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Inorganic carbon is removed from samples to be analyzed for "total organic carbon". In automated water analysis systems, semipermeable membrane separates two sample streams, one treated with acid, other with base. Carbonate and bicarbonated ions are converted to dissolved CO2 by acid; reverse process occurs in basic stream. Only CO2 is passed by membrane, from acid treated stream to base treated stream. Acidic stream emerges free of all inorganic carbon.

Solid-state sensing unit developed for use with NASA's Water-Quality Monitoring System can detect small velocity changes in slow moving fluid. Nonprotruding sensor is applicable to numerous other uses requiring sensitive measurement of slow flows.