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The near and far transfer effects of Working Memory (WM) training have yielded discrepant findings while there is no literature on the effects of Executive Working Memory (EWM) training. The present study aimed to investigate the far transfer effects of EWM on cognitive flexibility. Community participants (n = 144) were allocated into a fully-, a partially-trained or a control group. At a baseline assessment, all groups were administered the Wisconsin Card Sorting test and Letter-Number Sequencing (LNS). Following this and for six consecutive days, the fully-trained group were administered the complete LNS, the partially-trained group were administered the LNS up to the three-digit strings while the control group had no involvement in the study. Upon completion of training, all groups were administered the Intra/Extra-Dimensional Shift task (ID/ED). The control group (a) made more errors and completed fewer stages compared with the fully-trained group and (b) had increased response latency and required more trials to complete the ID/ED compared to both the partially- and fully-trained groups. In the total sample, (a) the lack of EWM training was associated with more total errors, trials required to complete the ID/ED, extradimensional-shift errors and prolonged response latency and (b) extended short-term EWM training was associated with more completed stages in the ID/ED. The findings support the far transfer effects of EWM training on cognitive flexibility and are in agreement with studies on WM training. Although preliminary, they hold promise for the enhancement of early intervention programs in populations with cognitive impairments., Author(s): Vasiliki Stavroulaki [sup.1] , Kyriaki Sidiropoulou [sup.2] [sup.3] , Panos Bitsios [sup.1] , Stella G. Giakoumaki [sup.4] [sup.5] Author Affiliations: (1) grid.8127.c, 0000 0004 0576 3437, Department of Psychiatry [...]

Physical activities have a great role in the physical health of children; however, their role in the brain development and the cognitive functions of children has not been widely investigated. Therefore, the purpose of this study is investigating the mediating role of alpha, beta and theta brainwaves in the relationship between the physical activity and the executive function of healthy children. In the present study, in a sample of 133 children, aged 6 to 12 years (M.sub.age:9.45 ± 0.87, 54.89% boys), the duration of physical activity, the daily executive function and electroencephalograph were used for measuring the brainwaves in the resting state. The results showed that there is a direct and positive relationship between the physical activity and the daily executive function of children (p = 0.001 and [beta] = 460, t = 9.34). In addition, there is a positive and significant relationship between the physical activity and alpha ([beta] = 0.45, t = 9.03) and beta ([beta] = 0.38, t = 7.73) waves. Moreover, there is a positive and significant relationship between the daily executive function and alpha ([beta] = 0.45, t = 9.03) and beta ([beta] = 0.38, t = 7.73) waves. Therefore, alpha and beta waves could mediate the relationship between the duration of physical activity and the executive function of children; while, the theta wave could not. It is recommended that to develop physical activity time based on the needs of executive function. Moreover, to boost the theta brainwave, use more complicated cognitive activities and to set time limitations in cognitive task., Author(s): Seyedeh Manizheh Arabi [sup.1] , Sakineh Soltani Kouhbanani [sup.2] , Vahideh Velayati Haghighi [sup.3] , Monireh Asadi Ghaleni [sup.3] Author Affiliations: (1) grid.411807.b, 0000 0000 9828 9578, Department of [...]

Executive functions are critical decision-making capabilities that depend on the integrity of the prefrontal cortex. This cortical region and its dependent functions are in full development and formation during adolescence. Therefore, cognitive and educational interventions have the potential to influence the development of executive functions during this evolutionary period. We aimed to explore the effects of cognitive reflection versus typical educational interventions on executive functions in teenage students. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three interventions: cognitive reflection group (CRG), educational task group (ETG), non-intervention group (NIG). Cognitive reflection tasks, typical school tasks, and no added educational intervention, were the respective interventions in each group. The neuropsychological battery of executive functions and frontal lobes (BANFE), which allows for the evaluation of executive functions dependent on specific prefrontal regions, was used in this study. Scores in general executive functions and scores related to the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPF) were increased after the intervention in all groups, except in the ETG. However, when functions typically associated with the anterior prefrontal cortex (APF) were analyzed separately, the post-intervention scores significantly increased only in the ETG group. These findings suggest that certain educational interventions can interfere with those executive functions related to the DLPF but they can improve the APF-dependent executive functions., Author(s): Karina Alicia Bermudez-Rivera [sup.1] , Andrés Molero-Chamizo [sup.2] , G. Nathzidy Rivera-Urbina [sup.1] Author Affiliations: (1) grid.412852.8, 0000 0001 2192 0509, Autonomous University of Baja California, , Blvd Juan [...]

This study investigated mean differences in real-world executive functioning (real-world-EF) for those with and without the Broad Autism Phenotype (BAP), correlations between real-world-EF and BAP traits, and real-world-EF predictors of BAP traits. Also examined was a sub-sample of parents of children with autism (n = 42) vs. parents of children with other developmental disabilities (n = 36). The BAP group (n = 28) had higher scores, and more people with clinically significant scores (t-scores [greater than or equal to] 65), than the Non-BAP group (n = 118) on all Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Functioning-Adult (BRIEF-A) scales except Organization of Materials and Inhibition. When compared with parents of children with various non-autism developmental disabilities, parents of children with autism had similar means and proportions of people with clinically significant scores on all BRIEF-A scales. Inhibition, Shift, Working Memory, and Plan/Organize were correlated with Broad Autism Phenotype Questionnaire (BAPQ) scores. Pragmatic Language demonstrated consistent higher correlations with the most real-world-EF scales. Regressions revealed Shift as a significant predictor for all BAPQ scores. Findings underscore the importance of individual BAP-trait evaluation, investigation of the practical significance of mean differences, the pervasiveness of Shift weaknesses in the BAP, and the possibility for interventions based on intact areas of functioning., Author(s): Amy Camodeca [sup.1] [sup.2] Author Affiliations: (1) grid.267455.7, 0000 0004 1936 9596, Psychology Deparment, University of Windsor, , 401 Sunset Ave., N9B 3P4, Windsor, ON, Canada (2) grid.29857.31, 0000 [...]

