cytometry. Right testes were fixed in 10% buffered formalin and processed for histopathological examination. Cauda epididymal sperm counts of zero and

Adaptation of goats to the arid and semi-arid environments may involve adjustments in erythrocyte osmoregulation. Sexual dimorphic and age-related effects on osmotic stability of the goat erythrocyte were investigated to determine physiological variations. Apparently healthy male (n = 23) and non-pregnant dry female (n = 24) Sahel goats, aged 1½–2, >2–2½, and >2½ years with mean body weights of 10.35–27.21 kg, were selected for the study from a semi-intensively managed flock. Heparinised venous blood of each goat was used to determine packed cell volume, erythrocyte count, mean corpuscular volume and osmotic fragility. Erythrocyte parameters did not vary with sex or age of the animal. Erythrocyte osmotic fragility (EOF), determined in hypotonic buffered saline, did not show sexual difference, but age elicited significant (p 1½–2 years, respectively. Body weights increased (p

Fifty four head samples of slaughtered one-humped camel (Camelus dromedarius) from Maiduguri Abattoir were used for the study. Out of this number, 33 (61.12%) were found to have one or more lesions, while 20 (38.88%) had no lesion. Broken tooth was found to have the highest prevalence of 20.75%, while caries was found to have the lowest prevalence of 1.89%. Among the 33 heads with lesions, 13 (24.53%) were females and 20 (37.74%) were males. Two (3.77%) were between the ages of 1 and 3 years, 11 (20.75%) were between the ages of 4 and 6 years and 20 (37.74%) were 7 years and above. Sexual dimorphism and age difference were observed in the study, where broken tooth and dental calculi were seen more in females than in males and more in older camel than in younger ones.

Sahel sheep and goats, under extensive or semi-intensive management in smallholder farms in semi-arid northeastern Nigeria (Maiduguri), were evaluated to determine the relationship between faecal egg count (FEC) and packed cell volume (PCV) with associated anaemia and whether concurrent haemoparasitic infections would confound the variables. Faecal and anticoagulated blood samples from Sahel sheep (n = 227) and goats (n = 415) were collected January–December 2006, after conjunctival colour was estimated as FAMACHA score (FS) as follows: red (1), red–pink (2), pink (3), pink–white (4) or white (5). Presumed level of helminth infection, based on FEC with modified McMaster technique, was graded as mild ( 1,500/g). Out of 642 animals, 276 (43.0 %) had helminth infection based on FEC. More goats (11.5 %) were severely infected than sheep (1.3 %). PCV was decreased by only severe helminth burden. FS correlated with PCV (r = −0.69, −0.86; p

Fertility of unilateral cryptorchid Sahel buck in uncontrolled breeding depends on sperm output of the scrotal testis. Semen evaluation and testicular and epididymal sperm head counts of cryptorchid and normal bucks were carried out at comparable age, body weight and testicular size. Mean semen volume and sperm cell count of the cryptorchids were not different from those of normal bucks, but the percentage of sperm cell abnormalities in semen was higher than normal consisting of narrow and big sperm heads, bent mid-piece, curved tails and tailless heads. Scrotal testes and epididymides of the cryptorchids had comparable mean size parameters and sperm head counts as those of the normal bucks. In conclusion, the scrotal testis of the cryptorchid produces as much sperm as the testis of the normal buck, but probably contributes more sperm to the ejaculate than normal with increased sperm cell abnormalities that may reduce fertility of the cryptorchid.

