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The effects of brain damage on behavior have been reported by authors from the Greek, Roman, Medieval, Renaissance, and seventeenth-century medical traditions. However, few of the reported cases discussed mind-brain relationships, even fewer reported data that offereda description of cognitive functions, and none described a clear association of a functional mechanism of cognitive impairment with identifiable focal brain damage. An exception is found in the case studies by Johann Jakob Wepfer (1620–1695). After reviewing the pre-seventeenth-century background and Wepfer’s milieu, we analyze his texts on neuroanatomy, apoplexy, and brain vascularization (Observationes anatomicae ex cadaveribus eorum, quos sustulit apoplexia cum exercitatione de ejus loco affecto) and his remarkable collection of 222 neurological cases (Observationes medico-practicae de affectibus capitis internis & externis), posthumously published in 1727. We focus on his reports concerning on the presence of aphasia, memory disorders, and unilateral neglect, correlated with focal brain damage, with particular emphasis on his examination of language impairments.

Discusses a poem by Thomas Hood (1799-1845), "Craniology," which is a paradigmatic example of parodying psychological faculties for being material things. Franz Joseph Gall's (1758 -1828) term for organology was schädellehre, a German compound from schädel (skull, cranium, or pate) and lehre (teaching or doctrine). Craniology was used by some of Gall's followers, but mostly his critics; phrenology was coined in 1815 by Thomas Forster. In "Craniology," his Horatian-exemplar poem, Hood ridicules Gall's materialism. The present author notes Gall's idea that there were both intellectual and emotional faculties, which resonates well with contemporary cognitive neuroscience models of the mind. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

We report a right-handed patient with a massive lesion in left perisylvian language cortex, who unexpectedly presented with fluent aphasia with semantic jargon. Language deficits were assessed with a comprehensive battery of language tests. Comprehension, naming, reading, and writing were severely impaired, and verbal expression was moderately fluent with semantic jargon. Although the patient's lesion included brain areas typically essential for motor speech coordination, he was neither nonfluent nor apraxic. He exhibited strikingly unexpected aphasia with semantic jargon and prominent comprehension deficits, suggesting that this is a case of mixed dominance: the right hemisphere likely controls motor speech and basic syntactic skills, while the severely damaged left hemisphere controls semantic processing, predictably severely impaired.

Item does not contain fulltext Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828) introduced a new theory of mind and brain at the end of the eighteenth century, which he referred to as organology, dealing with mental functions and their cortical localizations. Gall wrote that observations regarding the verbal learning capacities of his schoolmates brought about his new way of thinking. This widely accepted view, however, requires qualification. Although Gall's experiences and observations as a schoolboy were relevant, especially for his craniology, these childhood memories might have been recalled and reinterpreted after he had started to think about the faculties of mind --- specifically after he had met Bianchi, a 5-year-old girl with a special talent for music. 9 p.

Presents a poem entitled An Ode to HE. HE refers to Hans Eysenck, and the poem is a Petrachan sonnet. The poem muses on the recent retraction of papers written by Eysenck; the volta in Italian ("turn of thought" or "change of argument") should be self-apparent without counting the lines. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

The formal structure of both the sonnet and haiku present a dichotomous frame that the reader is invited to interpret in Likert-scale fashion. Included is the author's contribution to this tradition, which, were it to be translated into an MMPI-2 question, might contribute to Scales 2 (Depression) and 10 (Social Introversion). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

An acerbic footnote in Volume 3 (1818) of the five-volume great work of Franz Joseph Gall and Johann Gaspar Spurzheim, Anatomy and Physiology of the Nervous System in General and of the Brain in Particular with Observations on the Possibility of Understanding the Many Moral and Intellectual Dispositions of Man and Animals by the Configuration of Their Heads, marked the end of the collaboration between Gall, the founder of organologie, and Spurzheim, promoter of phrenology. We discuss the background of this note and the nature of the rift that marked the end of Gall and Spurzheim’s collaboration.

A variety of social, political, and economic factors influenced the creation of the first Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) in 1952. Subsequent to DSM-I, cultural, medical, and economic factors shaped each successive version of the DSM; we discuss some of the more prominent controversies these editions have generated. Publication of the DSM-5 in May 2013 sparked a new round of debates concerning the possible impact on patients and society as a whole.

This article is a revision of the previous edition article by M. Coltheart, volume 6, pp. 3913−3918, © 2001, Elsevier Ltd.