The contribution of motor efficiency to the maintenance of psychological well-being in cognitively impaired older individuals is still insufficiently examined. This investigation primarily intended to evaluate whether muscular strength mediates the relationship between different facets of psychological well-being (i.e., personal satisfaction, emotional competence, coping), negative mood, and central executive efficiency through the Clock-Drawing, Trail-Making (Part A), and verbal fluency tests. Furthermore, the impact of cognitive decline on self-reported psychological well-being and depression was explored, using the handgrip strength (HGS) measure as a covariate. One hundred and nineteen older participants, 44 males and 75 females, aged 63 years and older (M.sub.age = 77.7 years, SD = 5.6 years), completed a battery of tests assessing executive functions, HGS, depression, and psychological well-being. Significant low to moderate associations were found between distinct executive functions, HGS, psychological well-being, and depression. In addition, personal satisfaction did not correlate with any measure of executive functions, the clock-drawing score was associated only with coping index, and self-reported depression correlated only with the Trail-Making Test score. Moreover, a series of mediation analyses documented that executive functions (primarily assessing verbal fluency and motor speed) and HGS explained approximately 20-46% of the variance in perceived psychological well-being and depression. Finally, more cognitively impaired participants reported worse total psychological well-being, emotional competence, and coping. In conclusion, motor proficiency mediates the relationship between selective measures of executive functions and perceived psychological well-being and depression in cognitively impaired individuals., Author(s): Maria Chiara Fastame [sup.1] , Ilaria Mulas [sup.2] , Valeria Putzu [sup.3] , Gesuina Asoni [sup.3] , Daniela Viale [sup.3] , Irene Mameli [sup.3] , Massimiliano Pau [sup.2] Author [...]

This study is an examination of similarities and discrepancies between performance-based measures and ratings (parents and teachers) of executive function in children. Data were collected from 200 Turkish children (103 boys) and, their parents and teachers. Children's ages ranged from 36 to 71 months (M = 54.01, SD = 9.65). Parents and teachers reported on children's executive function using the Children's Behavior Questionnaire and Children's Executive Functioning Inventory. We used eight structured tasks of The Executive Function Touch to assess children's performance-based executive function. Primarily, based on confirmatory factor analysis, the unidimensional structure of the EF Touch was confirmed with Turkish children. Poor agreement between performance-based and ratings (parents and teachers) was found. In addition, there were also discrepancies between parents and teachers in their ratings of children's executive function. These observed discrepancies highlight the importance of multi-informant measures of children's executive function for comprehensive understanding., Author(s): Beyza Hamamci [sup.1] , Ibrahim H. Acar [sup.2] , Gulden Uyanik [sup.3] Author Affiliations: (1) grid.506076.2, 0000 0004 1797 5496, Department of Early Childhood Education, Hasan Âli Yücel Faculty [...]

The goal is to test the validity of the 'Will to exist-live and survive (WTELS) as a master motivator that activates executive functions. A sample of 262 adults administered different measures that included WTELS and executive functions. We conducted hierarchical regressions with working memory deficits (WMD) and inhibition deficits (ID) as dependent variables. We entered in the last steps resilience and WTELS as independent variables. We conducted path analysis with WTELS as independent variables and WMD and ID as outcome variables and resilience and social support as mediating variables. WTELS accounted for the high effect size for lower working memory deficits and medium effect size for lower inhibition deficits. In path analysis, the effects of WTELS on decreased WMD were direct, while its effects on the ID were indirect. PROCESS analysis indicated that WTELS was directly associated with lower depression, anxiety, PTSD, and COVID-19 traumatic stress, and its indirect effects were mediated by lower executive function deficits (Kira et al., Psych 12:992-1024 2021c (See CR39), Kira et al., in press (See CR40)). The path model discussed was generally superior to the alternative models and was strictly invariant across genders (male/ female)., Author(s): Ibrahim A. Kira [sup.1] , Yunus Emre Ayna [sup.2] , Hanaa A. M. Shuwiekh [sup.3] , Jeffrey S. Ashby [sup.4] Author Affiliations: (1) grid.256304.6, 0000 0004 1936 7400, Center [...]

The pervasiveness of smartphone engagement among young adults has attracted growing interest regarding its impact on cognitive processes. However, research on the relation between smartphone use and executive function (EF)-a set of adaptive, goal-directed control processes-remains inconclusive due to imprecise estimation of EF dimensions and inconsistent operationalisation of smartphone use in past studies. Therefore, we examined how two indices of smartphone use-screen time and checking frequency-would predict EF (common EF, shifting-specific-, and working-memory-specific components), using a latent-variable approach based on a comprehensive battery of EF tasks. We also examined the moderating role of problematic smartphone use in the link between smartphone use and EF components. We found that screen time positively predicted working-memory-specific and shifting-specific abilities, whereas frequent checking was associated with enhanced shifting-specific, but poorer common EF, abilities. Importantly, problematic smartphone use moderated the relation between checking frequency and common EF. Overall, our findings demonstrate that different indices of smartphone use asymmetrically predict EF facets, thereby highlighting the construct distinctiveness of the various markers of smartphone engagement. Our findings imply that checking frequency and problematic use, rather than screen time, are the most promising targets for interventions that aim to circumvent cognitive impairments by curtailing smartphone use, especially in educational settings., Author(s): Wei Xing Toh [sup.1] , Wee Qin Ng [sup.1] , Hwajin Yang [sup.1] , Sujin Yang [sup.2] Author Affiliations: (1) grid.412634.6, 0000 0001 0697 8112, School of Social Sciences, [...]

Eye contact is a crucial aspect of social interactions that may enhance an individual's cognitive performance (i.e. the eye contact effect) or hinder it (i.e. face-to-face interference effect). In this paper, I focus on the influence of eye contact on cognitive performance in tasks engaging executive functions. I present a hypothesis as to why some individuals benefit from eye contact while others do not. I propose that the relations between eye contact and executive functioning are modulated by an individual's autonomic regulation and reactivity and self-regulation of attention. In particular, I propose that individuals with more optimal autonomic regulation and reactivity, and more effective self-regulation of attention benefit from eye contact. Individuals who are less well regulated and over- or under-reactive and who do not employ effective strategies of self-regulation of attention may not benefit from eye contact and may perform better when eye contact is absent. I present some studies that justify the proposed hypothesis and point to a method that could be employed to test them. This approach could help to better understand the complex mechanisms underlying the individual differences in participant's cognitive performance during tasks engaging executive functions., Author(s): Alicja Niedzwiecka [sup.1] Author Affiliations: (1) grid.12847.38, 0000 0004 1937 1290, Faculty of Psychology, University of Warsaw, , Stawki 5/7, 01-121, Warsaw, Poland This paper presents a hypothesis regarding [...]

