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The Neoarchaean Belingwe greenstone belt of the Zimbabwe craton consists of a well-preserved succession of rocks of low metamorphic grade and low strain. We present new age constraints for the Ngezi Group of the belt and discuss them in the light of greenstone belt evolution. We propose crustal destabilization of the Zimbabwe proto-craton as a result of a global flare of mantle-derived magmatism at ~ 2.75 Ga. This gave rise to extension of a Mesoarchaean granitoid-greenstone terrain, rapid subsidence and, initially, deposition of a transgressive cover succession (Manjeri Formation). High degrees of stretching of proto-cratonic and mantle lithosphere provided accommodation space for the emplacement of several kilometres of submarine volcanic rocks on deeply submerged granitoid-greenstone basement, herein referred to as proto-cratonic flood basalts. Once extension and magmatism had ceased, chemical and clastic sedimentary rocks of the Cheshire Formation were deposited prior to 2.71 Ga as a result of, and subjected to, compressional deformation, and much earlier than previously assumed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Temporal changes in Earth’s tectonic style play a crucial role in understanding the planet’s evolution. Modern-style tectonics is characterized by the formation of basaltic crust at divergent plate boundaries and its subsequent recycling at subduction zones, accompanied by wedge mantle formation and arc magmatism. It is commonly believed that the secular cooling of the mantle modified the tectonic style from stagnant lid or heat pipe on an early hotter Earth to horizontal tectonics during Meso-Neoarchean. However, various field, petrographic, and geochemical studies suggest that the onset of plate tectonics ranges from Hadean to Neoproterozoic. In this study, we re-evaluate the primary magma temperature (mantle potential temperature, Tp) of the upper ambient mantle, spanning from Eoarchean to Neoproterozoic. We used basalts from several Archean and Proterozoic greenstone belts worldwide, along with Proterozoic ophiolites, to (re)calculate the Tp using the FRACTIONATE-PT method. We observed a Tp range of 1444–1639°C during the Archean and 1414–1611°C during the Proterozoic. These findings indicate a strong correlation with previously estimated Tp values obtained from PRIMELT3 method. This further highlights strong internal consistency among different methods and supports models of a hot ambient mantle during the Archean and Proterozoic. We further reviewed numerical models regarding the effect of mantle temperature on the viability of early Earth plate tectonics. Such model results, composition of Archean continental crust, recent crustal growth models, and field evidence are consistent with the operation of plate tectonics on an early hotter Earth. The transition from a hotter mantle to a colder one from Eo-Neoarchean resulted in thinner oceanic lithosphere and a less depleted lithospheric mantle. Subduction of this thinner oceanic lithosphere led to modern-style tectonics. The intensity and style of plate tectonics on the early Earth differed from modern tectonics, which emerged during the Neoarchean. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Neoarchean Qingyuan greenstone belt (QGB) is located at the northeastern margin of the North China Craton (NCC) and has experienced amphibolite- to granulite-facies metamorphism. The supracrustal rock assemblage is composed of biotite-hornblende (Bt-Hb) monzonitic gneiss, garnet-biotite-hornblende (Grt-Bt-Hb) monzonitic gneiss, Grt-Bt-Hb plagioclase gneiss, amphibolite and orthopyroxene-biotite-hornblende (Opx-Bt-Hb) plagioclase gneiss. This study involves thorough field and petrographic observations, whole-rock geochemistry and LA-ICP-MS zircon U‒Pb ages of these rocks to constrain the Neoarchean geodynamic setting of the QGB. Zircon U‒Pb dating indicates that these metavolcanic rocks formed during 2.57‒2.52 Ga and experienced subsequent regional metamorphism at 2.52‒2.47 Ga. Lithological and geochemical characteristics show that the QGB protoliths were tholeiitic to calc-alkaline basalts, andesites, dacites and rhyolites. The andesite-dacite-rhyolite assemblage exhibits high SiO2 and Mg# values, low Yb and Y contents, strongly fractionated chondrite-normalized REE patterns and depletion in Nb, Ta, Ti and P, resembling Phanerozoic adakites. These geochemical characteristics suggest an origin from the partial melting of a subducted slab interacting with mantle wedge material. The tholeiitic to calc-alkaline basalts exhibit slightly LREE-enriched chondrite-normalized REE patterns and negative Nb and Ti anomalies, like island arc basalts. These basalts might have originated by partial melting of a mantle source affected by metasomatism from subduction-derived fluids and melts. The lithological associations and geochemical characteristics imply that the Qingyuan greenstone belt developed in a continental margin arc setting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Serpentinization is an important geochemical process producing natural hydrogen (H 2), and mafic and ultramafic serpentinized rocks, typically occurring in ophiolites and peridotite massifs, are major targets for H 2 exploration. Understanding the volumes of H 2 stored in these rocks is a key step towards establishing the potential of sepentinized systems to host H 2 sources and reservoirs. Nonetheless, published data on the concentration of H 2 directly extracted from serpentinized rocks are extremely scarce. This work provides a first dataset of H 2 extracted by planetary ball mill from 58 rock samples from different ophiolites in Greece, peridotites of the Tekirova ophiolite in Turkey, and chromitites and surrounding talc schist from an Archean-Paleoproterozoic greenstone belt in Brazil. The highest H 2 concentrations, from 0.1 mL/kg (considered as a threshold above which artificial H 2 by milling is negligible) to 16.2 mL/kg, were found in serpentinized harzburgites or dunites, and in chromitites hosted within serpentinized peridotites. The H 2 content of other mafic rocks that are not in contact or influenced by a serpentinized system, mostly basalts, is below 0.1 mL/kg. Serpentinized peridotites represent the logical source rocks of H 2 (i.e., hydrogen in peridotites is generally autochtonous) and chromitites, lacking significant olivine and serpentinized minerals, may host H 2 derived by the surrounding serpentinized rocks (hydrogen in chromitites is mostly allochtonous). The H 2 dataset of this work can be used as a reference for further studies on the capacity of ophiolitic rocks to produce and host natural hydrogen. • First dataset on H 2 concentration in mL/kg in different ophiolitic rocks. • Serpentinized harzburgites/dunites and chromitites host the highest H 2 concentrations. • Hypothesis of autochtonous hydrogen in peridotites, allochtonous hydrogen in chromitites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Assimilation and prolonged suspension of crust-derived sulfide liquid in komatiites are essential to form Ni-rich mineralisation. Evaluating the spatial relationship between komatiite-hosted Ni mineralisation and crustal S sources may thus provide insights into mechanisms of transport, metal enrichment and deposition of assimilated sulfide liquid. This study applied facies analysis and S isotopes to sulfides in Ni-mineralised komatiites and stratigraphically underlying bimodal volcanic-volcaniclastic and sedimentary rocks, which formed during rifting in the Agnew-Wiluna Greenstone Belt, Western Australia. The results revealed a lateral variation from rift-distal sedimentary sulfides, through sulfidic BIF, to rift-proximal VMS-style sulfides, the latter of which was predominantly assimilated by komatiites. Both crustal and komatiite-hosted sulfides were overprinted by granite-related skarn alteration during later basin inversion. Spatial S isotopes correlation revealed that Ni mineralisation in komatiites predominantly formed < 5 km from their crustal S sources, excluding long lateral transport as the main metal enrichment mechanism. Rather, metal enrichment likely happened through multiple cycles of sulfide entrapment and entrainment in lava flow vortices that formed in the wake of topographic steps represented by syn-rift faults. These faults were the main loci for pre-existing crustal weaknesses, hydrothermal fluid circulation, and VMS-style sulfide deposition, which were subsequently utilised by komatiites for enhanced thermo-mechanical erosion and crustal sulfide assimilation. This study shows that proximity to the syn-rift faults was the dominant control on the formation of komatiite-hosted Ni–sulfide mineralisation, regardless of substrate lithology. The S isotope signatures of crustal sulfides may be used as a proxy to identify syn-rift faults in highly deformed terranes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Paleoproterozoic (2.05 Ga) komatiites are widespread in the Central Lapland Greenstone Belt (CLGB), northern Finland. Close association with sulfur (S)-rich country rocks and spatiotemporal connection with the Cu-Ni(-PGE) deposits of Kevitsa and Sakatti make these komatiites interesting targets for sulfide deposit exploration. We provide whole-rock geochemical data from Sattasvaara komatiites and combine it with literature data to form a geochemical database for the CLGB komatiites. We construct a model for the komatiites from adiabatic melting of the mantle source to fractional crystallization at crustal conditions. Using MELTS, we calculate three parental melts (MgO = 20.6–25.7 wt%) in equilibrium with Fo92, Fo93, and Fo94 olivine for the CLGB komatiites. Based on REEBOX PRO simulations, these parental melts can form from a single mantle source by different pressures and degrees of melting when the potential temperature is 1575–1700 °C. We calculate ranges of S contents for the parental melts based on the different mantle melting conditions and degrees of melting. We use Magma Chamber Simulator to fractionally crystallize the parental melt at crustal conditions. These simulations reproduce the major element oxide, Ni, Cu, and S contents from our komatiite database. Simulated Ni contents in olivine are compatible with literature data from Kevitsa and Sakatti, hence providing a baseline to identify Ni-depleted olivine in CLGB komatiites and related intrusive rocks. We show that fractional crystallization of the komatiitic parental melt can form either Ni-rich or Cu-rich sulfide melt, depending on the initial Ni and S content of the parental melt. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Palaeo- to Neoarchaean Bundelkhand Craton (BkC) in central India has received attention due to its felsic crust evolution. There are two linear patches of relict greenstone belts in the BkC, and the central greenstone belt has been the focus of extensive research for the past two decades. In contrast, the southern greenstone belt has received inadequate attention. At the southern BkC, the E-W Madawara Greenstone Belt is represented by patches of remnant mantle serpentinites and metasedimentary rocks that are tectonically juxtaposed with Archaean basement TTG gneisses and Proterozoic Bijawar Group of rocks. This study highlights key findings from fields, geological maps, petrography, and a large number of whole rock chemical analyses of serpentinites and spinel chemistry to unravel the tectonic evolution story. We identified two serpentinites with contrasting petrological and geochemical properties: spinel peridotite (SP) and talc-tremolite schist (TTS). SP is primarily dunite to harzburgite with relatively high MgO (33 wt%), enriched Yb, and shows strong re-fertilization. TTS, on the other hand, is lherzolitic and less refractory (MgO = 25 wt%). Chemically, these two serpentinites were mantle wedge and subducted peridotites, respectively. The unaltered cores of the chromium spinels represent a fore-arc setting. These findings, in conjunction with prior research, paint a compelling picture of a Neoarchaean (~2.5 Ga) subduction system once present in the southern Bundelkhand Craton. The serpentinites represent relict ophiolites – from a northerly dipping trench. It also explains a Mesoarchaean rift basin system between the two cratonic nuclei of southern Bundelkhand, which amalgamated during the Kenorland Supercontinent formation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