The seroprevalence and maternal antibody profiles to Newcastle disease virus infection of guinea fowls were studied using haemagglutination inhibition (HI) test, in Borno and Yobe States of Nigeria. Of 822 sera and 354 egg yolk extracts tested, 327 (39.8%) and 242 (68.4%) were positive for NDV antibodies respectively. The seroprevalence was significantly higher (P< 0.05) in the dry (47%) than in the rainy (32.8%) seasons. Maternal antibodies in egg yolk extract (sampled during the rainy season), were significantly (P< 0.05) higher (68.4%) than the seroprevalence. The frequency distribution of antibody titers were skewed with 79.8% and 63.2 % of sera and egg yolk respectively having reciprocal antibody titres ≤ 20. The geometric mean antibody titre was higher (P< 0.05) in the dry season (3.7±2.0) than in the rainy season (2.5 ±1.7). The geometric mean titre was also higher (P

Testicular sizes of animals are important for identification of those with adequate sperm production. The aim of this study was to define the testicular and related size estimates that would be associated with optimal cauda epididymal sperm counts (ESC) in Sahel goats based on postmortem evaluations. A stratified quota sample population of 125 male goats inclusive of all testicular sizes was taken at a slaughterhouse in Maiduguri, Nigeria. The bucks were aged 18-30 months and weighed 17.04 ± 2.99 (12-25) kg. Body, testicular and epididymal weights of each goat with other related size measurements were estimated. ESC was determined from homogenized tissue using a manual cytometer. At the cut-off ESC of >1.1 × 109 sperm heads, 66 (52.5%) of the goats had optimal ESC which was associated with testicular weight of 59.90 ± 16.10 (31.4-86.2) kg, gonado somatic index of 3.51 ± 0.69 (2.0-4.5) g/kg and scrotal circumference of 19.07 ± 1.29 (17.0-21.8) cm. The ESC correlated better with age than body weight of the animals and correlated also with testicular and scrotal size variables and epididymal weights. The size variables of the scrotum and testis correlated with one another. These findings provide data that may be used to anticipate adequate antemortem sperm reserve based on testicular size during preliminary selection of sires for breeding from a sexually mature Sahel buck population.Keywords: Optimal sperm output, testicular size, scrotal size, Sahel goat, Nigeria

In a survey at the Maiduguri metropolitan abattoir in northeastern Nigeria, between August and November 2009, Oesophagostomum columbianum nodules were found on the intestines of 702 (71.3 %) Sahel goats out of 984 examined. The nodules were predominantly located in the large intestines of most of the goats (96.4 %), but in heavy infections (3.6 %), the nodules extended into the small intestines and the omentum. The presence of nodules did not significantly (P > 0.05) increase the weight of the intestines of infected goats. Grossly the nodules were young (60 %), purulent (30 %) or calcified (10 %). Histologically the nodules appeared as granulomas with one or multiple necrotic foci. The infiltrating cells associated with the granulomas were eosinophils, neutrophils, macrophages, epithelioid macrophages and lymphocytes, but no multinucleated giant cell was found. The intestinal epithelium adjacent to the granuloma had intense lymphocytic infiltration into the lamina propria, necrosis and sloughing of the epithelial cells, stunting of the expanded villi and fewer intestinal glands. It was concluded that natural O. columbianum infection of Sahel goats was prevalent in the area and the infection caused non-suppurative enteritis associated with submucosal nodules which were granulomas lacking giant cells.

Concurrent outbreak of staphylococcal pneumonia with infectious bursal disease (IBD) occurred in 29-day-old broiler chickens. The outbreak started after a flock of 279 birds was decongested by moving 121 birds to another pen. The birds were depressed and weak before death and carcasses were cyanotic. At necropsy, the lungs were dark red, congested and consolidated; the bursa of Fabricius (BF) was enlarged; the liver was pale and the intestinal mucosa was hyperaemic. Histopathological examination of the lungs, BF and liver revealed fibrinopurulent pneumonia, purulent inflammation of the BF and hepatic lipidosis, respectively. Staphylococcus aureus was isolated from the teased tissue of the lungs. The mortality was 35.8% within 5 days of the outbreak. The circumstances of the outbreak suggested that immunosuppression due to stress associated with crowding and transferring of the birds from one pen to another and poor seroconversion to previous infectious bursal disease virus vaccination, favoured the clinical establishment of the bacterial and IBD viral infections.