This study examined the inter-relationships among posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, cognitive bias, executive functioning deficits, and intimate partner violence (IPV) outcomes in a sample of 104 military veterans who had served in conflicts in Afghanistan and Iraq. Veteran participants completed questionnaires, a neuropsychological assessment, and a laboratory procedure assessing social information (SIP) processing biases during a single assessment, and collateral reports of IPV from intimate partners were obtained for 69 participants via telephone interviews. Findings indicated that executive functioning deficits in the areas of inhibition and impulsivity were associated with increased risk for all IPV perpetration outcomes, and these risk factors also moderated the association between cognitive bias and psychological IPV. Cognitive inflexibility also appeared to moderate the associations between both PTSD symptoms and cognitive bias with injurious IPV, though the latter moderated relationship was marginally significant. Findings suggest the salience of executive functioning deficits with respect to understanding IPV perpetration risk from a trauma-informed, SIP perspective, and highlight several possible clinical strategies that may enhance intervention., Author(s): Hannah E. Cole [sup.1] [sup.2] [sup.3] , Ohad Gilbar [sup.2] [sup.3] , Katherine E. Gnall [sup.1] [sup.2] [sup.3] , Christopher I. Eckhardt [sup.4] , Casey T. Taft [sup.1] [sup.2] [...]

This manuscript aimed to advance our understanding of inhibitory control (IC) in autism spectrum disorders (ASD), adopting a meta-analytic multilevel approach. The first meta-analysis, on 164 studies adopting direct measures, indicated a significant small-to-medium (g = 0.484) deficit in the group with ASD (n = 5140) compared with controls (n = 6075). Similar effect sizes between response inhibition and interference control were found, but they were differentially affected by intellectual functioning and age. The second meta-analysis, on 24 studies using indirect measures, revealed a large deficit (g = 1.334) in the group with ASD (n = 985) compared with controls (n = 1300). Presentation format, intellectual functioning, and age were significant moderators. The effect of comorbidity with ADHD was not statistically significant. Implications are discussed for IC research and practice in autism., Author(s): Irene Tonizzi [sup.1] , David Giofrè [sup.1] , Maria Carmen Usai [sup.1] Author Affiliations: (1) grid.5606.5, 0000 0001 2151 3065, Department of Educational Sciences, University of Genoa, , Corso [...]

Executive function (EF) is a concept widely used to describe higher order cognitive functioning. However, the concept seems to lack a precise definition upon which even experts in the area can agree. Examples of existing definitions describe EF as capacities for independent self-serving behavior and aspects of working memory, planning and organizational skills. It has been argued that the definition of EF is too imprecise, in terms of informing effective interventions. To possibly understand the range of behaviors termed EF in a more workable way, we administered a well-known computerized test (the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test; WCST) of EF to a sample of normal functioning participants (n =11). During administration, they were asked questions about their ways of thinking. Transcriptions of questions and answers were analyzed in search of common patterns, using a behavioral theory of language and cognition (relational frame theory; RFT). The analysis suggested that a specific relationship between deictic and temporal framing, on the one hand, and coordination and spatial framing, on the other, was in effect when participants performed well on the WCST. At critical time points during the test (i.e., when need for EF was arguably most acute), deictic and temporal framing dominated participants' behavior, whereas coordination and spatial framing were used relatively less. Keywords Executive function * Relational frame theory - Wisconsin Card Sorting Test * Behavior therapy, In an article dealing with the central tenets of contextual behavioral science, Wilson (2016) makes a statement that is deceivingly simple: 'Terms are merely ways of speaking' (p. 62). Indeed, [...]

Among pain researchers there is a growing interest in the relationship between psychological resilience and pain experience. Whereas much of this work has focused on individual differences in pain perception or sensitivity, an equally important dimension of resilience is the capacity to persist with goal-directed activity despite experiencing pain. Consistent with this latter focus, the current study examined how pain resilience and pain catastrophizing combine to moderate the effects of ischemic pain on short-term memory task performance. Using a within-subjects design, 121 healthy participants completed four trials of a Corsi block-tapping task with pain exposure during the second and fourth trials. Results indicated that a combination of high pain resilience and low pain catastrophizing was associated with better task performance during the second pain exposure. These findings confirm existing evidence that resilience can moderate performance during pain, and offer new evidence that resilience and catastrophizing interact to shape this effect., Author(s): Dominic W. Ysidron [sup.1] , Janis L. France [sup.1] , Lina K. Himawan [sup.1] , Christopher R. France [sup.1] Author Affiliations: (1) grid.20627.31, 0000 0001 0668 7841, Department of [...]

Purpose: This article reviews research on executive function (EF) skills in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and the relation between EF and language abilities. The current study assessed EF using nonverbal tasks of inhibition, shifting, and updating of working memory (WM) in school-age children with ASD. It also evaluated the association between children's receptive and expressive language abilities and EF performance.Method: In this study, we sought to address variables that have contributed to inconsistencies in this area of research--including task issues, group comparisons, and participant heterogeneity. EF abilities in children with ASD (n = 48) were compared to typically developing controls (n = 71) matched on age, as well as when statistically controlling for group differences in nonverbal cognition, socioeconomic status, and social communication abilities. Six nonverbal EF tasks were administered--2 each to evaluate inhibition, shifting, and WM. Language abilities were assessed via a standardized language measure. Language-EF associations were examined for the ASD group as a whole and subdivided by language status.Results: Children with ASD exhibited significant deficits in all components of EF compared to age-mates and showed particular difficulty with shifting after accounting for group differences in nonverbal cognition. Controlling for social communication--a core deficit in ASD--eliminated group differences in EF performance. A modest association was observed between language (especially comprehension) and EF skills, with some evidence of different patterns between children on the autism spectrum with and without language impairment.Conclusions: There is a need for future research to examine the direction of influence between EF and language. It would be beneficial for EF interventions with children with ASD to consider language outcomes and, conversely, to examine whether specific language training facilitates aspects of executive control in children on the autism spectrum.Presentation Video: https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.7298144, This research forum contains papers from the 2017 Research Symposium at the ASHA Convention held in Los Angeles, California.Executive function (EF) refers to a set of cognitive processes that underlie [...]