New mapping of the Barberton Greenstone Belt in South Africa shows that the central part is a pseudo-stratigraphy made of shallow-water and deep-water siliciclastic and volcanic slide blocks, with individual blocks ranging in size from tens of meters to >10 km in length. The outcrop pattern and scale are remarkably similar to those of large-scale Miocene to recent submarine landslides in New Zealand along the active Hikurangi subduction zone that are periodically triggered by earthquakes on the subduction megathrust, providing evidence for megathrust earthquakes in the Paleoarchean. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The late Archean Western Dharwar Craton supergroup has volcanic and sedimentary rocks deposited during 2900–2600 Ma underlain by the Sargur Group basement of 3.36–3.2 Ga granitic gneiss and older supracrustal rocks. The western part of the craton, known as the western province (Dharwar Foreland), comprises four major schist belts (Western Ghats-Bababudhan-Shimoga-Chitradurga). A regional gravity and magnetic (Total Field) survey was done in the Shimoga region. The geophysical data of the study area reveal the subsurface extension and behaviour of the exposed rocks of the area. The Euler deconvolution was used to define the depth of the anomaly sources. Euler depth solution for the spherical body (structural index 2), window size = 10, and depth tolerance = 5% depicts the depth of the various sources. The Euler depth solutions cluster over the hook-shaped schist rock of the Medur group (at the northern part of the area) reveals that the body's depth varies from 1 to 4 km in the central part, and at the northern flank, it goes up to 7 km. The solution also brought out the depth of the anomalous body near Hithala, within 4 km. The 2D forward depth modelling of the anomalous zone brings out the involvement of the tectonic forces in the generation of this anomalous body. The more precise depth from the model has been estimated between 2 and 3 km. The model clearly shows the relationship between schist rocks and the basement. However, the high-gravity anomaly has been modelled as the manganese bearing horizon, which has come to optimum depth because of folding and faulting in the region, thus providing a favourable zone for manganese deposition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Laird Lake property, southwest Red Lake greenstone belt, straddles the contact between the Balmer (2.99–2.96 Ga) and the Confederation (2.74–2.73 Ga) assemblages. The property is 10 km along strike from the Madsen and Starrat–Olsen Au mines that are hosted near the contact. The Balmer assemblage consists of fine-grained, aphyric, locally pillowed mafic volcanic rocks, ultramafic intrusive and volcanic rocks with flow breccia textures hosting local spinifex-bearing clasts, and banded-iron formations. In contrast, the Confederation assemblage comprises porphyritic mafic volcanic rocks intercalated with intermediate to felsic volcanic rocks that include crystal lapilli tuffs, crystal tuffs, and tuffs. The Balmer assemblage is composed of tholeiitic mafic volcanic rocks with minor Al-undepleted komatiites, whereas the Confederation assemblage is calc–alkalic. Neodymium isotopes, in conjunction with trace element geochemistry, suggests that parts of the Balmer assemblage were weakly contaminated by an older intermediate basement. Both arc and back-arc volcanism occurs in the Confederation assemblage, with the arc rocks showing a stronger crustal component than the back-arc rocks. A maximum U–Pb age of 2741 ± 19 Ma for a crystal tuff and an age of 2737.68 ± 0.79 Ma for a diorite are consistent with a Confederation assemblage affinity for the intermediate calc–alkaline rocks south of the Au-bearing horizon. The Balmer assemblage represents an oceanic plateau formed by plume magmatism on the margins of the North Caribou Terrane, whereas the Confederation assemblage at Laird Lake formed in an oceanic arc setting where both arc and back-arc volcanism occurred simultaneously. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Archaean greenstone remnants comprising mainly metamorphosed basaltic lavas and lesser metasedimentary interlayers are components of the granite-gneiss-migmatite basement terrane of the central and northern parts of the Kruger National Park (KNP), South Africa's premier wildlife nature reserve. Most of the greenstone remnants represent extensions into the Kruger Park of better developed and exposed greenstone belts that exist beyond the borders to the west, including the Giyani and Murchison greenstone belts. Geological mapping in the national park presents challenges as exposures are poor and discontinuous, with the dense bush and wildlife adding to the difficulties. Satellite remote sensing provided an ideal solution and in this study Google Earth imagery proved to be especially helpful. The imagery provides a synoptic overview of the terrane making it possible to establish the outline of greenstone remnants irrespective of the dense bush cover. Google Earth imagery furthermore provided a preliminary impression of a hitherto unknown, yet sizeable, greenstone belt remnant in a remote area south of the Olifants River in the central section of the KNP. Referred to as the Olifants River Greenstone Belt in this study the remnant occurs as a major Type 2 interference fold resembling a mushroom-shaped diapir with a broad bulbous core fringed by laterally flattened skirts. Images are presented that illustrate various components of this imposing structure. Google Earth images furthermore display the general character of the Archaean granite-greenstone basement and the Palaeoand Mesoproterozoic intrusive dyke swarms on the northeastern flank of the Kaapvaal Craton. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sandy, microbial-mat-laminated sediments are common in estuarine and tidal environments of the Palaeoarchean Moodies Group (ca. 3.22 Ga); they are interspersed with numerous expressions of mafic to intermediate (sub-) volcanism, including sills, stockwork dykes, lavas, and air-fall tuffs. We describe abundant fluid-escape structures up to 6 m in height associated with this facies in the Saddleback Syncline of the central Barberton Greenstone Belt. The fluid-escape conduits fed small sand volcanoes during prolonged and/or recurring discharge of gases, liquids, and solids. They are filled by sand, sericitic clay, and fine-grained organic matter of former microbial mats. In comparison to the mean composition of adjacent beds of identical composition, the conduits are enriched in Fe, Cr, Ti, and Mg. This suggests that fluid-escape was not only a consequence of overpressure buildup from decaying microbial mats in the shallow subsurface or of water-level fluctuations but also due to periodic or continuous release of hydrothermal fluids circulating in the thermal aureole above the cooling Lomati River Sill of Moodies age. Such an inference is also supported by textures characteristic of in-place argillaceous and sericitic alteration and by Raman spectroscopy of carbonaceous matter (RSCM) indicating temperatures ca. 50 to 100°C above the regional maximum metamorphic temperature of 320 to 380°C. Pre-compaction carbonate and/or silica cementation also preserved the abundant carbonaceous laminae interpreted as benthic microbial mats. Analogue recent hot spring deposits suggest that surficial hydrothermal activity in the medium-energy siliciclastic tidal zone would have significantly boosted microbial growth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite countless advances in recent years, exploration for volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) deposits remains challenging. This is particularly the case in the Yilgarn Craton of Western Australia, where outcrop is limited, weathering is deep and extensive, and metamorphism is variable. At Erayinia in the southern Kurnalpi terrane, intercepts of VMS-style mineralization occur along ~35 km strike length of stratigraphy, and a small Zn (-Cu) deposit has been defined at King (2.15 Mt at 3.47% Zn). An extensive aircore and reverse circulation drilling campaign on the regional stratigraphy identified additional VMS targets, including the King North prospect. Through a combination of detailed rock chip logging, petrography (inc. SEM imaging), and lithogeochemistry, we have reconstructed the volcanic stratigraphy and alteration halos associated with the King North prospect. Hydrothermal alteration assemblages and geochemical characteristics at King North (Mg-Si-K enrichment, Na depletion, and high Sb, Tl, Eu/Eu*, alteration index, CCPI, and normative corundum abundance values) are consistent with an overturned VMS system. The overturned footwall stratigraphy at King North is dominated by metamorphosed volcanic rocks, namely the following: garnet amphibolite (tholeiitic, basaltic), biotite amphibolite (andesitic, calc-alkaline), chlorite–quartz schist (dacitic), and narrow horizons of muscovite–quartz schist (dacitic to rhyolitic, HFSE-enriched). The hanging-wall to the Zn-bearing sequence is characterized by quartz–albite schists (metasedimentary rocks) and thick sequences of amphibolite (calc-alkaline, basaltic andesite). An iron-rich unit (>25% Fe2O3) of