La decoccion de la corteza del tallo de Ficus sycomorus se usa para tratar la infertilidad relacionada al bajo conteo de espermatozoides, pero es incierto el riesgo reproductivo asociado con su uso. El extracto acuoso de la corteza se administro, en ratas albinas, por via oral, en una dosis de 200-600 mg/kg, durante 30 dias post-crecimiento puberal. Durante el periodo, fueron controlados los siguientes parametros: peso corporal in vivo, diametro escrotal y tamano testicular. El promedio de peso corporal in vivo y diametro escrotal de las ratas control y tratadas, tuvieron un incremento significativo (p 0,05) esos parametros. No hubo variaciones significativas (p> 0,05) en la media de los parametros tamano testicular en las ratas tratadas y control, ni tampoco se produjeron efectos dependientes de la dosis, ni en funcion del tiempo. Las secciones de los testiculos de los animales tratados mostraron una espermatogenesis activa a nivel de los tubulos seminiferos, sin lesiones histologicas aparentes. Se concluye, que el uso del extracto crudo de Ficus sycomorus, dentro de una dosis de 200-600 mg/kg, presenta minimo riesgo en la reproduccion masculina, sin embargo, se hace necsario estudiar su efecto pro-espermatico.

Trypanosoma brucei, Federe strain, caused an acute infection in rats after intraperitoneal inoculation of 106 trypanosomes. Parasitemia occurred from day 3 post-infection (pi) with peak parasitemia from day 7 pi. Anemia was observed between days 7 and 11 pi. The serum triglyceride concentration was comparable with the control value on day 7 pi, but increased (P 0.05) significantly during the infection. It was concluded that the decreased hepatic contents of these lipids were consistent with the serum lipid concentration, which did not seem to favor lipid uptake by hepatocytes.

Background Erythrocyte swelling in non-ionic sucrose media and the subsequent osmotic lysis are influenced by mechanisms of regulatory volume adjustment and osmotic water permeability. Kinetics of transmembrane water and ion fluxes in varied physiologic states may determine the phenotype of erythrocyte osmotic fragility (EOF) and affect estimates of EOF. Methods Effects of sex, age, late pregnancy (third trimester) and lactation on the haemolysis of Sahel goat erythrocytes incubated in a series of hyposmotic non-ionic sucrose media were investigated. Results The fragiligram was sigmoidal in 72 (97%) out of 74 goats. Two male (3%) goats with low and high extreme median erythrocyte fragilities (MEF), had non-sigmoidal curves. The mean fragilities at osmolarities of 30-300 mosmol/L of sucrose and the mean osmolarities responsible for 10%-90% haemolysis (CH10-CH90) were not significantly different between males and non-pregnant dry (NPD) females, amongst the age groups and between pregnant or lactating and NPD female goats. The MEF (CH50) of the goats were at osmolarities of 126-252 mosmol/L (median of data: 171 mosmol/L) with a mean of 175.24±16.20 mosmol/L. Therefore, phenotypic homogeneity of EOF occurred with minor deviance, since EOF variables were not differentiated by sex, age, late pregnancy or lactation. Conclusions Physiologic states of the goat did not affect EOF phenotype in non-ionic sucrose media. Sigmoidal fragility phenotype seemed to be homogeneously conserved by osmoregulatory mechanisms not partitioned by sex, age, late pregnancy or lactation, but a minor non-sigmoidal curve might have occurred due to altered erythrocyte osmotic behaviour that would require further investigation.

