Search

While light is the driving force of photosynthesis, excessive light can be harmful. Photoinhibition, or light-induced photo-damage, is one of the key processes limiting photosynthesis. When the absorbed light exceeds the amount that can be dissipated by photosynthetic electron flow and other processes, damaging radicals are formed that mostly inactivate photosystem II (PSII). A well-defined mechanism that protects the photosynthetic apparatus from photoinhibition has been described in the model green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii and plants. Chlorella oha-dii is a green micro-alga, isolated from biological desert soil crusts, that thrives under extreme high light (HL) in which other organisms do not survive. Here, we show that this alga evolved unique protection mechanisms distinct from those of C. reinhardtii and plants. When grown under extreme HL, significant structural changes were noted in the C. ohadii thylakoids, including a drastic reduction in the antennae and the formation of stripped core PSII, lacking its outer and inner antennae. This is accompanied by a massive accumulation of protective carotenoids and proteins that scavenge harmful radicals. At the same time, several elements central to photoinhibition protection in C. reinhardtii, such as psbS, the stress-related light harvesting complex, PSII protein phosphorylation and state-transitions are entirely absent or were barely detected in C. ohadii. Taken together, a unique photoinhibition protection mechanism evolved in C. ohadii, enabling the species to thrive under extreme-light intensities where other photo-synthetic organisms fail to survive.

The emergence of chlorophyll-containing light-harvesting complexes (LHCs) was a crucial milestone in the evolution of photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms. Light-harvesting chlorophyll-binding proteins form complexes in proximity to the reaction centres of photosystems I and II and serve as an antenna, funnelling the harvested light energy towards the reaction centres, facilitating photochemical quenching, thereby optimizing photosynthesis. It is now generally accepted that the LHC proteins evolved from LHC-like proteins, a diverse family of proteins containing up to four transmembrane helices. Interestingly, LHC-like proteins do not participate in light harvesting to elevate photosynthesis activity under low light. Instead, they protect the photosystems by dissipating excess energy and taking part in non-photochemical quenching processes. Although there is evidence that LHC-like proteins are crucial factors of photoprotection, the roles of only a few of them, mainly the stress-related psbS and lhcSR, are well described. Here, we summarize the knowledge gained regarding the evolution and function of the various LHC-like proteins, with emphasis on those strongly related to photoprotection. We further suggest LHC-like proteins as candidates for improving photosynthesis in significant food crops and discuss future directions in their research.

SUMMARYWe study the rise of the so-called ‘gig economy’ through the lens of Uber and its drivers in the United Kingdom. Using administrative data from Uber and a new representative survey of London drivers, we explore their backgrounds, earnings, and subjective well-being. We find that the vast majority of Uber drivers are male immigrants, primarily drawn from the bottom half of the London income distribution. Most transitioned out of permanent part- or full-time jobs and about half of drivers’ report that their incomes increased after partnering with Uber. After covering vehicle operation costs and Uber’s service fee, we estimate that the median London driver earns about £11 per hour spent logged into the app. But while Uber drivers remain at the lower end of the London income distribution, they report higher levels of life satisfaction than other workers. Consistent with a trade-off between evaluative and emotional well-being observed among the self-employed, they also report higher anxiety levels. We hypothesize that the higher life satisfaction among Uber drivers partly reflects their preferences for flexibility and the autonomy that the platform offers. We provide suggestive evidence showing that drivers who emphasize flexibility as an important motivation to join Uber also report higher levels of subjective well-being. However, a minority of drivers who report that they would prefer work as an employee report lower levels of life satisfaction and higher levels of anxiety. Overall, our findings highlight the importance of non-monetary factors in shaping the welfare of workers in the gig economy.

Although light is the driving force of photosynthesis, excessive light can be harmful. One of the main processes that limits photosynthesis is photoinhibition, the process of light-induced photodamage. When the absorbed light exceeds the amount that is dissipated by photosynthetic electron flow and other processes, damaging radicals are formed that mostly inactivate photosystem II (PSII). Damaged PSII must be replaced by a newly repaired complex in order to preserve full photosynthetic activity. Chlorella ohadii is a green microalga, isolated from biological desert soil crusts, that thrives under extreme high light and is highly resistant to photoinhibition. Therefore, C. ohadii is an ideal model for studying the molecular mechanisms underlying protection against photoinhibition. Comparison of the thylakoids of C. ohadii cells that were grown under low light versus extreme high light intensities found that the alga employs all three known photoinhibition protection mechanisms: (i) massive reduction of the PSII antenna size; (ii) accumulation of protective carotenoids; and (iii) very rapid repair of photodamaged reaction center proteins. This work elucidated the molecular mechanisms of photoinhibition resistance in one of the most light-tolerant photosynthetic organisms, and shows how photoinhibition protection mechanisms evolved to marginal conditions, enabling photosynthesis-dependent life in severe habitats.