chlorite–actinolite–quartz schist, interpreted as a meta-exhalite, is associated with significant Cu-Au mineralization, adjacent to a likely syn-volcanic fault. Extensive Mg metasomatism of the immediate felsic footwall is represented by muscovite–chlorite schist. Diamond drilling into the deep hanging-wall stratigraphy at both King North and King has also revealed the potential for additional, stacked VMS prospective horizons in the greenstone belt stratigraphy. The discovery of HFSE-enriched rhyolites, zones of muscovite–chlorite schist, presence of abundant sulfide-rich argillaceous metasedimentary rocks, and a second upper meta-exhalite horizon further expand the exploration potential of the King–King North region. Our combined petrographic and lithogeochemical approach demonstrates that complex volcanic lithologies and VMS alteration signatures can be established across variably metamorphosed greenstone belts. This has wider implications for more cost-effective exploration across the Yilgarn Craton, utilizing RC drilling to reconstruct the local geology and identify proximal halos, and limiting more costly diamond drilling to key areas of complex geology and deeper EM targets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There are numerous Neoarchean metasedimentary rock packages in the Slave craton, and they serve as important archives of tectonic processes. Little is documented on the Neoarchean sedimentary packages of the Winter Lake greenstone belt of the central Slave craton, however, and their interpretation can aid in the understanding of the final stages of Slave craton amalgamation. This project investigates the depositional environments and tectonic settings of the Itchen Formation and Sherpa Formation of the Winter Lake greenstone belt. Our study provides constraints for reconstructing the Neoarchean evolution of the central Slave craton through bedrock mapping and facies analysis. The Itchen Formation consists of submature mudstone, siltstone, and sandstone, with preserved graded bedding, planar bedding, and flame structures. Unconformably overlying the Itchen Formation is the Sherpa Formation, which is dominated by polymictic conglomerates and coarse-grained sandstones with preserved cross-bedding, imbricated clasts, and scour surfaces. The Itchen Formation is interpreted to have been deposited in a convergent basin (i.e., retro-arc foreland basin), where two facies associations outline turbidite and suspension sedimentation consistent with submarine fan deposition on a continental slope and a basin floor environment. By contrast, the Sherpa Formation has three facies associations representing dominantly alluvial–fluvial environments in terrestrial–marine–lacustrine settings deposited in pull-apart basins resulting from transtensional forces associated with the Beniah fault zone. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Andesites and felsic volcanic rocks are observed at all stratigraphic levels of the Konka and Bilozerka groups, which comprise greenstone structures in the Middle Dnieper Domain. Their nature and age are still poorly known. The youngest felsic volcanic rocks of the Solone Formation of the Konka Group and comagmatic with the tonalite-trondhjemite-granodiorite (TTG) association of the Sura Complex hypabyssal intrusions were previously dated by the U-Pb zircon SHRIMP method at ca. 3.1 Ga. The purpose of this study is to determine the U-Pb zircon age and geochemical features of i) metamorphosed andesites of the Chortomlyk Formation and ii) low-alkaline metarhyodacite hypabyssal intrusions that cut the rocks of the Sura Formation of the Konka Group. In the Chortomlyk Greenstone Belt, the thickness of volcanogenic rocks of the Chortomlyk Formation (dacite-andesite-tholeiite association) reaches 2000 m. The youngest felsic volcanic rocks of the Solone Formation and comagmatic hypabyssal intrusions are located within three large volcanic fields located near the Novomykolaivka* massif. Using the LA-ICP-MS method, U-Pb ages of two zircon populations from metamorphosed andesites of the Chortomlyk Formation were dated . Twenty-three crystals of transparent colourless zircon crystals yielded a concordant age of (3222 ± 6) Ma. The U-Pb age of the second population of large, brown, opaque zircon crystals is 3132-3073 Ma. Interpretation of the obtained ages is not straightforward and at least two options can be proposed: 1). The studied metaandesites are differentiated mafic magmas and the age of their formation is defined by the older zircon population, and the young population corresponds to the time of superimposed thermal processes during later intrusion of plagioclase granitoids of the Novomykolaivka massif; 2). The age of the metaandesite is defined by the younger population, while the older population is inherited from the protolith. We consider the second option as being far more likely. The first option contradicts the stratigraphic position of the dated rock . The studied metaandesite is low in potassium and belongs to the sodium series. Relative to TTG, they have higher Nb (16.2 ppm) and Y (25.9 ppm). Rare earth elements are weakly differentiated, (La/Yb)N = 3.91 with a strongly negative Eu anomaly, Eu/Eu* = 0.44. The U-Pb zircon age from the low-alkaline rhyodacite hypabyssal intrusion that cuts the Sura Formation of the Konka Group is (3085 ± 6) Ma. It has a highly differentiated REE pattern, (La/Yb)N = 16.2 and a positive Eu anomaly, Eu/Eu* = 1.21. The Nb (6.7 ppm) and Y (10.8 ppm) contents are low. They chemically resemble TTGs of the Sura Complex. Based on our data, the andesites of the Chortomlyk Formation of the Konka Group and the low-alkaline rhyodacite hypabyssal intrusions have the same U-Pb age, but different origins. The former were produced by the melting of older crustal rocks, and the latter were formed due to the partial melting of metabasites with garnet-bearing restite. Hafnium isotope composition in zircon from both samples reveals their juvenile nature, i.e., they crystallized from partial melts of rocks with short crustal residence times. Our isotope data agrees with the neodymium isotope composition of the felsic volcanic rocks of the Sura greenstone belt, which yielded εHf values of +1.8. These values are lower than the depleted mantle isotope composition at this time (3200-3000 Ma). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The greenstone belts in the Middle Dniprо Domain of the Ukrainian Shield comprise sedimentary-volcanogenic rocks of the Konka and Bilozerka Groups separated by a unconformity. The Konka Group is composed mainly of volcanic rocks varying in composition from ultrabasic to felsic composition with subordinate sedimentary rocks, while the Bilozerka Group is composed of sedimentary rocks with a small amount of felsic volcanic rocks. Three associations of ferruginous-siliceous rocks have been identified in the greenstone rocks of the Middle Dniprо Domain. These are the ferruginous-siliceous-mafic and ferruginous-siliceous-keratophyre (schist-jaspilite-tholeiite) associations in the Konka Group and the transitional ferruginous-siliceous-shale to ferruginous-siliceous-keratophyre association in the Bilozerka Group, which many researchers compare with the ferruginous-siliceous formations of Kryvyi Rih Group. The rocks of the early ferruginous-siliceous-mafic association (Konka Group) are found among the volcanogenic rocks with a komatiite-tholeiitic association. These rocks are intruded by 3.08-3.0 Ga-old plagioclase granites of the Sura Complex. In the younger ferruginous-siliceous-keratophyre (schist-jaspilite-tholeiite) association (Bilozerka Group), ferruginous-siliceous deposits are interlayered with sedimentary and tuffaceous rocks and reach a thickness of up to 350 m. The Chortomlyk iron ore deposit, which is located in the Chortomlyk Greenstone Belt, is confined to this rock association. The ages of the iron-bearing rocks has not been constrained to date. We dated 60 detrital zircon grains from quartz-amphibole schists sampled at a section of sedimentary-volcanogenic rocks of the Chortomlyk deposit. Fifty-three analyzed crystals yielded an age of 3.08-3.12 Ga; six crystals were dated at 3.08-3.06 Ga, and one crystal at 3.18 Ga. They all have low U contents (1.4-20 ppm), while the Th/U ratio falls in the range of 0.3-0.9, indicating a likely magmatic origin. Sedimentary-volcanogenic rocks of the Chortomlyk iron ore deposit could been formed on a marine shelf near uplifted highs of plagioclase granites of the Sura Complex (dated at 3.08-3.06 Ga), or near volcanoes of the same age. Thus, the sedimentary-volcanogenic rocks of the Chortomlyk iron deposit are younger than the rocks of the Konka Group. Similar detrital zircon ages were previously obtained from the ferruginous-siliceous association of the Bilozerka Group in the Bilozerka Greenstone Belt (3.05 Ga) and the Vysokopillya Greenstone Belt (3.06 Ga). Thus, the ferruginous-siliceous-mafic association formed before the plagioclase granites of the Sura Complex, while the ferruginous-siliceous-keratophyre (schist-jaspilite-tholeiite) association was formed after the emplacement of the plagioclase granites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Zircon is not a common accessory mineral of banded iron formation (BIF), but it occurs in all BIF samples from the Kostomuksha Greenstone Belt (KGB) in the Karelian Craton of the Fennoscandian Shield. The Kostomuksha BIF is of Algoma type and is part of three variably old rock associations: BIF-1 is part of a sedimentary sequence in Mesoarchean (2.87–2.84 Ga) basaltic komatiites with dacites, BIF-2 is located in Meso-Neoarchean (2.8–2.79 Ga) felsic volcanics, and BIF-3 is part of a Neoarchean (2.76–2.74 Ga) greywacke unit with felsic volcanics. Analysis of zircon has revealed grains with cores and several generations of rims. The U-Th-Pb systems of zircon indicate that its isotopic age varies considerably from 2.98 to 1.89 Ga, forming up to 4 age clusters in each sample. Most samples contain single inherited grains. The bulk of zircon in BIF is younger than the host rocks and is interpreted as metamorphic. Most of metamorphic zircons display an oscillatory zoning, and their Th/U ratio varies from 0.01 to 4.7, i.e. their origin is hard to interpret reliably, based on the above characteristics. Paleoproterozoic (1.89–1.85 Ga) zircons from BIF-1 and 3, occurring as rims and individual grains, are related to local tectono-thermal processes simultaneous with the formation of the Svecofennian orogen and were described for the central Karelian Craton for the first time. Thus, both inherited and metamorphic zircons have been revealed in Meso-Neoarchean BIF metamorphosed repeatedly in the Neoarchean-Paleoproterozoic under up to amphibolite-facies conditions. All metamorphic generations of zircons from BIF are correlated with the tectono-thermal events in the Karelian Craton, including the effect of the Svecofennian orogeny. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Three variably old groups of banded iron formation (BIF) are known in the Kostomuksha Greenstone Belt (KGB) of the Karelian Craton. This paper deals with the earliest of them, Mesoarchean (2.87–2.81 Ga) BIF-1. BIF-1 occurs among the komatiite–basalt unit of the KGB. BIF-1 consists mainly of quartz and magnetite, with varying amounts of amphibole, biotite, and garnet; the variations of SiO2 (48.3–58.6 wt %) and (21.34–33.82 wt %) suggest that the rocks are BIF. BIF-1 of the KGB, as well as most Archean BIFs, contain high concentration, display a contrasting positive Eu anomaly, lack of Ce anomaly, and the depletion of LREE relative to HREE. However, they differ from other BIFs in the higher Al2O3, TiO2, MgO, K2O, Cr, Ni, Zr, Ba, Cu and Zn concentrations. BIF-1 was formed in a marine basin at an anoxic atmosphere due to hydrothermal fluids, the proportion of which varies from 20 to 80%, and a terrigenous component derived mainly from basalts, komatiites, and dacites of host rocks. Mesoarchean BIF-1 of the KGB was accumulated in a small rift structures within an oceanic volcanic plateau, the formation of which is associated with the influence of a mantle plume on the oceanic lithosphere. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Volcaniclastic deposits are cynosures for reconstructing volcanic archives and evaluating the tectonic imprints of the study area. This paper presents an elaborate geological field litholog, petrography and geochemistry of ~1.2 km thick sequence of the quartz-feldspar porphyry (QFP) and rhyolites in the Kadiri–Hindupur section of the Kadiri Greenstone belt from Eastern Dharwar Craton (EDC). The QFP exhibits primary stratification; the thickness of the beds varies from very thin to thick (3–8 cm) and shows large-scale tabular cross-bedding in the lower half of the section. The bedding surfaces of QFPs are marked by current crescent-shaped marks (long axis: 5–25 cm, short axis: 2–8 cm), speculated as possible remnants of volcanic bombs and pyroclastic debris during the explosive volcanism. Petrographically, these QFPs are characterised by spectacular blue opalescent quartz grains with embayed grain boundaries, anhedral feldspar with sieved texture, fractured plagioclase and polycrystalline groundmass suggesting a volcaniclastic origin. They are also endowed with significant post-depositional textures such as domino-listric faulting and sigma-shaped porphyroblasts. Geochemically, QFPs are unaltered with trachyte-trachy dacite compositions showing high-potash, calc-alkaline nature displaying shoschonitic affinity. The primitive mantle normalised trace and rare earth elements are marked by an enriched LREE-LILE pattern coupled by negative zircon–hafnium, niobium–tantalum and titanium anomalies affirming their common genetic link to a prominent island arc–back-arc system where explosive volcanism produced the felsic crystal tuffs that were deposited and preserved as volcaniclastic QFP. The associated blocks and bombs produced the current crescent-shaped marks preserved on the bedding surfaces of QFPs. Research highlights: Research Highlights Quartz-feldspar porphyry (~1.2 km thick) occurs in the Kadiri Greenstone Belt, Eastern Dharwar Craton. Blue opalescent quartz and deformed plagioclase porphyry indicate volcaniclastic origin. Enigmatic current crescent-shaped marks represent remnants of volcanic bombs and pyroclastic debris. The primitive mantle normalised REE diagram is characterised by LREE-LILE enrichment. They represent Neoarchean pyroclastic volcanism and sedimentation in an island arc–back-arc setup. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The biological nitrogen (N) cycle on early Earth is enigmatic because of limited data from Archean (meta-)sediments and the potential alteration of primary biotic signatures. Here we further investigate unusual 15N enrichments reported in 2.7 Ga meta-sediments from the Abitibi greenstone belt, Canada, purportedly related to a 15N-enriched Archean atmosphere. Given that sediments from this region are contemporaneous with large-scale volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits, we utilize Cu and Zn contents to trace the effects of hydrothermal circulation on N isotope fractionation. We show that high δ15Nbulk values as high as +23‰ are associated with Cu-Zn mineralization, whereas unmineralized organic-rich shales exhibit much lower δ15Nbulk and δ15Nkerogen values. Moreover, we find a large offset between δ15Nbulk and δ15Nkerogen of as much as 17‰ and relate this to the addition of organic-bound N during the late-stage emplacement of organic-rich veins. We conclude that the previously reported high δ15N values are most parsimoniously explained by biotic and abiotic mechanisms rather than a 15N-enriched atmosphere. Crucially, both mechanisms require the presence of NH4 + in hydrothermal fluids, supporting the hypothesis that hydrothermal discharge was an important nutrient source for Neoarchean marine life. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The results of studies of carbonaceous matter (CM) and the S isotopic composition of associated sulfides in metapelites of the Neoarchean banded iron formation of the Kostomuksha greenstone belt of Karelia (Karelian Craton of the Fennoscandinavian Shield) are presented. The petrographic observations show that the CM occurs inside and between silicates, in sulfides, or at the grain boundaries between the sulfide crystals and biotite or amphibole. The results of scanning electron and atomic force microscopy showed the presence of several CM types distinct in structure and C content. The analysis of Raman spectra of CM revealed the presence both of well-ordered graphite and weakly structured kerogene in samples. The isotopic composition of the total organic carbon is typical of biogenic processes. The δ13Corg values from –27.9 to –30.6‰ are consistent with the fixation of carbon by photo- or chemoautotrophs. The S isotopic composition of associated sulfides is characterized by a positive Δ33S anomaly (up to +0.94‰) and negative δ34S values (from –2.06 to –4.1‰). The positive Δ33S values indicate a genetic link with photochemical elemental sulfur (S8) from the atmosphere, whereas the negative δ34S values reflect the fractionation of isotopes during bacterial-related processes. Based on these observations, we suggest that the primary CM mostly has a biogenic origin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reactivation of pre-existing fractures is attributed to fluid pressure conditions and orientation of fractures with respect to the tectonic stress field. In most cases, multiple fluid pressure events reactivate fracture networks. However, it is difficult to perceive and quantify the number of such fluid pressure events directly from a heterogeneous vein data distribution. In the present study, we undertake a statistical approach, well known and extensively used for fuzzy clustering of planar data to approximate the minimum number of fluid pressure events which formed/reactivated fractures. We have also combined the deterministic method for quantifying the minimum number of such fluid pressure events with the traditional method of scaling 3D Mohr circles to determine the absolute fluid pressure magnitudes. The method has been applied to published data of the Gadag-Chitradurga greenstone belt, a prominent Archean greenstone belt of the western Dharwar Craton, south India, to understand the mechanism behind shallow crustal emplacement of auriferous quartz veins within a transtensional tectonic regime. Further, we provide field evidence of fracture reactivation and estimate their reactivation potential, which play a significant role in the spatial variation of fluid pressure along the greenstone belt. Identifying data clusters using Bingham statistics for Pf determination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Petrochronology of monazite in volcanic rocks of the Hutti deposit in the Eastern Dharwar Craton (India) has been studied to understand the magmatic and hydrothermal events that have affected the area. The volcanic rocks occurring in the Hutti greenstone belt are bimodal in nature and contain both felsic and metabasalt. The felsic volcanic rocks in the area preserve accessory minerals like monazite, allanite, and apatite, whereas the same is absent in metabasalts. Petrographic observation of felsic volcanic rock shows corona growth of allanite and apatite (in addition to huttonite) clustering around monazite grains. This corona texture, termed allanite cluster, occurs parallel to the shear planes (C‐plane) of the felsic volcanic rock and characterizes late‐stage hydrothermal activity in the area. Texturally, monazite in the felsic volcanic rock occurs included within arsenopyrite (<1 μm), and in association with apatite, allanite, and occasionally with huttonite/thorite (~10–40 μm), in which monazite grains preserve geochemical heterogeneity in both intra‐ and inter‐grains. The U–Th–PbTotal dating of monazite associated with the allanite cluster shows two age peaks (both from intra‐ and inter‐grains) at 2658 ± 17 Ma (older) and 2534 ± 38 Ma (younger), in which the older age represents the magmatic/crystallization age of the studied felsic volcanic rock overprinted by a later hydrothermal event in the study area. Based on monazite geochemistry‐geochronology, the present study deduces two texturally constrained events related to the primary crystallization of monazite (~2.65 Ga) and subsequent alteration of the same during a later hydrothermal event (ca. 2.53 Ga) that has affected the felsic volcanic rock in the Hutti gold deposit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rare-metal granite pegmatites of the lithium-cesium-tantalum (LCT) type are widely distributed in Early Precambrian Greenstone belts worldwide, including the Canadian and Australian shields. However, the Middle Dnipro Granite-Greenstone region, which includes a lot of greenstone belts such as Sura, Verkhivtseve, Konka, Sofiivka, Chortomlyk, etc., remains insufficiently studied in terms of these pegmatites. This article presents previously unpublished data on the pegmatites of the Sura and Verkhivtseve greenstone structures or belts, obtained through a meticulous study, analysis, and reinterpretation of repository and archive materials. It reveals their geological-structural setting, distribution limits, mineralogical and geochemical characteristics, and their connection with granite complexes and massifs. Furthermore, the article outlines the prospects for rare-metal mineralization in these pegmatites. Pegmatites within the Sura greenstone structures or belts were discovered on its northern flank within the Karnaukhivka synclinal branch, associated with the ultramafic massif of the same name. Over 60 pegmatite veins were encountered during the 1961 exploration for silicate nickel, with most veins intruding serpentinized ultrabasites. The extension of the veins aligns with the general extension of the Karnaukhivka ultramafic massif, and their average length ranges from 150 to 250 m. The majority of the pegmatite bodies likely dip subvertically and exhibit a zonal structure comprising aplite, multi-grained granite, pegmatoid, blocky quartz, and microcline. The northwestern part of the Sura greenstone structures or belts presents a promising Pravda-Karnaukhivka pegmatite field. The Verkhivtseve greenstone stroctures or belts displays a complex block structure, suggesting the presence of deeply eroded pegmatite-bearing blocks. Isolated bodies of pegmatites have been found on the southeastern flank of the structure, primarily within the Shmakove branch and its surrounding granitoids. A series of pegmatite and aplite veins with anomalous contents of rare metals and rare earth elements are localized in plagiogranites of Sura, granites of Demuryne, and plagiomigmatites of Dnipropetrovsk complexes. The highest niobium content of 0.048% and tantalum content of 0.005% were determined in drill-hole 0151. These pegmatite-bearing greenstone formations in the Shmakove branch and the associated granitoids are designated as the Hrushivka-Rudytsynske pegmatite field. Specialized prospecting for rare-metal mineralization associated with pegmatites within the Pravda-Karnaukhivka and Hrushivka-Rudytsynske pegmatite fields is recommended.