Purpose: According to Vygotskian theory, verbal thinking serves to guide our behavior and underpins critical self-regulatory functions. Indeed, numerous studies now link inner speech usage with performance on tests of executive function (EF). However, the selectivity of inner speech contributions to multifactorial executive planning performance and links with real-world functioning are limited. Therefore, the present study seeks to fill this gap in our knowledge. Method: Fifty-one adults completed the Tower of London under 2 conditions, (a) articulatory suppression and (b) foot tapping, and provided self-ratings of real-world executive functioning (utilizing the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function-Adult Version; Roth, Isquith, & Gioia, 2006). Results: Interfering with inner speech selectively disrupted Tower of London performance over and above a simultaneous motor task (i.e., foot tapping). Furthermore, this selectivity in performance was linked with real-world self-monitoring. Conclusion: These results provide further evidence for specific links between verbal thinking and EF (particularly using multifactorial tasks of planning) and suggest that inner speech might serve as a key intervention target in clinical disorders where EF deficits are prominent., In one of the most influential theories of language development, Vygotsky (1962) contends that verbal thinking or 'thinking in speech' serves to guide our behavior and underpins crucial self-regulatory functions. [...]

Weight loss maintenance is a complex, multifaceted process that presents a significant challenge for most individuals who lose weight. A growing body of literature indicates a strong relationship between cognitive dysfunction and excessive body weight, and suggests that a subset of high-order cognitive processes known as executive functions (EF) likely play an important role in weight management. Recent reviews cover neuropsychological correlates of weight status yet fail to address the role of executive function in the central dilemma of successful weight loss maintenance. In this paper, we provide an overview of the existing literature examining executive functions as they relate to weight status and initial weight loss. Further, we propose a novel conceptual model of the relationships between EF, initial weight loss, and weight loss maintenance, mapping specific executive functions onto strategies known to be associated with both phases of the weight control process. Implications for the development of more efficacious weight loss maintenance interventions are discussed., Author(s): Katelyn M. Gettens [sup.1] , Amy A. Gorin [sup.1] Author Affiliations: (1) University of Connecticut, 0000 0001 0860 4915, grid.63054.34, , Storrs, CT, USA Obesity is one of the [...]

Purpose: We aimed to outline the latent variables approach for measuring nonverbal executive function (EF) skills in school-age children, and to examine the relationship between nonverbal EF skills and language performance in this age group. Method: Seventy-one typically developing children, ages 8 through 11, participated in the study. Three EF components, inhibition, updating, and task-shifting, were each indexed using 2 nonverbal tasks. A latent variables approach was used to extract latent scores that represented each EF construct. Children were also administered common standardized language measures. Multiple regression analyses were conducted to examine the relationship between EF and language skills. Results: Nonverbal updating was associated with the Receptive Language Index on the Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals-Fourth Edition (CELF-4). When composites denoting lexical-semantic and syntactic abilities were derived, nonverbal inhibition (but not shifting or updating) was found to predict children's syntactic abilities. These relationships held when the effects of age, IQ, and socioeconomic status were controlled. Conclusions: The study makes a methodological contribution by explicating a method by which researchers can use the latent variables approach when measuring EF performance in school-age children. The study makes a theoretical and a clinical contribution by suggesting that language performance may be related to domain-general EFs., Executive functions (EFs) are a set of top-down cognitive control processes used to manage thought and behavior (Diamond, 2013; Miyake et al., 2000). EFs are crucial to the ability to [...]

Purpose: The purpose of this study is to determine whether deficits in executive function and lexical-semantic memory compromise the linguistic performance of young adults with specific learning disabilities (LD) enrolled in postsecondary studies. Method: One hundred eighty-five students with LD (n = 53) or normal language development (ND, n = 132) named items in the categories animals and food for 1 minute for each category and completed tests of lexical-semantic knowledge and executive control of memory. Groups were compared on total names, mean cluster size, frequency of embedded clusters, frequency of cluster switches, and change in fluency over time. Secondary analyses of variability within the LD group were also conducted. Results: The LD group was less fluent than the ND group. Within the LD group, lexical-semantic knowledge predicted semantic fluency and cluster size; executive control of memory predicted semantic fluency and cluster switches. The LD group produced smaller clusters and fewer embedded clusters than the ND group. Groups did not differ in switching or change over time. Conclusions: Deficits in the lexical-semantic system associated with LD may persist into young adulthood, even among those who have managed their disability well enough to attend college. Lexical-semantic deficits are associated with compromised semantic fluency, and the two problems are more likely among students with more severe disabilities., In the United States, students with specific learning disabilities (LD) are enrolling in postsecondary studies in record numbers (Sanford et al., 2011). Despite performing well enough academically to gain admission [...]

More research is needed that investigates how positive psychology-associated traits are predicted by neurocognitive processes. Correspondingly, the purpose of this study was to ascertain how, and to what extent, four [...]