The traditional story maintains that Franz Joseph Gall's (1758-1828) scientific program began with his observations of schoolmates with bulging eyes and good verbal memories. But his search to understand human nature, in particular individual differences in capacities, passions, and tendencies, can also be traced to other important observations, one being of a young girl with an exceptional talent for music. Rejecting contemporary notions of cognition, Gall concluded that behavior results from the interaction of a limited set of basic faculties, each with its own processes for perception and memory, each with its own territory in both cerebral or cerebellar cortices. Gall identified 27 faculties, one being the sense of tone relations or music. The description of the latter is identical in both his Anatomie et Physiologie and Sur les Fonctions du Cerveau et sur Celles de Chacune de ses Parties, where he provided positive and negative evidences and discussed findings from humans and lower animals, for the faculty. The localization of the cortical faculty for talented musicians, he explained, is demonstrated by a "bump" on each side of the skull just above the angle of the eye; hence, the lower forehead of musicians is broader or squarer than in other individuals. Additionally, differences between singing and nonsinging birds also correlate with cranial features. Gall even brought age, racial, and national differences into the picture. What he wrote about music reveals much about his science and creative thinking.

A post-Newtonian understanding of matter includes immaterial forces; thus, the concept of ‘physical’ has lost what usefulness it previously had and consequently Cartesian dualism has ceased to support a divide between the mental and the physical. A scientific understanding of mind that goes back at least as far as Priestley (eighteenth century) not only includes immaterial components but identifies brain parts in which these components correlate with neural activity. What are we left with? The challenge is not so much to figure out how a physical brain interacts with a nonphysical mind, but to try to unify theories of mind and theories of brain that to date do not share a single property. The challenge is enormous, but at least we can be quite clear about its nature, as there is no reason to be distracted by the idea of two distinct substances. In the present volume, several historical perspectives on the mind-body problem are discussed; we follow major currents of thought regarding the mind-body problem so that it can be seen how we arrived at our conception that it makes sense only to talk about theory unification.

William Uttal begins Reliability in Cognitive Neuroscience: A Meta-Meta-Analysis with a thoughtful short chapter explaining the raison d’etre for meta-analyses of a body of experimental data, in this case focusing on the cognitive neuroscience literature. Those who are familiar with modern statistical methods will understand; those not-so-well-versed neuroscientists would do well to review carefully the statistical issues. Uttal’s next statistical step into meta-meta-analysis is a bit controversial, although no one could fault his goal, which is to attempt to reduce the variability in the data from brain-imaging experiments. He provides a clear exposition of the methodology of meta-meta-analysis in the second chapter of this five-chapter book. Next is the heart of Uttal’s book, a selective but fair discussion and review of contemporary neuroscience studies that use a variety of cognitive tasks.

From Platonic and Galenic roots, the first well developed ventricular theory of brain function is due to Bishop Nemesius, fourth century C.E. Although more interested in the Christian concept of soul, St. Augustine, too addressed the question of the location of the soul, a problem that has endured in various guises to the present day. Other notable contributions to ventricular psychology are the ninth century C.E. Arabic writer, Qusta ibn Lūqā, and an early European medical text written by the twelfth century C.E. author, Nicolai the Physician. By the time of Albertus Magnus, so-called medieval cell doctrine was a well-developed model of brain function. By the sixteenth century, Vesalius no longer understands the ventricles to be imaginary cavities designed to provide a physical basis for faculty psychology but as fluid-filled spaces in the brain whose function is yet to be determined

Classification was an important aspect of the 17th and 18th century development of Western science, epitomized by Linnaeus's 1735 Systema Naturae (Nature's System), in which he divided each kingdom of nature into classes, orders, and species. Linnaeus, a physician in addition to being a renowned taxonomist, endeavored to classify all known human diseases, largely on the basis of symptoms, in his 1759 Genera Morborum (Varieties of Diseases). We focus on his classification of mental disorders, a large subset of the Genera Morborum. We compare and contrast the Linnaean system with Francois Boissier de Sauvages's 1772 Nosologie methodique (A Systematic Nosology) and Rudolph Augustin Vogel's 1764 Generum Morborum (Varieties of Diseases). We consider the impact of these nosologies on William Cullen's (1769/1800) Nosology, a popular system of disease classification that persisted through much of the 19th century.

Phrenology evolved from the work of Franz Joseph Gall (1758–1828) and Johann Gaspar Spurzheim (1776–1832), becoming a fixture in Victorian culture, arts and letters as well as medicine. Writers such as Thomas Love Peacock (1785–1866) and Thomas Hood (1799–1845) initially satirized phrenology, as did playwright and composer William S. Gilbert (1836–1911). On the other hand, novelists such as Charlotte Bronte (1816–1855), Charles Dickens (1812–1870), George Eliot (1819–1880), and the poet and essayist Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–1882) not only accepted the principles of this brain-based personality theory but exploited it in their characters. The popularity of phrenology in the Victorian period should in part be attributed to the popularity of physiognomy which, thanks in large part to Johann Christian Lavater (1741–1801), has been thoroughly embedded in Western culture since the end of the eighteenth century.