The greenstone belts of the Crixás-Goiás Domain are economically important due to significant epigenetic gold deposits and the potential for under-researched syngenetic deposits. The gold occurrences associated with the volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) deposits in the region are documented only in the volcanoclastic rocks of the Digo-Digo Formation, Serra de Santa Rita greenstone belt. The objective of this work is to discuss the efficiency of the induced polarization methods in the time and frequency domains for differentiating and identifying potentially mineralized zones in the exhalites associated with the VMS-type gold of the Digo-Digo Formation. Data were acquired using a multielectrode resistivity meter with the dipole–dipole array and 10 m spacing between electrodes, as well as different current injection times (250, 1000, and 2000 ms). After the electrical data processing and inversion, the sections were integrated into ternary red-green-blue and cyan-magenta-yellow models to highlight areas of high chargeability, low resistivity, and high metal factor (frequency domain) and, thus, map the higher potential zones to host polarizable metallic minerals. The geological–geophysical model elaborated from the correlation of electrical and surface geological data allowed us to identify four anomalous areas related to potential mineralized zones. The geological data confirm that two targets are associated with the geological contacts between metamafic and intermediate metavolcanic units and the exhalative horizon. One of the targets coincides with a sulfide-rich exhalative horizon (VMS), while the last target occurs in the occurrence area of metaultramafic rocks, where gold mineralization occurrences have not been previously described, being a promising target for future investigations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Singhbhum Craton (SC), one of the oldest continental crusts, has a nucleus of Singhbhum Granite Complex with volcano-sedimentary belts in peripheral parts. Deciphering the inter-relationship between volcano-sedimentary packages and surrounding granitoids offers considerable challenges. The present study area lies in the northwestern parts of SC. Lithounits of volcano-sedimentary packages drapes around the Paleoarchean Bonai Granite Complex (BGC). An attempt has been made to understand the basin development over BGC based on the mutual relationship between lithopackages of Iron Ore Group (IOG) and their structural disposition. It is proposed that two distinct basins, Koira and Gurundia, developed over BGC during Mesoarchean. While the Eastern Koira basin witnessed continuous development accompanied by subsidence wherein lithopackages of Bonai–Kendujhar Iron-ore Belt were deposited, Western Gurundia Basin is marked by a hiatus after the deposition of Gurundia quartzite and mafic volcanics in a shoreline to shallow marine environment. Darjing Group of rocks deposited as platformal package over Gurundia, Koira groups and BGC. Litho packages of Koira, Gurundia and Darjing groups exhibit structural unity as they co-deformed during Iron ore orogeny. The first deformation phase has led to a series of NE–SW to ENE–WSW trending low plunging overturned folds with southeasterly vergence. The second deformation, near coaxial with the first, has led to low northerly plunging open folds with steep northwesterly dipping axial planes. BGC occupies the core of a major second-generation fold with volcano-sedimentary sequence draping around it. It is proposed to put them under Iron Ore Super Group (IOSG), where IOGs (Koira and Gurundia groups) represent the lower part and Darjing Group as the upper part. Research Highlights: IOSG consists of IOGs (Koira and Gurundia groups) and Darjing Group as per present observation. Volcano sedimentary litho packages of IOG were deposited in two distinct basins (Koira and Gurundia basins) developed over BGC in a continental shelf-slope facies. Darjing Group deposited all over Gurundia and Koira groups and BGC after a hiatus which is marked by polymictic basal conglomerate. All the litho members of IOSG were co-deformed during Iron-Ore Orogeny (during the formation of Ur) and exhibit two distinct phases of folding as observed from field and this is reported for the first time with an attempt to bring Darjing group within Iron Ore Supergroup (IOSG). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Vast clay deposits of Chitradurga and Sandur greenstone belts of the Dharwar Craton, southern peninsular India, hosting pockets of high‐grade manganese (Mn) ore, provide remarkable clues related to the ore‐forming processes and palaeo‐environmental conditions. In this study these Fe–Mn‐rich clays were investigated through mineralogical and geochemical characteristics to comprehend their palaeo‐weathering and genetic constraints and their role in the supergene accumulation of Mn ore. Their mineralogy is characterized by predominant kaolinite, muscovite, birnessite, haematite, goethite, halloysite along with quartz and traces of ilmenite. Chemical indices of alteration and weathering indicate intense weathering conditions under high palaeo‐precipitation rates in a humid, tropical climate under shallow burial conditions and K‐metasomatism. The presence of authigenic kaolinite and absence of illite reflect on diagenesis up to mesodiagenetic stage. Positive to negative Ce anomalies (Ce/Ce* = 0.67–5.93) of these clays suggest varying oxic‐anoxic conditions during their genesis, whereas conspicuous negative Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu* = 0.61–0.99) are attributed to precursor sediment signatures and hydrothermal imprints of the Mn ore. These kaolinite‐rich clays are suggested to have been formed by in situ chemical alteration, whereas kaolinitization of the Fe–Mn‐rich arenaceous and argillaceous sediments was derived from predominant tonalite and felsic provenance in a shallow marine passive margin setting. Based on the morphologies of birnessite, haematite and goethite in the investigated clays, we propose that these clays have played a key role in the oxidation and deposition of Mn (II) from the migrating aqueous solutions and acted as organo‐polymerization templates for the proliferation of ancient microbial life on the planet Earth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Combined geophysical, structural geological, metamorphic, geochronological, and stable isotope information is employed to elucidate the Neoarchaean thermo-tectonic evolution of the Southern Marginal Zone (SMZ) within the Limpopo Complex (South Africa) during the Limpopo orogeny (2.72 to 2.62 Ga). The complex evolutionary history of the SMZ was controlled by an allochthonous SMZ granulite nappe that was extruded from a rising granulite diapir through a process of mid-crustal heterogeneous channel flow. This granulite nappe with its embedded structures (steeply plunging reclined folds and steep shear zones) was formed during emplacement of the diapir to mid-crustal level (6 kbar, 20 km depth) from where it was thrust south-westwards along the Hout River shear zone (HRSZ) sole thrust against the Kaapvaal Craton (KVC) at 2.72 to 2.69 Ga. Evidence for the thermo-tectonic interaction of the granulite nappe with the KVC includes (1) thrust complexes (referred to as hot-iron zones) that are developed at the frontal ramp sections of the HRSZ juxtaposed against the granite-greenstone belts of the KVC, and (2) strike-slip shear deformation associated with the lateral ramp section of the HRSZ, which developed against the KVC devoid of greenstone belts. The emplacement of the post-tectonic Matok granitic pluton at ~2.68 Ga into the SMZ signified the end of the thermo-tectonic event that established the regional fold- and shear deformational framework of the granulite facies SMZ. Post-Matok secondary shear zones reflect evidence for HRSZ-linked tectonism that continued intermittently to 2.65 to 2.62 Ga. Low H2O-activity fluids (H2O activity of 0.1 to 0.3) released from devolatilisation of underthrust greenstone material passively infiltrated and interacted with the overlying cooling granulites. This established a retrograde anthophyllite-in isograd at ~6 kbar and ~620°C that subdivides the SMZ into a northern granulite domain and a southern retrograde hydrated granulite domain. Simultaneously, gold-bearing fluids focused into these minor shear zones established shear zone-hosted orogenic gold mineralisation at 2.65 to 2.62 Ga. Emplacement of the posttectonic Palmietfontein granite at ~2.46 Ga and associated sub-volcanic granitic dykes into both the retrograde hydrated granulite domain and the granulite domain signifies the end of all thermo-tectonic activity in the SMZ. A Palaeoproterozoic thermal overprint at ~2.1 Ga is recorded by Rb-Sr biotite and phlogopite ages derived from various rocks from the SMZ and adjacent KVC. This thermal event is not associated with deformation and did not result in the formation of new mineral assemblages. Integrated data presented and discussed in this paper contradict the interpretation of age and petrological data utilised to support alternative models for the evolution of the SMZ, including a proposed ~2.1 Ga Palaeoproterozoic polymetamorphic amphibolite-grade thermo-tectonic event. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to the inherently fluid‐mobile nature of W, the 182W record of the early Earth may have been obscured by fluid‐induced mobilization of W. To investigate W mobilization in Archean greenstone sequences, we analyzed 182W isotope systematics and major and trace element concentrations in samples from the 3.53 Ga old Onverwacht Group of the Kaapvaal Craton (South Africa) and the >3.51 Ga old Badampahar Group of the Singhbhum Craton (India). Our results for mafic and ultramafic metavolcanic rocks show W/Th ratios significantly higher than primary magmatic values, which suggests fluid‐induced W enrichment. Samples least affected by secondary W enrichment (W/Th < 0.26) show no resolvable W isotope anomalies from modern mantle values in both cratons. Samples from the Kaapvaal Craton with elevated W/Th exhibit deficits in 182W as low as −8.1 ± 4.3 ppm compared to the modern mantle. Covariations of μ182W with W/Th, and Ce/Pb suggest that negative isotope signatures were introduced during secondary fluid‐mediated processes. The enrichment of W is most evident in altered ultramafic rocks comprising serpentine, resulting in additional covariations between MgO, LOI, and W/Th. The W isotope composition of serpentinized komatiites reflects the composition of younger intruding granitoids. We therefore infer the latter as a possible source of W‐rich fluids. The Badampahar Group samples exhibit little W isotope variability. A well‐resolved 182W deficit of −6.2 ± 2.9 ppm was determined in a single komatiite sample, which indicates an unknown fluid source, currently not represented in any other unit of the Singhbhum Craton. Plain Language Summary: The tungsten (W) isotope composition of ancient rocks can be used to trace processes that occurred during Earth's early evolution. However, interactions between rocks and fluids may alter the W concentration and therefore influence the interpretation of W isotope data. To identify the source of such fluids and the processes by which they affect the W isotope composition of rocks, we analyzed ancient rock samples from South Africa and India. The isotope composition of rocks with a low W concentration reflects that of the modern Earth. Therefore, they do not trace the processes that occurred during Earth's early evolution. Samples from South Africa with untypically high W concentrations show a different isotopic composition. The variation in the W isotope signature correlates with other chemical indices that are susceptible to modification by fluid‐related processes. This shows that the W within the rocks is derived from an external fluid source and not from their original magmatic source. Samples with the highest W enrichment have a similar isotope composition as spatially associated intrusive rocks. By inference, the latter likely represent the source of W‐rich fluids. The samples from India show similar enrichment in W, indicating similar fluid‐related processes and W sources at both localities. Key Points: The magmatic sources of metavolcanic rocks from the Onverwacht Group and the Badampahar Group do not exhibit W isotope anomaliesNegative W isotope signatures in the Onverwacht Group are likely derived from fluids sourced from younger intrusive granitoidsFelsic intrusive rocks are a major source of W‐rich fluids in Paleoarchean greenstone units [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Geophysical inversions give non-uniqueness solutions and unless constrained by appropriate initial values and geological constraints can give unrealistic results. One of the critical constraints can be the physical property values of different lithologies. We have compiled a density and magnetic susceptibility database consisting of thousands of measurements collated from different organisations and/or projects across the Abitibi greenstone belt. Statistical tools (histograms, quantile-quantile probability plots and boxplots) are applied to characterise systematically major and minor lithologies. We observed that the magnetic susceptibility frequently has a bimodal distribution, while density is typically unimodal. Our results are summarized in a table that includes the representative mean (or median) and a range of acceptable values. These values can be used to better understand the regional geology, but in this paper, we used the tabulated properties in a geophysical/petrophysical inversion of gravity data from the Chicobi area in the Abitibi subprovince to show the level of improvements that the petrophysical constraints can add to an unconstrained model. When our density database is used to seed the initial guess in a gravity inversion, an anomalous zone becomes apparent that was less evident on an unconstrained inversion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper presents the first SIMS SHRIMP U-Pb data for zircon from an olivine horizon within the Nyud intrusion of the ore-bearing layered Monchegorsk pluton (Monchepluton) in the Kola Region, Russia. A 100–150 m-thick olivine horizon occurs nearly horizontally between the melanocratic and mesocratic norite of the Nyud intrusion, which disturbs its normal cumulus stratigraphic sequence. In addition, the pyroxene-plagioclase hornfelses are present at the upper contact with the olivine horizon. Twenty-three zircon grains were extracted from the large-volume olivine plagio-orthopyroxenite sample and clustered into two populations. The first population of magmatic zircon (n = 8) has a concordant and weighted average 207Pb/206Pb age of 2484.3 ± 5.6 Ma, which characterizes the formation time of the olivine horizon rocks. This serves as evidence of the olivine horizon that forms as a result of additional magma injection, which does not contradict the geological data. The 207Pb/206Pb age of single-grain zircon is 2414 ± 25 Ma, which indicates the time of postmagmatic transformations. The second population of zircon (n = 16) has a concordant and weighted average U-Pb age of 2700.6 ± 4.6 Ma, which indicates zircon absorption by olivine horizon magma probably from the rocks of the Archean greenstone belt. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The north‐dipping Hout River Shear Zone (HRSZ), which marks the boundary between the high‐grade Limpopo Complex in its hanging wall and the low‐grade granite‐greenstone terrane of the Kaapvaal Craton in South Africa in its footwall, is a deep‐crustal shear zone that controlled emplacement of hot Limpopo Complex granulites over and against low‐grade granite‐greenstones during exhumation at ~2.72–2.62 Ga. This major shear zone controlled migration of large volumes of hydrous fluids released during devolatilization of underthrusted greenstones that infiltrated into hot overlying granulites, establishing a retrograde anthophyllite‐in isograd and associated zone of retrograde rehydrated granulite that bounds the Limpopo Complex in the south. Here, we report new petrological data based on mineral equilibrium modelling of amphibolites from the Rhenosterkoppies Greenstone Belt (RGB) located in the immediate footwall of the HRSZ and discuss evidence that these rocks also interacted with high‐temperature fluids that infiltrated along the HRSZ. This study provides an important perspective of the interaction of hot granulites with underthrusted relatively cold greenschist‐facies rocks along the steeply north‐dipping section of the HRSZ, and shows that evidence for such interaction is restricted to a relatively narrow zone in the footwall of the HRSZ termed a hot‐iron‐zone. The peak mineral assemblage of a garnet‐free amphibolite from the RGB (magnesio‐hornblende + plagioclase + quartz + clinopyroxene + titanite + ilmenite) yielded the peak P–T condition of 7–8 kbar and 640–680°C with H2O content of 3.5–3.8 mol%. Clinopyroxene is replaced by actinolite + quartz and epidote + quartz symplectites by a post‐peak hydration event at <5 kbar and <590°C caused by elevated H2O content in the rock (>4.0 mol%), possibly related to fluid infiltration along the HRSZ. Mineral equilibria in a garnet‐bearing amphibolite records a prograde path from 5 to 7 kbar and 540–630°C to the peak conditions at 7.6–8.7 kbar and 620–650°C. A clockwise P–T path suggesting rapid compression and decompression has been inferred for the amphibolites from the RGB, possibly because of pressure increase related to overthrusting of the high‐grade terrane (Southern Marginal Zone of the Limpopo Complex) onto the low‐grade granite‐greenstone terrane, followed by rapid exhumation. The quantity of H2O associated with the amphibolite‐facies metamorphism in the RGB was elevated from the peak stage (M(H2O) = 3.5–3.8 mol%) to the retrograde stage (M(H2O) = 4.0–4.5 mol%) of metamorphism in the RGB, possibly suggesting fluid infiltration not only from internal sources but also from external sources. The results of this study indicate that a H2O‐bearing fluid, which infiltrated along the HRSZ, affected both the footwall and the hanging wall sections of the shear zone, although the effect on the footwall section was limited. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We report abundant small calcareous mounds associated with fossilized kerogenous microbial mats in tidal-facies sandstones of the predominantly siliciclastic Moodies Group (ca. 3.22 Ga) of the Barberton Greenstone Belt (BGB), South Africa and Eswatini. Most of the bulbous, internally microlaminated mounds are several centimeters in diameter and formed at the sediment-water interface contemporaneously with sedimentation. They originally consisted of Fe-Mg-Mn carbonate, which is now largely silicified; subtle internal compositional laminations are composed of organic matter and sericite. Their presence for >6 km along strike, their restriction to the inferred photic zone, and the internal structure suggest that mineral precipitation was induced by photosynthetic microorganisms. Similar calcareous mounds in this unit also occur within and on top of fluid-escape conduits, suggesting that carbonate precipitation may either have occurred abiogenically or involved chemotrophic metabolism(s) utilizing the oxidation of organic matter, methane, or hydrogen, the latter possibly generated by serpentinization of underlying ultramafic rocks. Alternatively or additionally, carbonate may have precipitated abiotically where heated subsurface fluids, sourced by the intrusion of a major Moodies-age sill, reached the tidal flats. In summary, precipitation mechanisms may have been variable; the calcareous mounds may represent "hybrid carbonates" that may have originated from the small-scale overlap of bioinduced and abiotic processes in space and time. Significantly, the widespread occurrence of these stromatolite-like structures in a fully siliciclastic, high-energy tidal setting broadens search criteria in the search for life on Mars while their possible hybrid origin challenges our ability to unambiguously identify a biogenic component. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Wawa Gold Corridor, a series of Archean orogenic Au deposits in the Michipicoten greenstone belt, Canada, comprises two styles of Au mineralization: (1) syn-deformation gold associated with pyrite and arsenopyrite; and (2) late- to post-deformation gold associated with chalcopyrite and Bi-Te(-S) phases. Through petrographic and mineral–chemical analysis, it was determined that gold in the latter assemblages precipitated from Bi-rich polymetallic melts during hydrothermal overprinting of the earlier Au-As-S mineralization; this event was likely driven by the emplacement of Archean lamprophyres. The formation and evolution of these melts was governed by fluid–pyrite reaction interfaces, where the bulk composition of the melts was broadly controlled by the trace-element chemistry of the sulphide minerals in the local host rocks. This suggests that the melt-formation event involved mobilization of existing metal endowments related to early Au events, rather than addition of new Au, Bi, and Te. Thus, the deposition of high-grade Au by Bi-rich melts was dependent on pre-existing sulphide mineralization, both as a source of metals and as micro-environments that stabilized the melts. The paragenesis documented in the Wawa Gold Corridor (i.e., early hydrothermal Au-As-S mineralization and late melt-related Au-Bi-Te mineralization) has been previously recognized in numerous other orogenic and non-orogenic Au deposits. Herein, it is suggested that this apparent consistency in the timing of melt events across multiple systems probably reflects the physicochemical conditions (i.e., fO2-aH2S) of orogenic fluids being incompatible with molten Bi. Bi-rich polymetallic melts are hence unlikely to form primary Au mineralization in orogenic systems but can, however, have a significant impact on the ultimate deposit-scale distribution of Au via secondary mobilization and enrichment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A high‐resolution seismic reflection transect was acquired over a hard‐rock geological setting along an existing roadway in the Larder Lake area of the Superior Craton of Canada for the Metal Earth project in 2017. This profile, as well as other Metal earth transects, primarily aims to enhance the knowledge and to better understand the subsurface geology of the Abitibi Greenstone Belt within the Canadian Shield. The complex geological settings of the study area as well as the tribulations caused by the survey geometry have made the imaging and velocity field estimation more challenging. A recently introduced 2.5D multifocusing stacking method is one potential solution for processing crooked‐line seismic data with a poor signal‐to‐noise ratio. The 2.5D multifocusing approach offers more realistic modelling of the zero‐offset wavefield by explicitly accounting for the midpoint dispersion and cross‐dip effects. The main practical problem of the 2.5D multifocusing implementation is the simultaneous determination of the optimal wavefield parameters for each image point and time location. We address this optimization problem using a multidimensional constrained differential evolution global optimization algorithm, as this improves the efficiency and accuracy of the estimation. We have also designed an efficient processing sequence for multifocusing seismic imaging. The performance of the 2.5D multifocusing procedure has been examined on a synthetic model, generated using the same real acquisition geometry. Numerical tests demonstrate that the 2.5D multifocusing technique can produce a more focused stack with the primary reflections appearing at their poststack correct locations, and the procedure can also provide reliable estimates of interface dips. Due to the importance and difficulty of imaging the data, several conventional and advanced processing strategies have been attempted on the transect, specifically: 2D phase‐shift time migration of a dip moveout corrected stack; 2D prestack Kirchhoff time migration; swath 3D poststack migration; and our 2.5D multifocusing imaging algorithm. We found that applying the 2.5D multifocusing stacking algorithm followed by a poststack time migration approach improved the resolution of the image significantly compared to all the conventional and advanced methods and identified new reflections. The 2.5D multifocusing method also focused the steeply dipping reflections more coherently, which resolved ambiguities in geological architecture by understanding the location and continuity of structures. The method also accurately extracts 3D structural information and results in an improved signal‐to‐noise ratio. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Established 2D seismic data processing methods such as Kirchhoff pre‐stack time migration and Kirchhoff pre‐stack depth migration function relatively well for regular acquisition geometries and well‐constrained velocity models. Recently developed focusing pre‐stack depth migration methods have the potential to enhance image quality in the case of sparse and non‐regular source–receiver distribution. We have tested the performance of the coherency migration method as one of these focusing migration approaches in comparison to standard dip‐moveout and Kirchhoff pre‐stack time migration techniques by applying them to the Swayze East seismic profile acquired in the Abitibi greenstone belt of Canada. This seismic profile represents a crooked‐line survey that intersects several metal‐bearing deformation zones, providing good target geometries to examine various pre‐stack migration methods. Analysis of the seismic data indicates reflectivity associated with shallowly dipping reflections appears relatively well preserved over the entire 0–6 km offset range for the frequency range between 20 to 90 Hz. Although most reflections are visible already in either the dip‐moveout or the Kirchhoff pre‐stack time migration results, the coherency migration method delivers the most improved image showing all reflective structures inferred for this area. The comparisons suggest the coherency migration method can be considered as superior in terms of resulting seismic image quality compared with conventional approaches for this type of crooked‐line seismic survey in such a complex geological setting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Greenstone belt dynamics are a key to understanding the formation and evolution of continental crust but the scarcity, commonly poor exposure, strong deformation, and high metamorphic grades of many Archaean supracrustal rocks preserved in greenstone belts often hinder geological insights. Exceptionally, the largely siliciclastic Palaeoarchaean (ca. 3.22 Ga) Moodies Group, uppermost unit of the Barberton Greenstone Belt (BGB) in South Africa and Eswatini, allows a detailed understanding of regional depositional processes and stratigraphic architecture due to its low degree of deformation, considerable thickness, generally good exposure, and diverse sedimentary facies. We here investigate the Powerline Road Syncline (PRS) and the adjacent Maid-of-the-Mists Syncline (MMS), two east-west-trending, tightly to isoclinally folded, locally northwardly overturned synclines in Moodies Group strata in the central BGB. The northern and southeastern margins of the PRS and the southern to southwestern margin of MMS are bounded by the bedding-parallel 24-Hour-Camp Fault. Along this fault, Moodies Group strata and stratigraphically underlying units of the Auber Villiers Formation of the upper Fig Tree Group structurally overlie lower Fig Tree strata above Onverwacht Group strata. Stratigraphic architecture and palaeocurrent analysis of Moodies Group strata in both synclines document a northeastward (depositionally downdip) facies transition from proximal fan delta conglomerates to fluvial- to coastal-plain and estuarine sandstones in which thick foresets likely represent subtidal channel fills. The overall deepening-and fining-upward trend in this sequence, corresponding to an increasing mineralogical maturity of sandstones, is partially obscured by local hydrothermal alteration which was contemporaneous with sedimentation, minor volcanism, and sill intrusion. Moodies Group conglomerates and sandstones were largely shed from the rising Onverwacht Anticline to the southwest. Lithologies and stratigraphy in the PRS-MMS region closely resemble strata of the lower Moodies Group in the Sadddleback Syncline, located nearby to the north but across the Inyoka Fault. If the 24-Hour-Camp Fault was part of a group of extensional faults accompanying the rise of the Onverwacht Anticline and of tonalitic-trondhjemitic-granodioritic plutons around the BGB margins at ca. 3 224 Ma, it would have acted as one of numerous basin-bounding normal faults during early Moodies time. This would place the deposition of Moodies Group strata in the PRS-MMS region in a supra-detachment fault environment which was subsequently tightly folded. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rare-metal granite pegmatites of the lithium-cesium-tantalum (LCT) type are widely distributed in Early Precambrian Greenstone belts worldwide, including the Canadian and Australian shields. However, the Middle Dnipro Granite-Greenstone region, which includes a lot of greenstone belts such as Sura, Verkhivtseve, Konka, Sofiivka, Chortomlyk, etc., remains insufficiently studied in terms of these pegmatites. This article presents previously unpublished data on the pegmatites of the Sura and Verkhivtseve greenstone structures or belts, obtained through a meticulous study, analysis, and reinterpretation of repository and archive materials. It reveals their geological-structural setting, distribution limits, mineralogical and geochemical characteristics, and their connection with granite complexes and massifs. Furthermore, the article outlines the prospects for rare-metal mineralization in these pegmatites. Pegmatites within the Sura greenstone structures or belts were discovered on its northern flank within the Karnaukhivka synclinal branch, associated with the ultramafic massif of the same name. Over 60 pegmatite veins were encountered during the 1961 exploration for silicate nickel, with most veins intruding serpentinized ultrabasites. The extension of the veins aligns with the general extension of the Karnaukhivka ultramafic massif, and their average length ranges from 150 to 250 m. The majority of the pegmatite bodies likely dip subvertically and exhibit a zonal structure comprising aplite, multi-grained granite, pegmatoid, blocky quartz, and microcline. The northwestern part of the Sura greenstone structures or belts presents a promising Pravda-Karnaukhivka pegmatite field. The Verkhivtseve greenstone stroctures or belts displays a complex block structure, suggesting the presence of deeply eroded pegmatite-bearing blocks. Isolated bodies of pegmatites have been found on the southeastern flank of the structure, primarily within the Shmakove branch and its surrounding granitoids. A series of pegmatite and aplite veins with anomalous contents of rare metals and rare earth elements are localized in plagiogranites of Sura, granites of Demuryne, and plagiomigmatites of Dnipropetrovsk complexes. The highest niobium content of 0.048% and tantalum content of 0.005% were determined in drill-hole 0151. These pegmatite-bearing greenstone formations in the Shmakove branch and the associated granitoids are designated as the Hrushivka-Rudytsynske pegmatite field. Specialized prospecting for rare-metal mineralization associated with pegmatites within the Pravda-Karnaukhivka and Hrushivka-Rudytsynske pegmatite fields is recommended. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the structural control of the numerous gold occurrences in the southern part of the Barberton Greenstone Belt in the Malolotja and Steynsdorp areas. The gold-bearing event distribution is studied using field structural geology associated with a petrological and microstructural analysis. Three major tectonic events have been identified in quartz veins and direct country rocks. The first event (De) created a regional schistosity (Se), probably associated with an early thrusting event. The second event (Df) is related to a large-scale folding, which formed the anticline at Steynsdorp and synform at Malolotja. It resulted from a main E–W direction of shortening and is responsible for the folding of the Se schistosity. It formed a N–S-striking axial planar cleavage (Sf), observed and associated with the emplacement of the main gold-bearing veins. The mineralised system exhibits a complex vein network, in which shallow dipping veins have developed coevally with steep west- and east-dipping veins. A third deformation event (Dl) produced by NE–SW shortening is related to the late barren hydrothermal quartz vein formation. Mineralogically, the veins are filled with abundant quartz, and scarce tourmaline and feldspars. Alteration halos composed of neoformed tourmaline and plagioclase within a talc and white mica matrix developed specifically during the late Dl event. A model of regional deformation giving rise to large-scale folds and quartz vein formation formed in response to E–W and NE–SW directions of shortening globally is proposed and discussed in this paper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The first data on the multi-isotopic S composition of sulfides of the Neoarchean banded iron formations (BIFs) of the Kostomuksha greenstone belt of Karelia (Karelian Craton of the Fennoscandian Shield) formed 2760–2740 Ma ago are presented in this paper. Pyrite associated with fine-grained magnetite has negative δ34S (to –7.8‰) and positive Δ33S (to +0.7‰) values. Pyrrhotite from stringer-disseminated ores associated with schists exhibits negative values of both δ34S (to –6‰) and Δ33S (to –0.46‰). Our data provide grounds to suggest that the BIF sulfides sourced photolitic elementary sulfur from the atmosphere, sulfate from seawater, and sulfur from magma. The S isotope ratios of sulfides reflect the interaction between abiotic (atmospheric, hydrothermal) and biotic (microbial dissimilation reduction) processes during the formation of iron deposits of the Kostomuksha greenstone belt of Karelia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ca. 3.5 Ga Bon Accord Ni deposit was located in the Barberton Greenstone Belt of the Kaapvaal Craton, South Africa, and contained a unique assemblage of Ni-rich minerals including trevorite (NiFe2O4). It was initially interpreted as a metamorphosed extraterrestrial body, recently ruled out by Cr isotope data, and subsequently as a fragment of the Archean Earth's core. More recent suggestions have highlighted similarities between Bon Accord and Archean magmatic sulfide mineralization. We present a geochemical (rare earth element [REE], halogen, and highly siderophile element [HSE] abundance) and isotopic (noble gases, Zn, Cr, and Re-Os) study to elucidate the origin of this enigmatic body. Bon Accord is enriched in the REE relative to primitive mantle (PM), with a pattern resembling that of Aldepleted komatiites. The bulk material has >10 PM Os and Ir, >100 - PM Ru, Pt, Pd, and Re, and radiogenic 187Os/188Os. Trevorite, silicates, and two bulk-rock samples are consistent with chondritic to sub-chondritic initial 187Os/188Os at the time of formation. The new REE data implicate a komatiite precursor in the formation of Bon Accord, and the HSE data bear striking similarities to those of Ni-enriched Archean magmatic sulfide deposits. Enrichment in the heavier Zn isotopes supports desulfurization of a sulfide (isotopically light) deposit during serpentinization to produce the trevorite-dominated body. We conservatively estimate this process could have mobilized as much as -9.2 x 104 tonnes of H2S, offering an intriguing possibility for sourcing of the sulfur that fixes the historically important gold mineralization in the Barberton Greenstone Belt. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The nitrogen isotopic composition of organic matter is controlled by metabolic activity and redox speciation and has therefore largely been used to uncover the early evolution of life and ocean oxygenation. Specifically, positive δ15N values found in well‐preserved sedimentary rocks are often interpreted as reflecting the stability of a nitrate pool sustained by water column partial oxygenation. This study adds much‐needed data to the sparse Paleoarchean record, providing carbon and nitrogen concentrations and isotopic compositions for more than fifty samples from the 3.4 Ga Buck Reef Chert sedimentary deposit (BRC, Barberton Greenstone Belt). In the overall anoxic and ferruginous conditions of the BRC depositional environment, these samples yield positive δ15N values up to +6.1‰. We argue that without a stable pool of nitrates, these values are best explained by non‐quantitative oxidation of ammonium via the Feammox pathway, a metabolic co‐cycling between iron and nitrogen through the oxidation of ammonium in the presence of iron oxides. Our data contribute to the understanding of how the nitrogen cycle operated under reducing, anoxic, and ferruginous conditions, which are relevant to most of the Archean. Most importantly, they invite to carefully consider the meaning of positive δ15N signatures in Archean sediments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Petrographic, whole‐rock geochemical and geochronological analysis of polymictic conglomerate, associated siltstone and greywacke in the Neoarchean Gadag Greenstone Belt in the Western Dharwar Craton, India, provides new insights into sedimentary provenance and tectonic setting. The polymictic conglomerate contains granitic, gneissic, felsic and mafic volcanic, quartzite and banded ferruginous chert clasts within a quartzo‐feldspathic matrix. Framework grains in the siltstone and greywacke are quartz, feldspar with rock fragments, embedded in a chlorite‐dominant matrix. The chemical index of alteration values (~70) and A‐CN‐K plot for the rocks suggest a low‐to‐moderate degree of weathering. Rare earth element (REE) patterns show moderate fractionation (LaN/YbN ~ 12.31) with a weak negative europium anomaly (0.82). Enrichment in transition elements (Ni, Cr, Co, Sc) and depletion in high‐field‐strength elements, as well as relatively low La/Co (0.62), moderate to high Th/Yb (3.06), La/Th (5.16), La/Yb (17.5), and La/Sc (~2.37) ratios, suggest a mixed felsic‐mafic provenance. U–Pb dating of detrital zircon from the conglomerate and greywacke revealed major age peaks at ca. (3.2, 2.9, 2.8, 2.6, 2.5 Ga) and a maximum age of deposition of 2,508 ± 26 Ma, 2,493 ± 20 Ma, respectively. The above data suggest low to moderately weathered proximal sources for both conglomerate and greywacke, indicating that these two rock types were not deposited simultaneously, but rather separately. The association of these conglomerates and greywacke with continental arc‐related volcanics indicates the closing of an arc at the time of sedimentation. Complex provenance consisting of recycled and magmatic arc during basin closure confirm the notion of modern style plate tectonics operating during Neoarchaean. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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A magnetotelluric (MT) study across the Red Lake greenstone belt of the western Superior craton, Canada, images a 50-km-long north-dipping conductor (<20 Ω·m) at 20-25 km depth and subvertical conductors spatially correlated with crustal-scale shear zones and large orogenic gold deposits. The conductors are interpreted to be the conductivity signature of the deep crustal source of the auriferous fluids and pathways of the orogenic gold system. The geophysical results, supported by existing geochemical and fluid inclusion studies, suggest that the Au- and CO2-rich fluids responsible for gold mineralization were released by devolatilization of supracrustal rocks underthrust to mid- to lower-crustal levels during subduction. This MT study links shallow gold mineralization to a deep crustal source region, demonstrating the connection between a crustal suture zone and the formation of orogenic gold deposits in an Archean greenstone belt. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The mafic volcanic rocks from the eastern felsic volcanic terrane (EFVT) of the Neoarchean Sandur greenstone belt of Western Dharwar Craton (WDC) are studied to evaluate their geochemical characteristics and tectonic implications. Characterised as subalkaline, tholeiitic basalts, they display moderate SiO2 (49.82–53.74 wt.%), Al2O3 (9.08–15.91 wt.%), TiO2 (0.25–0.66 wt.%) and total alkalies (Na2O+K2O= 0.60–3.97 wt.%) with Mg# ranging from 37–55 at low Cr (7–33 ppm), Ni (8–24 ppm) and V (252–612 ppm). Their rare earth and trace element patterns are coherent exhibiting moderate fractionation (La/Yb=0.16–1.09), slight negative Eu anomalies indicating limited plagioclase fractionation (Eu/Eu*= 0.69–0.96), negative Nb, Ta, Ti and Zr-Hf anomalies revealing their arc signatures. The Nb-Th and Zr-Y relationships of these basalts suggest their derivation from the partial melting of depleted mantle in an intra-oceanic arc setting. Trace element modelling of these basalts indicates their genesis by ∼15% partial melting of depleted MORB-mantle and depletion of the source is attributed to previous melting events. These basalts are geochemically similar with the depleted arc and forearc basalts of the Phanerozoic Tonga and Izu-Bonin-Mariana arcs emphasising the operation of analogous tectonic processes during the Archean era. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]