A questionnaire-based study of chicken production system with on-farm biosecurity practices was carried out in commercial poultry farms located in Jos, Nigeria. Commercial and semicommercial farms had 75.3% and 24.5% of 95,393 birds on 80 farms, respectively. Farms using deep litter and battery cage systems were 69 (86.3%) and 10 (12.5%), respectively. In our biosecurity scoring system, a correct practice of each indicator of an event scored 1.00 and biosecurity score (BS) of each farm was the average of the scores of biosecurity indicators for the farm, giving BS of zero and 1.00 as absence of biosecurity and optimal biosecurity, respectively. Semicommercial farms had higher BS than commercial farms. The flock size did not significantly (p>0.05) affect the mean BS. Disease outbreaks correlated (r=-0.97) with BS, showing a tendency of reduction of disease outbreaks with increasing BS. Outbreaks were significantly (p<0.05) associated with deep litter system. In conclusion, the chicken production system requires increased drive for excellent biosecurity practices and weak points in the biosecurity could be ameliorated by extension of information to farmers in order to support expansion of chicken production with robust biosecurity measures that drastically reduce risk of disease outbreak.

A typical mammalian erythrocyte fragility phenotype (EFP) exhibits a sigmoidal curve of the dependence of fragilities (% haemolysis) on hypotonic saline concentrations, but the goat EFP tends to be hyperbolic. Physiological variation in median erythrocyte fragility (MEF) and the associated EFP of Sahel goats was investigated. Erythrocyte osmotic fragility (EOF) was determined in hypotonic saline using heparinized venous blood from 47 goats (23 males and 24 non-pregnant dry females) aged 1-4 years and weighing 18.87 ± 6.32 (9-30) kg. Packed cell volume (PCV), erythrocyte count and mean corpuscular volume (MCV) were also estimated. Low, medium and high EFP were based on MEF of < 7, 7-8 and > 8 g/L, respectively. MEF of all the goats was 7.5 ± 0.6 (5.9-8.4) g/L. Phenotypic drift from sigmoidal to hyperbolic EOF curve was observed at the lower and upper limits of the phenotypic variation. Frequencies of occurrence of low, medium and high EFP were not different (p > 0.05) between males and females. Fragiligrams of low, medium and high EFP separated at erythrocyte fragilities of 10-70% and saline tonicity of 7-8 g/L. The saline concentrations causing fragilities of 10-70% differed (p < 0.05) among the phenotypes. There was no correlation (r = -0.28, -0.30; p > 0.05) between MEF and MCV or PCV, and between PCV and MCV. In conclusion, phenotypic drift in EOF occurred in Sahel goats without influence by erythrocyte parameters and represented the physiological variability of EOF endpoint estimates that would serve as reference limits in evaluation of erythrocyte membrane defects. Keywords: Erythrocyte size, Median fragility, Osmotic fragility, Phenotypic drift, Sahel goat

Erythrocyte osmotic lysis in deionised glucose media is regulated by glucose influx, cation efflux, and changes in cell volume after water diffusion. Transmembrane fluxes may be affected by varied expression of glucose transporter protein and susceptibility of membrane proteins to glucose-induced glycosylation and oxidation in various physiologic states.Variations in haemolysis of Sahel goat erythrocytes after incubation in hyposmotic non-ionic glucose media, associated with sex, age, late pregnancy, and lactation, were investigated.The osmotic fragility curve in glucose media was sigmoidal with erythrocytes from goats in late pregnancy (PRE) or lactation (LAC) or from kid (KGT) or middle-aged (MGT) goats. Non-sigmoidal phenotype occurred in yearlings (YGT) and old (OGT) goats. The composite fragility phenotype for males and non-pregnant dry (NPD) females was non-sigmoidal. Erythrocytes with non-sigmoidal curves were more stable than those with sigmoidal curves because of inflectional shift of the curve to the left. Erythrocytes tended to be more fragile with male than female sex, KGT and MGT than YGT and OGT, and LAC and PRE than NPD. Thus, sex, age, pregnancy, and lactation affected the haemolytic pattern of goat erythrocytes in glucose media.The physiologic state of the goat affected the in vitro interaction of glucose with erythrocytes, causing variations in osmotic stability with variants of fragility phenotype. Variations in the effect of high extracellular glucose concentrations on the functions of membrane-associated glucose transporter, aquaporins, and the cation cotransporter were presumed to be relevant in regulating the physical properties of goat erythrocytes under osmotic stress.