Historical observations of disorders of language have been reported from Pharaonic medical texts circa 3000 bc , the Hippocratic corpus circa 400 bc , Latin texts circa 1st century ad , through the Renaissance and in various 17th and 18th century texts. In none of the extant historical papers, however, have certain critical elements of aphasia been discussed, i.e. the distinction between a disorder of language and a deficit in its articulatory realization, nor the relation between aphasia and a left hemisphere lesion. This paper discusses the relatively unknown aphasia studies of two 16th and 17th-century physicians, J. Schenck and J. J. Wepfer, with respect to these critical elements. Johannes Schenck (1530–1598) assembled a collection of clinical observations from antiquity to those of his contemporaries; Vol. 1 ( Observationes Medicae de Capite Humano , Basel, 1584) discusses the pathology of the head and face, at least 16 cases of which refer to patients with aphasia. Johannes Jakob Wepfer (1620–1695) wrote a book on the vascularization of the brain and on apoplexy; in addition he wrote (published posthumously) a collection of neurological cases ( Observationes Medico-practicae de Affectibus Capitis Internis & Externis , Schaffhausen, 1727). In the latter he reported on 222 neurological and neurosurgical cases, at least 15 of which had an overt aphasia, almost all due to a left hemisphere lesion. The level of functional and anatomical detail in these case studies invites comparison with the best of the late 19th century classical aphasia literature.

We evaluated the states of consciousness of seven persons who had sustained a severe head injury, and describe the behavioural manifestations associated with four treatment strategies. The subjects were between the ages of 19 and 55 and were recruited from both acute and long-term care facilities; all were in an altered state of consciousness. The severity of the injury was measured by time in coma, the scores on the Glasgow Coma Scale [1] and the Coma Near Coma Scale [2]. Structured interventions consisted of visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory and tactile stimulation; behaviour was measured using the Disability Rating Scale [3, 4] and a portion of the Levels of Cognitive Functioning Scale [5]. Sensory-motor indications were recorded using a questionnaire developed by Freeman [6] and a quality-of-life instrument, developed for use with individuals having multiple disabilities [7], was adapted for the purpose of this study. Our results suggest that the use of structured interventions in the first 24 months following severe head injury is associated with a trend towards improved auditory and visual skills performance, manual performance, swallowing and language. Whereas initially no subject had any form of verbalization, by the final evaluation five subjects had some form of communication, either verbal or non-verbal.

Gottlieb Burckhardt, a Swiss psychiatrist who practiced in the late 19th century, was the founder of modern psychosurgery. In 1891 he reported the results of cortical extirpations on six patients who evidently suffered from intractable psychiatric disease; two of these cases are discussed here to illustrate how Burckhardt employed contemporary brain models of language and cognition as the basis for removing specific areas of the cerebral cortex with the intention of ameliorating his patients' disturbed behavior.

The purpose of this study was to compare the validity of two models which contrast with each other in the manner in which they integrate neuropsychological tests into distinct prefrontal constructs. The first prefrontal model consists of five distinct functional constructs drawn from human clinical neuropsychology. The second model, elaborated by Goldman-Rakic, is based primarily on monkey research and postulates a basic prefrontal function, “on-line representational memory”, which guides behavior in the absence of, or despite discriminative environmental stimuli. In the latter model, distinct prefrontal functional constructs are primarily defined in terms of various types of representational memory involved in specific tasks. Eleven “prefrontal” measures were obtained from 259 normal adults, stratified for age, education, and sex. Confirmatory factor analyses revealed that the Goldman-Rakic model “fit” the data better than the model derived from human clinical neuropsychology, while several constructs commonly used in human neuropsychology were refuted. It was concluded that new research on brain-damaged humans with a view to understanding prefrontal function might benefit from using the Goldman-Rakic model as a starting point.

Ten nonaphasic left cerebrovascular accident (CVA) patients, 12 right CVA patients, and 16 normals were matched for age, education, lesion sizes, and postonset intervals; all were right handed. One task consisted of 36 sentences connoting one of six primary emotions (joy, sadness, fear, surprise, disgust, anger) presented binaurally with a neutral emotional tone. Subjects were required to point to the appropriate emotion name on a vertically arranged list. A second task consisted of the same 36 sentences voiced emotionally by humming with a closed mouth, presented binaurally, and requiring the same response as for the preceding task. A third task consisted of 18 of the sentences spoken with concordant emotional tone and the remaining 18 sentences spoken with discordant emotional tone, presented binaurally and requiring pointing to the word "SAME" or "DIFFERENT" arrayed vertically. The right hemisphere (RH) patients were significantly impaired, relative to the left hemisphere (LH) patients and normals, on the pure prosody task (2) and on the emotional concordance task (3), the latter effect being significant only for mismatch categorization. The LH patients performed (nonsignificantly) less well than the RH patients and normals on the verbal contextual task (1). Performances on the three tasks were not significantly correlated in the patient groups. It was concluded that the RH probably dominates for phonetic discrimination of vowel trains (fundamental frequency and/or single vowel or multivowel contour) and that the RH probably dominates for certain forms of selective attention in the verbal domain perhaps involving simultaneous mismatch treatment of ongoing sentence-level, distracting, complementary, verbal processes. Comparison of similar right and left, cortical (frontoparietal), and subcortical (capsule and basal ganglia) lesions suggested, but did not prove, that the RH pure prosody impairment is cortical whereas the RH tonal-semantic mismatch categorization impairment involves subcortical as well as cortical contributions.

