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Multitasking has been demonstrated to negatively impact performance across a wide range of tasks, including in the classroom, yet students continue to multitask. This study examined the relationship between college students' perceptions and performance of technology-based multitasking. Technology-based multitasking and self-efficacy data were collected and analyzed from 265 undergraduate students. Students engaged in a technology-based multitasking perceptions survey, a video + survey multitasking task or a video-only non-multitasking task, and a technology-based self-efficacy survey. An analysis of student perceptions indicated that students understood that different tasks required different levels of mental effort to complete successfully and that multitasking across high-mental effort tasks required greater effort than multitasking across low-mental effort tasks. In addition, students in the video + survey multitasking group significantly underperformed students in the video-only non-multitasking group. Finally, the relationship between technology-based multitasking and self-efficacy was addressed in a correlational analysis between student technology-based multitasking scores and technology-based self-efficacy scores, yielding no significant relationship. The study findings indicate that most students have an understanding and awareness of multitasking, but ultimately, whether they believed they could multitask or not, multitasking significantly impeded performance.

Background: In addition to attention and hyperactivity problems, children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have poorer organizational skills needed to manage time and materials. This study examines the improvement of organizational skills in children with ADHD by studying organizational skills training (OST). Methods: This was a prospective, randomized controlled trial. Between September 2023 and January 2024, 70 children with a diagnosis of ADHD and at least one domain of executive dysfunction (EF) were divided into two groups. The conventional group was treated with medication, biofeedback, and behavioral interventions based on the children's actual condition. The OST group received OST in addition to the conventional group. Results: The mean age of the children was 8.33 ± 1.62 years. A total of 66 children completed the intervention and follow-up, 32 in the conventional group and 34 in the OST group. There were no differences between the two groups of children in terms of their preintervention scores on the BRIEF, SNAP-IV, or IVA-CPT. Postintervention scores on the behavioral scales decreased (p < 0.05), and IVA-CPT scores increased (p < 0.05) in both groups compared with those in the preintervention period. The OST group had a lower BRIEF (p = 0.019) and SNAPIV Attention deficit subscale (p = 0.046) and a higher IVA-CPT Attention deficit Index (p = 0.032) than the conventional group after the intervention. The percentage of children with a normal BRIEF total score in the OST group was 79.41% (27/34) after the intervention, which was greater than the 37.50% (12/32) in the conventional group (p = 0.001). Compared with the OST group, children in the conventional group were at greater risk of having BRIEF scores that remained abnormal after the intervention. Analysis of covariance revealed a statistically significant effect of group (p = 0.008), preintervention BRIEF (p < 0.001), and participation score (p = 0.036) on postintervention BRIEF. Conclusion: OST can further improve organizational skills in daily life in children with ADHD while improving core symptoms of attention deficit in addition to conventional treatment. The effect of OST on BRIEF is also influenced by the child's BRIEF status at the baseline level and the level of cooperation during the intervention. Trial registration: The randomized controlled trial registration number was ChiCTR2300075744.

This study aimed to investigate the differential relationship between Temperament, Executive Functioning (EF) and Media Use Motivations and the frequency of two kinds of Media Multitasking (MM) in early adolescence. Results showed differential roles of temperamental Effortful Control, Negative Affectivity and Affiliativeness in predicting academic MM and MM with other media activities. Greater EF deficits in inhibition predicted more frequent MM with other media activities and fewer EF deficits in monitoring predicted more frequent academic MM. Significant relationships have also been found between some Media Use Motivations and MM. These results are discussed in the context of the changes in adolescents' relationship to technology that have been brought by the COVID-19 pandemic and persist after its end. Implications also center on the need to consider the context and factors that generated MM in the first place to better understand MM effects.

Socio-emotional school behavior and learning are both fundamental aspects of children's development influenced by cognitive control processes named Executive Functions (EF). Yet, research on school-age children has often focused on the relationship between EF and learning skills overlooking that of EF and school behavior, which has usually been examined among preschoolers. The current study investigated the contribution of EF in both school behavior and learning in school-age children. One hundred forty-six III--V graders were assessed using text comprehension and EF tasks and evaluated by teachers-rated inventories on behavioral difficulties and EF within the school context. The results suggested a different involvement of direct and indirect EF measures in the two domains considered: controlling for socioeconomic level and age, an EF direct measure, predicted reading comprehension whereas teacher-reported EF related to both behavior and text comprehension. The results contribute to defining the role of cognitive control processes on school behavior and learning in school-age children.