The reliability of FAMACHA © chart for identifying anaemic goats was compared with Packed Cell Volume (PCV). The colour of the lower eyelids was graded with FAMACHA © chart based on FAMACHA © scores (FS) of 1-5. The animals were scored from severely anaemic (white or FS 5) through moderately anaemic (pink or FS 3) to non-anaemic (red or FS 1). The prevalence of anaemia in the animals was also determined. This study was done to control death of animals from anaemia by the use of FAMACHA © chart, a method which does not need laboratory analysis and can be used by the illiterate with minimal training. A total of 415 goats were used for the study. Blood samples were collected for determination of PCV. Data for both FS and PCV were evaluated using two separate cut off points for each sample (values of FS 4 and 5 or FS 5 and PCV values of ≤ 19% or ≤ 15 %), to determine anaemic animals. The FAMACHA © Score of the evaluated goats was normally distributed, with FS 3 occurring most frequently (34.5%), whilst, the least was FS 1 (5.3%). There was a high negative correlation between FS and PCV (r = -0.69, P < 0.02). The sensitivity of FS was high (64%) when FS 5 and PCV ≤ 19%, were used to determine anaemia, but when FS 4&5 and PCV ≤ 15% were used, the sensitivity decreased to 22%. Thus, it was concluded that FAMACHA © scores of 5 gave the most reliable indicator of anaemia in goats, coinciding with the PCV values of ≤ 19%. A high Likelihood Ratio of 22 was recorded in this study. Indicating that FS will be positive for anaemia 22 times in anaemic animals than in non anaemic animals. Keywords: Anaemia, FAMACHA © chart, Goat, Reliability, Sensitivity

Rumen impaction in sheep with indigestible foreign bodies (IFB) was studied in Maiduguri, a town in the semi-arid region of Nigeria. Twenty-seven refuse dumps around the town were visited by 405 sheep consisting of Yankasa (40.3%), Uda (26.4%) and cross (33.3%) breeds. Rumen IFB were found in 19.3% of the 540 sheep slaughtered at the Maiduguri abattoir. A greater proportion of Yankasa (25.3%) had rumen IFB than Uda (14.5%) and cross (14.6%) breeds. More females (28.3%) were affected than males (8.5%). The IFB were polythene/cellophane materials, ropes, dry seeds, caked sand, metallic objects, paper, fiber and hair balls. The polythene/cellophane materials occurred in 81.6% of the sheep. The other types of IFB occurred in 7.4–47.1% of the sheep, usually impacted with or without polythene/cellophane. Clinical rumen IFB impaction was characterized by emaciation, abdominal distension and asymmetry, lack of feces in the rectum, foamy salivation, recumbency and inappetence. Hyperglycaemia, alkalosis, hyponatraemia, hypochloridaemia, hypocalcaemia, hypoproteinaemia and hypoalbuminaemia occurred in some of the clinical cases. It was concluded that the rumen impaction with IFB was related to the sheep scavenging on refuse dumps and that the blood biochemical changes, along with the clinical signs, might be of some diagnostic assistance.