Using data from a 2011 nationally representative sample of Canadian workers (N = 5,576), the present study evaluates the social-structural determinants of the sense of mastery. Three main contributions emerge. First, we document that each of the main components of socioeconomic status-education, income, occupation, and economic hardship-have distinct total, indirect, and net associations with mastery. The well-educated report more mastery because of their higher earnings-but exposure to more role blurring and work-family conflict offset what would otherwise be their even higher levels of mastery. Second, job-related demands and resources have largely independent associations with mastery, but our analyses also reveal some key areas of overlap. Third, role-blurring activities-and their connections with work-to-family conflict and family-to-work conflict-offer unique expansions to the overall narrative of mastery, with unexpected explanatory and suppression effects. We interpret each of these observations in an effort to advance recent theoretical perspectives about mastery. A partir de donnees recueillies en 2011 aupres d'un echantillon representatif national de travailleurs canadiens (n = 5,576), cette etude examine les determinants sociostructurels de la maitrise de soi. Trois principales contributions decoulent de cette etude. Premierement, chaque composante du statut socioeconomique, soit l'education, le revenu, la profession de meme que la precarite economique, a une association distincte et indirecte avec la maitrise de soi. Par exemple, les travailleurs instruits ressentent un plus grand sentiment de maitrise de soi du a leur revenu superieur. Toutefois, l'ambiguite de role et le conflit travail-famille, plus frequents chez ces derniers, attenuent cette relation. Deuxiemement, les demandes et les ressources liees au travail sont indirectement associees avec la maitrise de soi. Cependant, nos analyses demontrent que certains secteurs importants se chevauchent. Troisiemement, les liens entre les secteurs d'activites pour lesquelles il y a ambigiiite de role et les conflits travail-famille et les conflits famille-travail permettent de mieux comprendre le concept de maitrise de soi chez les travailleurs canadiens. Nos analyses demontrent des effets inattendus explicatifs et de suppression. Nous interpretons chacune des ces observations en vue de faire avancer les perspectives theoriques recentes en ce qui a trait a la maitrise de soi., IN THEIR CLASSIC 1978 paper titled 'The Structure of Coping,' Pearlin and Schooler defined the sense of personal mastery as 'the extent to which one regards one's life chances as [...]

Purpose: The capacity to update and monitor the contents of working memory is an executive function presumed to play a critical role in language processing. The current study used an individual differences approach to consider the relationship between memory updating and accurate reference to story characters in the narratives of typically developing children. Method: English-speaking children from kindergarten to grade 2 (N = 63; [M.sub.age] = 7.0 years) completed updating tasks, short-term memory tasks, and narrative productions. The authors used multiple regression to test whether updating accounted for independent variability in referential adequacy. Results: The capacity to update working memory was related to adequate character reference beyond the effects of age and of short-term memory capacity, with the strongest relationship emerging for maintaining reference over multiple utterances. Conclusions: This individual differences study is the first to show a link between updating and performance in a discourse production task for young school-age children. The findings contribute to the growing body of research investigating the role of working memory in shaping language production. This study invites extension to children of different ages and language abilities as well as to other language production tasks. Key Words: executive functions, working memory, narrative production, reference, school-age children, Working memory (WM) consists of 'those mechanisms or processes that are involved in the control, regulation, and active maintenance of task-relevant information in the service of complex cognition' (Miyake & [...]

Prospective memory (remembering to carry out an action in the future) has been studied relatively little in ASD. We explored time-based (carry out an action at a pre-specified time) and event-based (carry out an action upon the occurrence of a pre-specified event) prospective memory, as well as possible cognitive correlates, among 21 intellectually high-functioning children with ASD, and 21 age- and IQ-matched neurotypical comparison children. We found impaired time-based, but undiminished event-based, prospective memory among children with ASD. In the ASD group, time-based prospective memory performance was associated significantly with diminished theory of mind, but not with diminished cognitive flexibility. There was no evidence that time-estimation ability contributed to time-based prospective memory impairment in ASD. Keywords Autism * Prospective memory * Theory of mind * Executive functioning * Cognitive flexibility * Set-shifting * Time-perception, Introduction Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a developmental disorder diagnosed on the basis of significant behavioural impairments in social interaction, communication, and behavioural flexibility (American Psychiatric Association 2000; World Health [...]

Purpose: Verbal short-term memory (STM) and working memory (WM) skills predict speech and language outcomes in children with cochlear implants (CIs) even after conventional demographic, device, and medical factors are taken into account. However, prior research has focused on single end point outcomes as opposed to the longitudinal process of development of verbal STM/WM and speech-language skills. In this study, the authors investigated relations between profiles of verbal STM/WM development and speech-language development over time. Method: Profiles of verbal STM/WM development were identified through the use of group-based trajectory analysis of repeated digit span measures over at least a 2-year time period in a sample of 66 children (ages 6-16 years) with CIs. Subjects also completed repeated assessments of speech and language skills during the same time period. Results: Clusters representing different patterns of development of verbal STM (digit span forward scores) were related to the growth rate of vocabulary and language comprehension skills over time. Clusters representing different patterns of development of verbal WM (digit span backward scores) were related to the growth rate of vocabulary and spoken word recognition skills over time. Conclusion: Different patterns of development of verbal STM/WM capacity predict the dynamic process of development of speech and language skills in this clinical population. Key Words: cochlear implants, memory, language, executive functions, Cochlear implants (CIs) electronically process sound and transmit information to the auditory nerve, allowing dramatically improved perception of speech and environmental sounds for many individuals with severe-to-profound hearing loss. Approved [...]

Purpose: To synthesize quantitative findings concerning measures of executive function (EF) in adults with acquired brain injury (ABI). Method: Electronic databases were searched for studies of EF assessments in adults with ABI that reported any of 3 values: likelihood ratios (LRs), standardized group mean comparisons (ds), or correlations (rs) among EF tests. Forest plots were constructed for each value. Results: Searches yielded 1,417 unique citations. Full texts of 129 articles were reviewed; 34 reported at least 1 value of interest. Nineteen positive and negative LRs were calculated from 8 studies of 8 EF measures; some point estimates were in the clinically informative range, but all confidence intervals extended beyond it. From 24 studies of 14 measures, 114 d values were calculated; d values for only 11 measures had lower bounds > 0.80. From 8 studies involving 10 EF measures, 104 correlations were reported; in only 5 cases were [r.sup.2] values >.5. Conclusions: Strong evidence concerning diagnostic accuracy and concurrent validity of EF measures for adults with ABI is lacking. Better specification of the construct of EF as well as research aimed at improving the quality of evidence concerning EF tests are needed. Key Words: executive functions, traumatic brain injury, diagnostics, stroke, Executive functions (EFs) are vital skills for thinking critically, for identifying potential solutions to problems, for understanding multiple perspectives, and for behaving in socially and situationally appropriate ways (McDonald, Flashman, [...]