This study was designed to test the effects of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Developmental Co-ordination Disorder (DCD) on depression levels and investigate the mediating role of executive function (EF) in adults. Adults with ADHD, DCD, and ADHD + DCD (N = 139) completed self-report measures of ADHD, DCD, depression, and EF. There were distinct profiles of EF across diagnostic groups, and higher depression symptoms in adults with ADHD + DCD than DCD alone. All EF domains were predicted by ADHD symptoms, and several by DCD symptoms. ADHD and DCD symptoms, and most EF domains, predicted depression symptoms. Overall EF difficulties fully mediated the relationships between ADHD/DCD and depression symptoms. Several specific EF domains relating to behavioural regulation and metacognition also showed full/partial mediating effects. The mediating role of EF difficulties between these neurodevelopmental conditions and depression symptoms has implications for their understanding and treatment, suggesting that targeting EF may be important for preventing co-occurring depression.

The COVID-19 pandemic may have exacerbated depression, anxiety, and executive function (EF) difficulties in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). EF skills have been positively associated with mental health outcomes. Here, we probed the psychosocial impacts of pandemic responses in children with and without ASD by relating pre-pandemic EF assessments with anxiety and depression symptoms several months into the pandemic. We found that pre-pandemic inhibition and shifting difficulties, measured by the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function, predicted higher risk of anxiety symptoms. These findings are critical for promoting community recovery and maximizing clinical preparedness to support children at increased risk for adverse psychosocial outcomes.

Purpose: Relative clauses present a well-known processing asymmetry between object-extracted and subject-extracted dependencies across both typical and atypical populations. The present study aimed at exploring the comprehension of object and subject relative clauses as conceptualized by the Relativized Minimality framework in autistic children and in a group of age- and IQ-matched typically-developing children. The study also explored the way performance in relative clauses would be affected by the children's language and executive function skills. Method: Relative clause comprehension was tested through a sentence-picture matching task and language was tested with a receptive vocabulary task. Executive functions were assessed through backward digit recall and a Flanker test. Results: Object relative clauses were harder to parse for both groups than subject relatives, while number mismatch between the moved object Noun Phrase and the intervening subject Noun Phrase in object relatives boosted both groups' performances. Typically-developing children's performance in object relatives was predicted by both language and executive functions, while autistic children failed to use language and did not systematically draw on their executive functions in object relative clause comprehension. Conclusion: The findings suggest that relative clause processing in autism follows a normal developmental trajectory, and that difficulty with parsing object relative clauses stems from reduced language and executive functions rather than deficits in the children's morphosyntactic skills.

Executive functioning (EF) deficits, such as challenges with planning, organization, and materials management, negatively impact academic performance, particularly for middle-school students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) without intellectual disability (ID). The aim was to assess the initial efficacy of the school-based version of the Achieving Independence and Mastery in School (AIMS) intervention in a pilot randomized clinical trial. 47 autistic middle-schoolers without ID attending nine different schools were randomized to participate in AIMS or to wait to receive AIMS the following semester (waitlist control = WLC). Youth, caregivers, and teachers rated academic EFs and academic functioning, and youth completed an objective EF measure, at baseline and outcome (post). Effect sizes were computed comparing baseline and post measures within each group. Individuals randomized to AIMS improved from baseline to post on academic EF outcome measures with small to moderate effect sizes, compared to WLC, who made some improvements but with generally smaller effect sizes. Analyses with academic functioning measures showed a similar pattern of results. These promising results suggest that AIMS delivered in the school by school-based personnel to small groups of students with ASD without ID can improve academic EF skills.

This study explores the relationship between executive functions, positive psychology, and depression within the context of a positive neuropsychological framework. The participants comprised 286 university students (113 male and 173 female). The study utilized the Executive Function Index (EFI), Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II), and Positive Psychology Scale for data collection. Research questions were addressed through the application of simple regression, Pearson correlation, and t-test methodologies. The study findings revealed that the EFI failed to predict positive psychology and depression. Conversely, positive psychology exhibited predictive capabilities for depression. Additionally, the results demonstrated a negative correlation between depression and positive psychology, depression and executive functions, as well as a positive correlation between positive psychology and executive functions. Furthermore, the study revealed that females exhibited higher levels of depression, while males exhibited higher levels of positive psychology.

The number of students with disabilities (SWD) enrolling in postsecondary education continues to increase, yet degree completion rates continue to fall behind compared to peers without disabilities. There is an obvious need to investigate interventions to support postsecondary success so SWD can reap the benefits of a college education. Empirical evidence demonstrates that coaching is a promising support. This literature review aims to examine coaching interventions currently used to support SWD in postsecondary education. The authors reviewed relevant literature from 2009 to 2021 and identified 17 studies that met the search criteria. Findings indicate positive outcomes, including improved grade point average (GPA), time management, organization, learning and study skills, self-esteem, behavioral regulation, metacognition, and sense of well-being. The authors also include recommendations for additional research.