Feline Panleukopenia Virus (FPV) is a leading cause of death in unvaccinated and susceptible cat populations. The present study aims to determine the prevalence of FPV and associated risk factors in pet and stray cats in Maiduguri, Northeastern Nigeria. A cross sectional survey was conducted involving two hundred cats sampled randomly. Commercial test Kit FASTest® PARVO Strip® was used for the detection of FPV in the faeces of the pet and stray cats. The prevalence in pet and stray cats were 4.0% (CI =0.0204, 0.0769) and 9.5% (CI = 0.0617, 0.1436) respectively. All the apparently healthy cats did not test positive for FPV. However, the prevalence of FPV in the sick cats was 13.5% (CI = 0.0945, 0.1893). The male and female cats had prevalence of 7.0% (CI = 0.0422, 0.1141) and 6.5% (CI = 0.0384, 0.1080) respectively. Feline Panleukopenia Virus was found to be more prevalent in cats that were less than 6 months with 10% (CI = 0.0657, 0.1494) and 3.5% (CI = 0.0171, 0.0705) in cats greater than 6 months old. A strong and significant association was found (χ2 = 103.565; P < 0.0001) between age groups and the status of infection. There was a strong and significant association (χ2 = 217.768; P < 0.0001) between gender and the type of management system of these cats. The present study has demonstrated for the first time the presence of FPV in pet and stray cats in Maiduguri, Nigeria.

Heparinised blood was exposed to osmotic lysis in hypotonic buffered saline to evaluate erythrocyte membrane stability. When K3 EDTA blood was used, it added more to the ionic content of blood than heparin. The influence of suspending media's ionic strength on the osmotic stability of Sahel goat erythrocytes was investigated by replacing the ionic saline with non-ionic saccharide (sucrose or glucose) and assessing the effect of using EDTA blood instead of heparinised blood.The erythrocyte osmotic fragility curve in saline was hyperbolic even when the ionic concentration was reduced by 50% with saccharides. Haemolysis was higher with EDTA than heparinised blood at saline concentrations of 90 and 150-180 mosmol/L. The fragility curve was sigmoidal and shifted to the left when saline was completely substituted with a saccharide. The non-ionic saccharides increased erythrocyte osmotic resistance linearly (r=0.88; p0.02) from median to minimal hyposmolarities (150-300 mosmol/L) and reduced the osmolyte concentration at median fragility by 36%. No effect occurred at30-120 mosmol/L and90% fragility; and saccharide concentrations were almost non-lytic at comparable saline concentrations evoking10% haemolysis. Fragilities were neither affected by period (30-60 min) of incubation nor the type of saccharide used.In this study, the variation in osmotic stability of caprine erythrocytes was linked to ionic strength of the suspending extracellular media which seemed to exert an influence through transmembrane ion fluxes and regulatory volume changes in erythrocytes.

Rabbits infected with Trypanosoma brucei brucei (Basa isolate) were intraperitoneally administered with vitamins C and E at 100 mg/kg and 10 mg/kg body weight, respectively, from day 7 before infection to day 12 post-infection (p.i.). Another group of rabbits were similarly infected, but received no vitamin treatment. The uninfected (control) rabbits were either untreated or treated with vitamins like the infected group. Treatment of the infected animals did not affect the onset and level of parasitaemia. On day 12 p.i., the anaemia tended to be ameliorated, but insignificantly, by the treatment. The infection increased (p0.05) serum urea and creatinine concentrations to similar levels in treated and untreated groups. However, the increase (p0.05) in alanine and aspartate transaminases in the untreated infected animals was prevented in the treated infected ones. Therefore, it seemed that the treatment with antioxidant vitamins boosted their storage in hepatic cells, but not in erythrocytes and glomeruli, to annul any cellular injury due to infection. It is concluded that this may be an indirect evidence that the hepatic damage may be principally due to oxidative injury.

The erythrocyte glutathione (GSH) concentrations of 210 Nigerian Sahel goats were 2.4–175.2 (46.5±36.4) mg/100 ml RBC or 0.1–7.3 (1.9±1.4) mg/gHb. The frequency distribution of the blood and erythrocyte GSH values were positively skewed, but the packed cell volume (PCV) and haemoglobin (Hb) concentrations were normally distributed. The erythrocyte GSH values in mg/100 ml RBC and mg/gHb were strongly correlated. Majority of the goat population (74.8%) had low or `deficient' erythrocyte GSH concentrations (≤60 mg/100 ml RBC). Sixteen animals with very low erythrocyte GSH values of 2.4–9.8 (6.9±2.9) mg/100 ml RBC were not anaemic and the anaemic goats with PCV of 17.0±0.9% had GSH concentrations of 3.5–97.5 (45.0±42.8) mg/100 ml RBC. The erythrocyte GSH values were not correlated with PCV or Hb, and anaemia. The biochemical basis for the low erythrocyte GSH concentrations is yet to be determined.