Purpose: In this study, the authors assessed the hypothesis of a limitation in attentional allocation capacity as underlying poor sentence comprehension in children with specific language impairment (SLI). Method: Fifteen children with SLI, 15 age-matched controls, and 15 grammar-matched controls participated in the study. Sixty sentences were presented in isolation, and 60 sentences were presented with a concurrent choice reaction time task in which colored stimuli randomly appeared at the center of the computer screen. Results: Sentence comprehension was affected by the dual-task condition to a greater extent in children with SLI relative to age controls but not relative to grammatical controls. Conclusion: This study does not support limitations in attentional allocation capacity as representing a core deficit in SLI. Rather, the data show that these children show attentional allocation capacity comparable to that of younger children having similar language level, suggesting that SLI is characterized by a slowed development of both attentional and language domains. Key Words: syntax, specific language impairment, executive functions, Children with SLI are considered to show important morphosyntactic deficits. However, although grammatical production has been widely investigated, sentence comprehension in children with SLI has received only little research interest [...]

The purpose of this study was to examine the executive function of 4th- to 6th-grade students in three distinctively different private school environments: a Montessori school, a classical school, and [...]

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to evaluate whether previously reported questionnaire-based differences in self-regulatory behaviors (Eggers, De Nil, & Van den Bergh, 2009, 2010) between children who stutter (CWS) and children who do not stutter (CWNS) would also be reflected in their underlying attentional networks. Method: Participants consisted of 41 CWS (mean age = 6;09; years; months) and 41 CWNS (mean age = 6;09) ranging in age from 4;00 to 9;00. Participants were matched on age and gender. The efficiency of the attentional networks was assessed by using the computerized Attention Network Test (Fan, McCandliss, Sommer, Raz, & Posner, 2002). Results: Primary results indicated that CWS had a significantly lower efficiency of the orienting network compared with CWNS, whereas no differences were found on the alerting or executive control network. Conclusion: Current findings corroborate previously found differences in self-regulatory behavior and were taken to suggest a possible role for attentional processes in developmental stuttering. Key Words: stuttering, children, temperament, alerting, orienting, executive control, Attention Network Test, Several researchers have found evidence suggesting that attentional processes may be involved in the development and/or maintenance of developmental stuttering (Bajaj, 2007; Bernstein Ratner & Wijnen, 2006; Bosshardt, 1999, 2002, [...]

This study examined if task motivational imagery suggestions could facilitate a semantic priming effect, relative to general relaxation suggestions and no specific suggestions; and if the participants' hypnotizablity moderated the effects of the three types of instructions. Participants (n = 127) were assigned randomly in groups to one of the three instructional conditions (imagery, relaxation, or control) and two versions of a stimulus list for counterbalancing. A 3-way analysis of variance suggested that the semantic priming effect was found to be stronger for stimulus list version 2 than for version 1. A stronger semantic priming effect was found for the high, relative to the low and medium, hypnotizable groups. When medium hypnotizable participants were excluded, an instructional group X hypnotizability group interaction was found for list 1 suggesting that while the low hypnotizable participants benefited more from the relaxation suggestion, the high hypnotizables benefited more from the imagery instruction. The results suggest that imagery instructions may moderate automatic processes for highly hypnotizable individuals. Keywords Automatic processes, Semantic priming, Imagery, Automatic and Controlled Cognitive Processing Automatic cognitive processes affect our everyday functioning in ways that we are not aware of. For example, for most adults, reading is not the chore [...]

Impairments in executive function have been documented in school-age children with mathematical learning difficulties. However, the utility and specificity of preschool executive function abilities in predicting later mathematical achievement are poorly understood. This study examined linkages between children's developing executive function abilities at age 4 and children's subsequent achievement in mathematics at age 6, 1 year after school entry. The study sample consisted of a regionally representative cohort of 104 children followed prospectively from ages 2 to 6 years. At age 4, children completed a battery of executive function tasks that assessed planning, set shifting, and inhibitory control. Teachers completed the preschool version of the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function. Clinical and classroom measures of children's mathematical achievement were collected at age 6. Results showed that children's performance on set shifting, inhibitory control, and general executive behavior measures during the preschool period accounted for substantial variability in children's early mathematical achievement at school. These associations persisted even after individual differences in general cognitive ability and reading achievement were taken into account. Findings suggest that early measures of executive function may be useful in identifying children who may experience difficulties learning mathematical skills and concepts. They also suggest that the scaffolding of these executive skills could potentially be a useful additional component in early mathematics education. Keywords: executive function, preschool, inhibitory control, mathematics achievement, longitudinal study DOI: 10.1037/a0019672

A persistent debate in behavioral research is whether brain size or architecture relates to cognitive performance. A growing body of evidence has demonstrated correlations between brain size and ecological and behavioral tasks. These studies are premised on a causal link between brain size and cognitive function, although this association has little empirical backing. We show, for a set of 46 species from 17 primate genera, that competence on a series of eight executive function cognitive tasks both correlate across tasks and with brain size and architecture across species. Our model selection approach showed that, although several measures of brain component volumes are significantly associated with performance, hippocampus size is the best predictor of overall performance. The best performing model also includes total brain size and relative neocortex size. Additionally, absolute measures are much more predictive of performance than relative measures of brain and brain component size. These results are consistent with the hippocampus' role in learning, and the executive brain (neocortex) being important for problem solving and consolidation. Our findings challenge and extend those of previous analyses by clarifying the relationship between overall brain size and specific regional volumes. They also suggest that commonly used indices of encephalization, such as residuals of brain volume regressed on body size, may confound rather than clarify matters. Keywords: executive function, primates, brain volume, cognitive ability Supplemental materials: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0018894.supp DOI: 10.1037/a0018894

It has been proposed that switch costs in task switching reflect the strengthening of task-related associations and that strengthening is triggered by response execution. The present study tested the hypothesis that only task-related responses are able to trigger strengthening. Effects of task strengthening caused by error corrections were considered. Recent findings suggest that errors lead to erroneous task strengthening, which, however, can be reversed by immediate error correction (Steinhauser & Hubner, 2006). In three experiments, the present study examined whether this effect is also obtained when task responses and correction responses share the same response categories but are assigned to different hands or different response modalities (manual vs. vocal). Results indicated that only corrections with the same hand but not corrections with the alternative hand or a different response modality can reverse erroneous task strengthening. These results suggest that only the execution of task-related responses triggers task strengthening, whereas the activation of task-related response categories is not sufficient. Keywords: executive control, task switching, error processing, automatization DOI: 10.1037/a0019340