The use of artificial intelligence (AI) is not a new concept. Still, the press, the worry, and the hype around the potential benefits and limitations of the explosion of these tools in this field is a current topic in teacher education. In this article, the authors summarize the past use of AI, present easily adaptable tools in teacher education, and discuss what is on the horizon in industry and special education teacher education. The authors highlight tools that should be considered in programs today, followed by ways to expand the field of AI in teacher education to support the learning outcomes of struggling students.

Executive function skills are crucial for children in the 21st century, serving as indicators of their readiness for learning. Children with well-developed executive function skills can effectively accomplish various tasks, solve problems using diverse strategies, and collaborate with others happily. This research aims to: 1. Identify the necessity for fostering executive function skills among early childhood students in Nonthaburi Province. 2. Analyze the causes underlying the necessity to promote executive function skills in early childhood students. 3. Propose strategies to enhance executive function skills in early childhood students. The research consists of two phases. Phase 1 involves identifying the necessity for developing executive function skills among early childhood students, with a sample group comprising 12 volunteer kindergarten teachers randomly selected from 12 classrooms and 328 early childhood students aged 5 to 5 years 11 months (162 boys and 166 girls). The research instrument used is the MU.EF-101 assessment. Data analysis involves calculating the mean and standard deviation of T-scores for working memory, inhibitory control, and shift/cognitive flexibility. Phase 2 analyzes the causes of necessity and proposes strategies to promote executive function skills in early childhood students. The data sources for this phase are 12 teachers, and the research instruments include fishbone diagram recording forms and group discussion recording forms. Findings suggest that parental involvement is crucial in training children to perform tasks independently and in teaching children patience. Additionally, teachers should analyze children's behaviors to plan appropriate learning activities based on their context. Teachers must encourage children to think and make decisions independently, encourage when mistakes occur, and ensure the availability of suitable tools and toys that promote the development of executive function skills in early childhood students, which teachers or parents can conveniently utilize.

One method for addressing barriers disabled college students face is by increasing access to academic accommodations. However, for college students with ADHD, little is known about the associations between receipt of accommodations and academic performance, behavioral functioning, and mood status. Considering college students with ADHD are at a higher risk of experiencing academic difficulties and internalizing symptoms compared to their peers without ADHD, further research into these relations is warranted. To address the existing knowledge gap, we compared academic, behavioral, and mood functioning among college student drinkers with ADHD who self-reported having been granted academic accommodations (n = 23) to those who denied ever receiving academic accommodations (n = 88). The present study also explored reasons college students with ADHD receiving academic accommodations may not utilize their provided accommodations consistently. Results indicated that self-reported use of accommodations was not associated with college grade point average (GPA), self-reported symptoms of ADHD, executive dysfunction, depression, emotion dysregulation, or overall functional impairment. Common reasons for not using academic accommodations (e.g., not feeling they were needed, being too difficult to obtain) highlight the salience of cognitive and systemic barriers to utilization. The results broadly imply that academic accommodations may be perceived as beneficial by college students with ADHD, but not sufficient to improve academic performance or indirectly impact mood- and behavior-related concerns.

The study explores the effects of a hybrid instructional approach combining Situated Learning (SL) and Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) on the executive functions and cognitive abilities of fourth-grade students learning English as a second language (ESL). Method: An experimental design was employed, with students divided into control and experimental groups. The experimental group participated in four weeks of SL and TBLT, while the control group received traditional instruction. Pre-test and post-test measures were taken using the Executive Function Assessment Scale (EFPS) and the Cognitive Abilities Scale (CAS). Results: Although the executive function (M=158.16, t=-14.224, p<0.05) and cognitive ability (M=133.28, t=-11.835, p<0.05) of the students in the control group were improved, the improvement was small. However, the executive function (M=161.88, t=-18.047, p<0.05) and cognitive ability (M=137.04, t=-19.591, p<0.05) of the students in the experimental group were significantly improved. Conclusions: The combination of SL and TBLT significantly enhances both executive functions and cognitive abilities in primary students, indicating the effectiveness of this instructional approach in promoting cognitive development through real-world, task-based activities.