Current neuropsychological research supports a model postulating that prefrontal functions are among the first to decline in normal aging, but this model has rarely been empirically tested with subjects of 65 years or less. This study tests the following hypotheses: (a) A significant decline occurs prior to age 65 in a wide ranging set of prefrontal performance measures and (b) a significant increase occurs on measures of perseveration based on the same prefrontal tasks. A group of young adults (n = 70) aged 20 to 35 and a group of elderly adults (n = 58) aged 45 to 65, group‐matched for education and sex, were evaluated by means of six neuropsychological prefrontal tasks: the Self‐Ordered Pointing Task, the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, the Porteus Mazes, a Verbal Fluency Task, a Design Fluency Task, and the Stroop Test. Four of the six prefrontal scores and four of six measures of perseveration manifested significant declines in the elderly group, suggesting that normal aging prior to age 65 may exhibit ...

An historical overview is presented that focuses on the changes both in approach and topics with respect to language disturbances due to brain lesions. Early cases of language disorders were described without any theorizing about language or its relation to the brain. Also, three forms of speech disorder were distinguished: traulotes, psellotes and ischophonia, which are only marginally related to aphasia. In the 18th century some authors, in particular Gesner and Crichton, attempted to explain language disorders in terms of mental processes. The great debate on both the anatomical (Broca, Wernicke) and functional (Wernicke, Lichtheim) aspects of aphasia dominated late 19th century discussion of localization of function, leading to the development of what we now call the cognitive neurosciences. In this period, language processing was described in terms of a simple functional model of word recognition and production; linguistic principles played no role. At the beginning of the 20th century the discussion on language disorders waned due to a decrease of interest in the issue of localization; aphasia became primarily a clinical issue of how best to classify patients. In the second half of the 20th century, the field of aphasia developed rapidly due to studies performed at the Boston Aphasia Unit and, more importantly, to a change of orientation to linguistic notions of language structure, as introduced by Chomsky.

Publisher Summary The chapter elaborates on the medieval cell doctrine (MCD). In 11th century, MCD became the standard in medical practice. Besides furnishing the standard model of brain function, MCD became a practical guide for early brain surgery and was used to explain disorders of cognitive functions because of brain diseases, such as memory disorders. Apart from the newly recognized evidence that MCD actually placed functions in the brain substance, another parallel with modern theories of brain function and a feature that goes to the essence of contemporary cognitive models, is the question of static versus dynamic processing. For proponents of MCD, animal spirits formed a mental image by input from the five senses, sensus communis in the first “compartment,” employing the function of fantasia or imaginativa.

There have been no books published on neuroscience in the eighteenth century. Yet this was an important time, with science and medicine in transition. On the one hand, there were wildly speculative theories about the nervous system, many based on Newtonian mechanics and fanciful chemistry. But on the other, this was also a time when empirical research with quantification and experimentation was coming of age. This volume examines the eighteenth-century neuroscience milieu and looks at developments in anatomy, physiology, and medicine that highlight this era, which some people have called the Age of Reason and others the Enlightenment. The book covers such things as the aims of the scientific and medical Enlightenment, how neuroscience adopted electricity as the nerve force, how disorders such as aphasia and hysteria were treated, Mesmerism, and how some of the latest ideas made their way into the culture of the day.

The history of neurolinguistics begins centuries ago with observations from early Egyptian, Greek and Roman times through the middle ages and Renaissance; most of the classical aphasia syndromes were described prior to the 19th century, although the brain model for language, medieval cell doctrine, was unsophisticated compared to current models. Particular contributions of Wepfer, Hood and Bouillaud are highlighted.

An adult individual who acquired normal reading and spelling skills may lose these abilities after cerebral damage. Reading and spelling may be impaired either in isolation after a damage to the brain areas that are specifically involved in storing or processing orthographic representations, or in accompaniment with aphasia, i.e. in association to more general language disorders. Dual-route models of reading and writing are described, as well as the principal reading and spelling disorders following selective damage of either route.

Eds., Cambridge University Press, 2007. $176.00 (hardcover), ISBN: 0-521-8426-1. This collection of papers covers a wide range of neurological effects associated with stroke, organized according to...