Four groups (A, B, C and D) of 10 naive rats were used to compare the virulence of isolates of a strain of Trypanosoma brucei before and after the development of diminazene aceturate resistance. Group A rats were uninfected (controls). Group B rats were infected with a trypanosome isolate unexposed to the drug, while groups C and D rats were infected with two different drug-resistant isolates of the same strain. Rats in the three infected groups each received 10(6) trypanosomes intraperitoneally. Prepatent periods were longer (P

During acute Trypanosoma vivax infection of calves, produced by intravenous inoculation, the mean packed cell volume and red blood cell counts of the infected animals decreased significantly (P0.05) between Days 6 and 13 post-infection (pi). The moderately severe normocytic anaemia started to develop during the first wave of parasitaemia which occurred from Day 2 pi and peaked between Days 4 and 5 pi. The mean erythrocyte glutathione (GSH) concentration of the infected calves decreased significantly (P0.05) from 58.4 +/- 11.4 mg 100ml-1 red blood cells (RBC) on Day 0 pi to 44.5 +/- 12.8 mg 100ml-1 RBC on Day 5 pi. As the GSH values recovered on Day 6 pi and increased thereafter, another slight decrease (P0.05) in GSH concentration occurred on Day 12 pi at the second peak of parasitaemia followed by a significant (P0.05) increase to 79.1 +/- 14.6 mg 100ml-1 RBC on Day 13 pi. In the uninfected calves, the mean GSH values ranged from 47.7 +/- 7.0 to 60.8 +/- 6.8 mg 100ml-1 RBC. When washed, erythrocytes of the infected and uninfected calves were separately challenged with hydrogen peroxide. They produced comparable amounts of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances as a measure of by-products of lipid peroxidation. This suggested that the ability of the erythrocytes to prevent peroxidative injury was not reduced, because GSH regeneration was probably enhanced and the antioxidant capacity of the erythrocytes was maintained.

Un foyer de bursite infectieuse (IBD) est apparu en même temps qu'une colibacillose septicémique aiguë chez des poulettes âgées de 15 semaines. La septicémie a été précédée par une IBD subclinique. Dans ce foyer, la mortalité a commencé par des cas de septicémie et Escherichia coli a été isolé du sang du cœur des oiseaux. Après traitement antibiotique, les mortalités se sont poursuivies en augmen-tant, puis, après un pic, ont décliné et enfin ont cessé. L'IBD a été confirmée par des lésions des bourses caractérisées par une lymphocytose importante et une dégénération cystique des follicules lymphoïdes. Sur les 253 volailles, 42 (16,60 %) sont mortes dans une période de huit jours. Les éléments liés à ce foyer laissent à penser que l'absence de vaccination de rappel contre IBD a favorisé l'établissement d'IBD subclinique, diminuant fortement l'immunité et prédisposant les volailles à la septicémie colibacillaire.

An experimental study of proximal duodenal obstruction (PDO) was performed on five Borno White goats by surgically placing an obstructing ligature on the duodenum 6 cm distal to the pylorus. Three intact goats were the first controls and another three goats, which were laparotomized (sham treated), were the second controls. Goats with PDO were weak, anorexic and passed very scanty to no faeces 24 h after PDO. Mean packed cell volume was higher during PDO, but not significantly increased (P>0.05). Total plasma protein concentration was significantly decreased (P