Enhancing students' problem solving skills is one of the primary educational challenges. For students to succeed, it is essential to determine the elements that best develop problem-solving abilities. Using SEM, a model that shows how self-efficacy, grit, utility value, help seeking behavior and executive control contribute to problem solving efficiency was developed. The path analysis, combined with students' explanation, provided strong support for the framework, and among the determinants, utility value and executive control, exerted a significant influence on problem solving proficiency. The implication of these findings is that enhancement of students' higher-order cognitive processes involved in planning, monitoring and regulating cognition and their perceptions of task usefulness should be the main goals of interventions designed to increase problem-solving abilities.

The authors compare pretend play and executive function both in preschool children with an acquired brain injury and in neurotypical preschool children. They find the ability to produce logical, sequenced pretend play actions and object substitutions in play correlates strongly with executive function ability in both groups, and working memory emerges in their study as the most reliable predictor of pretend play in both groups of children. Their investigation highlights the need to include pretend play in rehabilitating children with brain injuries and the importance of pretend play for developing executive function in all children.

The purpose of this study was to assess the association between attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms and rejection sensitivity in college students, and whether it is mediated or moderated by elements of mental well-being. Using a cross-sectional design, the study examined 304 Hungarian college students who responded online to a set of questionnaires that included the Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale, The Mental Health Test, and the Rejection Sensitivity Questionnaire. Path analysis indicated that well-being, creative/executive proficiency, self-regulation, and resilience partially mediated the relationship between ADHD symptoms and rejection sensitivity, while savoring moderated this link. The model explained up to 50% of the total variance in rejection sensitivity scores. Findings suggest that university students with ADHD symptoms may particularly benefit from acquiring savoring skills to enhance their mental well-being and lower rejection to sensitivity. As such, the results carry significant implications for counseling psychologists, educators, and mental health professionals working in the higher education sector.

Children are increasingly using educational apps, but little research has been conducted to determine their effectiveness. The current study compared the effect of an interactive touchscreen app to the effect of a noninteractive video about the app on young children's Chinese characters learning and executive functions (EFs). In a mixed between-within design, 50 children aged 5 to 6 years old were randomly assigned to play the app on touchscreen or to watch a noninteractive video about the app. Results showed that children in the app condition made more progress from the pretest to the posttest in Chinese characters learning, and more improvement in working memory scores and inhibitory capacity scores compared to the video condition. Results suggest that interactive literacy apps on touchscreens benefit children's learning and EFs. Future research should continue to focus on the impact of different forms of touchscreen use on children's executive functioning.

Background: People with communication disability after stroke experience low rates of return to vocational roles. Vocational rehabilitation is recommended; however, there are no clear guidelines informing vocational rehabilitation for people with communication disability. Understanding the needs and experiences of this population is critical to improving vocational stroke rehabilitation outcomes. Aims: This study aimed to--(1) investigate the experience of vocational rehabilitation for people with communication disability after stroke, (2) identify gaps and, (3) provide preliminary recommendations for tailored service delivery. Methods: Seven participants with an identified communication impairment following stroke were recruited from a larger clinical trial of early vocational rehabilitation (20% of total sample, n = 34). To address the study aims, a qualitative design was employed. Semi-structured, in-depth interviews were conducted and analysed using thematic analysis. Data were integrated with demographic and intervention audit data to contextualise participant experiences, identify vocational rehabilitation gaps and inform preliminary recommendations. Results: Participants were five men and two women aged 24-69 years whose communication profiles included difficulties with auditory comprehension and information processing, reading comprehension, thinking, executive function and self-regulation, as well as difficulties with verbal and written expression. Vocational rehabilitation was perceived as beneficial but participants identified gaps including limited access to psychological and peer-based support during early rehabilitation, limitations to accessing specialist vocational rehabilitation programs, barriers to accessing ongoing rehabilitation after resumption of vocational activity, and limited preparedness for the degree of impact that their communication changes had on execution of vocational roles and responsibilities. Conclusion: Vocational environments are communicatively demanding and people living with acquired communication difficulties face a range of vocation-related participation barriers even when communication difficulties are mild. Greater emphasis on evaluating the vocational communication environment and targeted communication training and preparation for colleagues within the workplace is recommended to reduce barriers faced. Interdisciplinary rehabilitation, inclusive of psychological care, may support working-age stroke survivors to recognise and acknowledge changes in their communication function, lead to improved engagement in the rehabilitation process, and ensure early identification of factors likely to influence successful return-to-vocational activity.