Although visuospatial short-term memory tasks have been found to engage more executive resources than do their phonological counterparts, it remains unclear whether this is due to intrinsic differences between the tasks or differences in participants' experience with them. The authors found 11-year-olds' performances on both visual short-term and working memory tasks to be more greatly impaired by an executive suppression task (random number generation) than were those of 8-year-olds. Similar findings with adults (e.g., Kane & Engle, 2000) suggest that the imposition of a suppression task may have overloaded the older children's executive resources, which would otherwise be used for deploying strategies for performing the primary tasks. Conversely, the younger children, who probably never had the capacity or know-how to engage these facilitative strategies in the first place, performed more poorly in the single task condition but were less affected in the dual task condition. These findings suggest that differences in the children's ability to deploy task-relevant strategy are likely to account for at least part of the executive resource requirements of visual memory tasks. Keywords: visuospatial working memory, executive functions, developmental differences, dual task interference, cognitive and mnemonic strategies DOI: 10.1037/a0017554

In 3 experiments, a total of 151 monolingual and bilingual 6-year-old children performed similarly on measures of language and cognitive ability; however, bilinguals solved the global--local and trail-making tasks more rapidly than monolinguals. This bilingual advantage was found not only for the traditionally demanding conditions (incongruent global--local trials and Trails B) but also for the conditions not usually considered to be cognitively demanding (congruent global--local trials and Trails A). All the children performed similarly when congruent trials were presented in a single block or when perceptually simple stimuli were used, ruling out speed differences between the groups. The results demonstrate a bilingual advantage in processing complex stimuli in tasks that require executive processing components for conflict resolution, including switching and updating, even when no inhibition appears to be involved. They also suggest that simple conditions of the trail--making and global--local tasks involve some level of effortful processing for young children. Finally, the bilingual advantage in the trail-making task suggests that the interpretation of standardized measures of executive control needs to be reconsidered for children with specific experiences, such as bilingualism. Keywords: bilingualism, executive function, global--local task, trail-making task, inhibition DOI: 10.1037/a0015466

To establish what it takes to forgive, the present research focused on the cognitive underpinnings of the forgiveness process. We conducted four studies that examined and supported the prediction that executive functioning (a set of cognitive control processes) facilitates forgiveness. First, a correlational study revealed a positive relation between executive functioning and dispositional forgiveness (Study 1). Second, a longitudinal study demonstrated that executive functioning predicts the development of forgiveness over a period of 5 weeks after the offense (Study 2). Finally, two experiments examined when and why executive functioning facilitates forgiveness. Specifically, and in line with predictions, Studies 3 and 4 showed that executive functioning facilitates forgiveness only in the case of relatively severe (as compared with mild) offenses. Furthermore, Study 4 provided evidence for a psychological mechanism underlying the relation between executive functioning and forgiveness by demonstrating the mediating role of rumination about the offense. Implications of these findings for the literature on forgiveness and the role of executive functioning in interpersonal relationships more generally are discussed. Keywords: forgiveness, executive functioning, cognitive control, self-regulation, rumination DOI: 10.1037/a0017875

Background. The objective of this study was to examine the association between 25-hydroxyvitamin D, 25(OH)D, and cognitive function. Methods. A cross-sectional investigation of 25(OH)D and cognition was completed in 377 black and 703 non-black (mainly Caucasian) elders (65-99 years) participating in the nutrition and memory in elders study. Participants underwent a comprehensive neuropsychological battery, and 25(OH)D concentrations were obtained. Results. More than 65% of elders had suboptimal 25(OH)D concentrations ([less than or equal to]20 ng/mL or [less than or equal to]50 nmol/L). Approximately 18% were deficient in 25(OH)D (< 10 ng/mL or 20 ng/mL were associated with better performance on tests of executive function, including trails A (80.5 vs 95, p < .05), trails B (205s vs 226s, p < .05), matrix reasoning (7.8 vs 7.0, p = .03), and digit symbol (31.5 vs 37, p < .01). There were no associations between 25(OH)D and memory tests. Factor analysis yielded factors for memory, executive function, and attention/ processing speed. Alter adjustment, 25(OH)D was associated with the executive function ([beta] = 0.01, p < 0.01) and attention/ processing speed factors ([beta] = 0.01, p = .03), but not the memory factor ([beta] = -0.001, p = 0.65). Conclusions. 25(OH)D was positively associated with cognitive performance, particularly with measures of executive function in this elderly population. Key Words: Cognitive function--Vitamin D--Elderly people--Dementia.

Recent research has shown that performing approach versus avoidance behaviors (arm flexion vs. extension) effectively influences cognitive functioning. In another area, lateralized peripheral activations (left vs. right side) of the motivational systems of approach versus avoidance were linked to various performances in cognitive tasks. By combining these 2 avenues of research, the influence of motor behaviors on flexible thinking was examined through the use of lateralized approach or/and avoidance behaviors. In 5 experiments reported in this article, a combination of the laterality and arm flexion versus extension variables successfully determined flexibility--rigidity functioning, consistent with the motor congruence hypothesis (J. Cretenet & V. Dru, 2004). Through these experiments, this result has been replicated with perceptual, behavioral, and cognitive aspects of flexibility, contributing to a better understanding of the relationships between bodily components, affect, and cognition. Keywords: approach-avoidance, behavior, embodiment, flexibility, motor congruence

We examined the relationships between executive functioning, family environment, and parenting practices in children diagnosed with ADHD as compared to children without ADHD. Participants were parents (N = 134) of 6- to 12-year-old ADHD and non-ADHD-diagnosed children. Compared to the control group, parents of children diagnosed with ADHD reported their children as exhibiting greater problems with behavioral control and metacognitive abilities, and described their family environments as less organized and higher in family conflict. Family environment and parenting practices were not correlated with behavioral control or metacognitive abilities in children with ADHD. In children without ADHD, higher levels of family cohesion, organization, and expressiveness, and lower levels of family conflict, were significantly correlated with greater behavioral control. Higher levels of family cohesion and organization were significantly and positively associated with regulation of metacognitive abilities in children without ADHD. In general, aspects of the family environment and parental limit setting appear to be associated with the development of executive functions in children not diagnosed with ADHD; however, family environment and parenting practices were not associated with executive functions in children diagnosed with ADHD. Keywords ADHD. Executive function * Family environment * Parenting * Self-control