Although light is the driving force of photosynthesis, excessive light can be harmful. One of the main processes that limits photosynthesis is photoinhibition, the process of light-induced photodamage. When the absorbed light exceeds the amount that is dissipated by photosynthetic electron flow and other processes, damaging radicals are formed that mostly inactivate photosystem II (PSII). Damaged PSII must be replaced by a newly repaired complex in order to preserve full photosynthetic activity.Chlorella ohadiiis a green micro-alga, isolated from biological desert soil crusts, that thrives under extreme high light and is highly resistant to photoinhibition. Therefore,C. ohadiiis an ideal model for studying the molecular mechanisms underlying protection against photoinhibition. Comparison of the thylakoids ofC. ohadiicells that were grown under low light versus extreme high light intensities, found that the alga employs all three known photoinhibition protection mechanisms:i)massive reduction of the PSII antenna size;ii)accumulation of protective carotenoids; andiii)very rapid repair of photo-damaged reaction center proteins. This work elucidated the molecular mechanisms of photoinhibition resistance in one of the most light-tolerant photosynthetic organisms and shows how photoinhibition protection mechanisms evolved to marginal conditions, enabling photosynthesis-dependent life in severe habitats.One Sentence HighlightAnalysis of the photosynthetic properties of a desert algae that thrives at extreme high light intensities revealed protection from photoinhibition driven by the remarkable enhancement of three protection mechanisms.

Optical overlay metrology has been used for years as the baseline for overlay control, measuring an optical target in the scribe line with optimized design to best match the on-product overlay. However, matching the optical target overlay measurements to the real on-product overlay becomes a serious challenge for most advanced technology nodes and forces the industry to develop different or complementary solutions. To identify and better quantify the different, well-known overlay accuracy detractors, in this work we have used optical and state-of-the-art electron beam technologies (eBeam) to measure on-product and on-optical target overlay errors of a wafer processed at imec using 5 nm technology node design rules and intentionally introduced overlay skews of +10 and -10 nm in x and y axis. The overlay errors as measured by the SEM eBeam system, equipped with elluminator™ technology which enables fast see through measurements of overlay which has been compared with (X-sectional) STEM-HAADF reference overlay metrology data. The on-product and optical target SEM overlay measurements show very similar wafer maps, in line with the applied overlay errors during the lithography exposure step. eBeam and TEM data show excellent correlation for the on-product overlay errors and the eBeam data also reveal a significant bias of ~ 6 nm between on-product and on-target overlay errors. From these results it can be concluded that manufacturing of advanced devices which require accurate OPO control, will need new metrology strategies that combine eBeam and optical or, eventually, use only eBeam technologies to guarantee effective overlay control with sufficient accuracy.

Lipophilic weak base therapeutic agents, termed lysosomotropic drugs (LDs), undergo marked sequestration and concentration within lysosomes, hence altering lysosomal functions. This lysosomal drug entrapment has been described as luminal drug compartmentalization. Consistent with our recent finding that LDs inflict a pH-dependent membrane fluidization, we herein demonstrate that LDs undergo intercalation and concentration within lysosomal membranes. The latter was revealed experimentally and computationally by (a) confocal microscopy of fluorescent compounds and drugs within lysosomal membranes, and (b) molecular dynamics modeling of the pH-dependent membrane insertion and accumulation of an assortment of LDs, including anticancer drugs. Based on the multiple functions of the lysosome as a central nutrient sensory hub and a degradation center, we discuss the molecular mechanisms underlying the alteration of morphology and impairment of lysosomal functions as consequences of LDs&rsquo, intercalation into lysosomes. Our findings bear important implications for drug design, drug induced lysosomal damage, diseases and pertaining therapeutics.

Node to node design rule are shrinking to enable better performance envelope in storage, computing power and electrical usage. A major part of every technology development is verification of the actual device overlay for thick stacks. Today the IC manufactures utilize TEM, Fib and other methods to understand the impact of overlay for thick stacks. These methods, which are considered as a “ground truth” of the fab, can give very good resolution of the features shape characteristics, material contrast, metrology and defectivity. That said, some are destructive and have long time to results. Another approach for thick stack is to use eBeam high kV landing with elluminator technology, this enables fast see through measurements of overlay, yet this approach has also limitation where layer stack thickness exceeds see through imaging capability while chipmakers still require seeing the bottom layer to measure the overlay. In this paper, we propose a flow of accurate in-line runtime delayer method flowed by an eBeam elluminator technology for overlay verification as an extension of current eBeam measurement capabilities. This flow can be complimentary for different applications space where there’s imaging limitation of the eBeam. The excellent local delayer control enables shorter time to root cause, process and design verification metrology (as a “golden ruler”) in runtime fab. The work is based on IMEC frontend wafer at source drain Implant process steps after Hard Mask Etch. Looking at device features we explore the accuracy of new flow in sampling fins, dummy gate and Hard mask openings for implant process steps. Reference eBeam metrology will verify the accuracy of the delayer metrology.

Previous studies have shown that live cyanobacteria can produce photocurrent in bio-photoelectrochemical cells (BPEC) that can be exploited for clean renewable energy production. Electron transfer from cyanobacteria to the electrochemical cell was proposed to be facilitated by small molecule(s) mediator(s) whose identity (or identities) remain unknown. Here, we elucidate the mechanism of electron transfer in the BPEC by identifying the major electron mediator as NADPH in three cyanobacterial species. We show that an increase in the concentration of NADPH secreted into the extracellular medium (ECM) is obtained by both illumination and activation of the BPEC. Elimination of NADPH in the ECM abrogates the photocurrent while addition of exogenous NADP+ significantly increases and prolongs the photocurrent production. NADP+ is thus the first non-toxic, water soluble electron mediator that can functionally link photosynthetic cells to an energy conversion system and may serve to improve the performance of future BPECs.