Five non-pregnant healthy Yankasa ewes were deprived of water for 10 d with only one watering period during hot dry weather. On d 5, the mean body weight significantly (P 0.05) and mean plasma globulin, sodium (Na), chloride, urea, creatinine and cholesterol concentrations and urea-to-creatinine and cholesterol-to-glucose ratios were significantly (P 0.05), mean PCV and plasma K, bicarbonate and glucose concentrations and albumin-to-globulin ratio still did not vary significantly. Significant increases (P

The effect of intravenous infusion of a solution of lactose-in-normal saline on the course of Trypanosoma vivax induced anaemia in Zebu yearlings was investigated. The animals were infected with 11 x 106 trypanosomes by jugular venipuncture and lactose-in-normal saline infusion started on day 6, post-infection (p.i). Three four-hourly doses of 0.5 g lactose/kg body weight were administered to each infected yearling in the experimental group daily for five days, while the infected control yearlings received no lactose-infusion. The experiment was terminated on day 13, p.i. Parasitaemia in the lactoseinfusedyearlings was scorable throughout the duration of experiment while parasites could not be detected in the blood of the infected control yearlings between days 7 and 9, p.i. Serum free sialic acids(FSA) concentration was also consistently higher in the lactose-infused yearlings than in the lactosefree ones. In the before lactose infusion (BL) period the PCV of the lactose-infused group dropped at asignificantly (P < 0.05) faster rate than in the lactose-free one. In the DL (during lactose infusion) period, the rate and magnitude of decline in PCV was significantly lower in the lactose-infused yearlings than inthe lactose-free animals. When lactose infusion was stopped (AL) the rate and magnitude of PCV decline became greater in the lactose-infused yearlings than in the lactose-free ones. It was thusconcluded that lactose ameliorated anaemia, by inhibiting the sequestration of desialylated erythrocytes from the blood stream of T. vivax-infected yearlings. This manifested in the reducedmagnitude and rate of decrease in PCV in the lactose-infused infected yearlings.

The effects of aqueous extract of Hibiscus sabdariffa calyces on haematology and pathological changes in some selected organs during experimental Trypanosoma congolense infection of rats were investigated. Three groups of rats were intraperitoneally infected with T. congolense (Karu stock). One group was administered with the aqueous extract and another given a solution of vitamin C in drinking water; the remaining infected group was left untreated. Data from these groups were compared with those of two groups of healthy rats, one of which was similarly treated with the aqueous extract. The experiment was terminated three weeks, post-infection (pi). The uninfected and infected rats administered the extract consumed the equivalent of 9.94 mg - and 9.61 mg ascorbic acid / 100g / day during the experiment. Consumption of the extract significantly (p

Populations of exotic and indigenous domestic chickens and guinea fowls in northeastern Nigeria were surveyed for Plasmodium sp by examining their stained blood samples. The packed cel volumes of all blood samples were estimated. During the period of study (March to September 2006), raina data were collected. The prevalence of Plasmodium inecton in 575 domestc poultry examined was 9.4 % and the prevalence among the difference poultry types (exotic broilers and layers, indigenous chickens and guinea fowls) did not difer signiicantly (P > 0.05).There was a significant (P < 0.05) positive correlation between the monthly prevalence and ranfal wth mean prevalence hgher (P < 0.05)in the rainy than dry months. Packed cell volume (PCV) o uninfected and infected domestic chickens did not dffer significanty (P > 005), but the infected guinea fowls had lower (P < 0.05) mean PCV than the uninfected ones. In conclusion, Plasmodium sp infection was prevalent among the domestic poultry; and whereas the infection didnot cause anaemia in chickens, mild anaemia was observed in infected guinea fowls.Keywords: Chickens, Guinea fowls, Packed cell volume, Anaemia, Plasmodium

Serum ketone and total protein concentrations of 966 cattle slaughtered at the metropolitan abattoir, Maiduguri, Nigera, were estimated durng the dry and rainy months of the year. None of the sera had a titrable ketone concentration. Serum total protein (STP) concentration of Keywords : Nigeria, Sahel region, Cattle, Serum ketones, Serum total protein, Undernutrition