Older adults experience more problems than younger people when using everyday technological devices such as personal computers, automatic teller machines and microwave ovens. Such problems may have serious consequences for the autonomy of older adults since the ability to use technology is becoming essential in everyday life. One potential cause of these difficulties is age-related decline of cognitive functions. To test the role of cognitive abilities in performing technological tasks, we designed the Technological Transfer Test (TTT). This new and ecologically valid test comprises eight technological tasks that are common in modern life (operating a CD player, a telephone, an ATM, a train-ticket vending machine, a microwave-oven, an alarm clock, a smart card charging device and a telephone voice menu). The TTT and a comprehensive battery of cognitive tests were administered to 236 healthy adults aged 64-75 years on two separate occasions. The results demonstrated that the performance time for five of the eight tasks was predicted by cognitive abilities. The exact cognitive functions affecting technological performance varied by the technological task. Among several measures and components of cognition, the speed of information processing and cognitive flexibility had the greatest predictive power. The results imply that age-related cognitive decline has a profound effect on the interaction between older adults and technological appliances. KEY WORDS--cognitive functions, ageing, everyday technologies.

There is strong evidence that developments in children's theory of mind (TOM) at 3-4 years are related to developments in language and executive function. However, these relationships might exist for 2 reasons. First, language and executive function might be necessary for the mature ToM abilities that children are in the process of developing. Second, language and executive function may be necessary for developing ToM but have no necessary role in mature ToM. It is difficult to distinguish between these possibilities if researchers only study young children. Studies of adults can provide direct evidence about the role of language and executive function in mature ToM. Recent work suggests that impaired executive function has multiple roles in adult ToM but that severely impaired grammar can leave ToM structurally intact. While studies of children report that ToM correlates with both language and executive function, findings from adults suggest that these relationships should be interpreted in importantly different ways. Keywords: theory of mind, executive function, adults, false belief, language

The relationship between aerobic fitness and executive control was assessed in 38 higher-and lower-fit children ([M.sub.age] = 9.4 years), grouped according to their performance on a field test of aerobic capacity. Participants performed a flanker task requiring variable amounts of executive control while event-related brain potential responses and task performance were assessed. Results indicated that higher-fit children performed more accurately across conditions of the flanker task and following commission errors when compared to lower-fit children, whereas no group differences were observed for reaction time. Neuroelectric data indicated that P3 amplitude was larger for higher-compared to lower-fit children across conditions of the flanker task, and higher-fit children exhibited reduced error-related negativity amplitude and increased error positivity amplitude compared to lower-fit children. The data suggest that fitness is associated with better cognitive performance on an executive control task through increased cognitive control, resulting in greater allocation of attentional resources during stimulus encoding and a subsequent reduction in conflict during response selection. The findings differ from those observed in adult populations by indicating a general rather than a selective relationship between aerobic fitness and cognition. Keywords: physical activity, exercise, cognitive control, P3, error-related negativity

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to prospectively examine the role of cognitive and instrumental functional performance in driving cessation while simultaneously accounting for any contributions of demographics, vision, physical performance, and health among a sample of older adults without dementia. Design and Methods: Included in the analyses were 1,838 participants from the Advanced Cognitive Training for Independent and Vital Elderly (ACTIVE) study who were drivers at baseline and completed the third-year assessment. Participants completed baseline assessments of sociodemographic characteristics, health, sensory function, physical function, cognitive abilities, instrumental functional performance, and depressive symptoms. Driving status was again ascertained 3 years later. Results: We used Cox proportional hazard analyses to examine prospective predictors of driving cessation over a 3-year period. The final model indicated four significant risk factors for driving cessation: older age (hazard ratio [HR] = 1.06, p = .009), poorer balance as measured by the Turn 360[degrees] test (HR = 1.17, p = .002), slower cognitive speed of processing as measured by the Useful Field of View test (HR = 1.37, p = .004), and poorer instrumental functional performance as assessed by the Everyday Problems Test (HR = 1.59, p < .001 ). Implications: Although vision, health, and physical abilities are commonly considered when determining driving capacity, cognitive speed of processing and instrumental functional performance may be better indicators of subsequent likelihood of driving cessation across 3 years among older adults. Poor health and vision may only impact driving cessation to the extent that cognitive speed of processing and instrumental functioning are affected. Key Words: Speed of processing, Instrumental activities of daily living, Longitudinal studies

Purpose: The initial diagnosis and treatment of cognitive disorders such as mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease is highly dependent on caregiver reports of patient performance of activities of daily living (ADLs). However, these reports may not always be reliable. We investigated the cognitive skills of caregivers, specifically their executive functioning (EF), as a potential explanatory variable of discrepancies between caregiver report of and patient performance on ADLs. Design and Methods: Forty spousal dyads consisting of one cognitively unimpaired spouse and one spouse with either mild cognitive impairment (n = 20) or mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease (n = 20) were included in the study. Caregivers completed eight measures of EF and reported on their spouses' ADL performance, which was then directly assessed. Caregiver education and a composite EF score were then used to predict the difference in ADL ratings. Results: Regression analyses revealed that caregiver EF composite score ([beta] = .33; p = .04) and level of education ([beta] = -.11; p < .05) were significant predictors of the discrepancies between caregiver ADL reports and directly assessed patient performance on ADLs ([R.sup.2] = .11; p = .04). Implications: The findings of this study suggest that the executive skills of spousal caregivers may influence the accuracy of subjectively reported ADL measures. Physicians should be aware of such potential biases when evaluating patients for memory disorders and should consider using objective measures for assessing functional impairment within their patient population. Future studies should investigate whether cognitive training and educational programs for caregivers increase the accuracy of their ADL reports. Key Words: Activities of daily living Executive functions Patient performance