This quantitative comparative study was conducted to examine if, and to what extent, differences in health and functioning and quality of life exist for community college students who complete an academic mindfulness course. Surveyed student responses were captured by the Quality of Life Index (QLI) (Ferrans and Powers, 1985), dependent variables measured, and a non-directional two-tailed independent (unpaired) samples t test conducted. A univariate post-test only comparison group design was conducted to measure results of the mindfulness coursework intervention at the conclusion of the courses. A non-probability convenience sampling of 154 participants was collected, with both descriptive and inferential statics calculated. Data results indicated a statistically significant difference in health and functioning between the comparison and the intervention groups as well as quality of life between the comparison and the intervention groups. Effect size (Cohen's d) at a 95% confidence interval for those students who completed a mindfulness course was large for the overall QLI score as well as the health and functioning subscale. This study demonstrated positive results and statistical significance suggesting the utility of mindfulness coursework. Recommendations from this study include integrating mindfulness coursework in a classroom setting and offering mindfulness training as a stand-alone academic course.

Mental health conditions such as anxiety, depression, aggression, and inattention are common in autistic youth and are challenging to treat by community providers. We aim to parse the heterogeneity of autism based on dimensions of executive function and determine whether specific executive function profiles are differentially related to psychiatric symptoms. Parents of 397 well-characterized 8-14-year-old autistic children without an intellectual disability reported on their child's executive function skills and psychiatric symptoms. We applied a data-driven, graph theory-based, community-detection approach to a common executive function measure, revealing three distinct executive function profile subgroups. Despite having similar social challenges, the executive function subgroups differed on anxiety, aggression, affect, and inattention symptoms. Results support the need for more intensive subtyping with autistic youth to develop appropriate, individualized mental health treatments and supports. Characterizing youth through neurocognitive strengths and challenges can guide the development of precision medicine, allowing for more meaningful, specialized treatment.

Background: White noise stimulation has demonstrated efficacy in enhancing working memory in children with ADHD. However, its impact on other executive functions commonly affected by ADHD, such as inhibitory control, remains largely unexplored. This research aims to explore the effects of two types of white noise stimulation on oculomotor inhibitory control in children with ADHD. Method: Memory guided saccade (MGS) and prolonged fixation (PF) performance was compared between children with ADHD (N = 52) and typically developing controls (TDC, N = 45), during auditory and visual white noise stimulation as well as in a no noise condition. Results: Neither the auditory nor the visual white noise had any beneficial effects on performance for either group. Conclusions: White noise stimulation does not appear to be beneficial for children with ADHD in tasks that target oculomotor inhibitory control. Potential explanations for this lack of noise benefit will be discussed.

There is no relationship more vital than the one a child shares with their primary caregivers early in development. Yet many children worldwide are raised in settings that lack the warmth, connection, and stimulation provided by a responsive primary caregiver. In this study, we used data from the Bucharest Early Intervention Project (BEIP), a longitudinal study of institutionally-reared and family-reared children, to test how caregiving quality during infancy is associated with average EEG power over the first 3.5 years of life in alpha, beta, and theta frequency bands, and associations with later executive function (EF) at age 8 years. The sample comprised 189 children (129 institutionally-reared; 60 family-reared) who contributed data on observed caregiving quality during infancy (baseline; average age of 22 months), resting EEG power at baseline, 30, and 42 months, and performance-based data on a series of EF tasks at 8 years. Using Bayesian estimation, observed caregiving quality at baseline was marginally linked with higher average alpha and beta power, and lower theta power, from baseline to 42 months. In turn, higher average beta power and lower average theta power were marginally associated with higher EF at 8 years. In indirect effects models, higher caregiving quality at baseline was associated with higher EF at 8 years, with a marginal indirect effect through average theta power from baseline to 42 months. Variation in the quality of the early caregiving environment may be associated with later executive function, which is partially underpinned by individual differences in brain activity during early childhood.

Previous research has demonstrated the effectiveness of executive functions (EFs) training, both in computer-based and school-based formats. However, there is limited research on the combined effects of these training modalities. This study aims to assess the feasibility and preliminary efficacy of an EFs training programme for primary school children. The programme includes computerized training sessions for home use and school activities with metacognitive elements. The study included a sample of 53 second-grade children, with 21 children in the training group and 32 children in the control group. Feasibility questionnaires were completed by children, parents and teachers. The children also underwent an EFs evaluation. The results indicate that the training was enjoyable for children and feasible for parents and teachers. Furthermore, preliminary efficacy analysis revealed significant improvements in working memory. These findings suggest that the training model holds promise for enhancing EFs in children in the school context.

The present study aimed to examine whether Mandarin-speaking children on the autism spectrum showed differences in comprehending spatial demonstratives ("this" and "that", and "here" and "there"), as compared to typically developing (TD) children. Another aim of this study was to investigate the roles of theory of mind (ToM) and executive functions (EF) in the comprehension of spatial demonstratives. Twenty-seven autistic children (mean age 6.86) and 27 receptive-vocabulary-matched TD children (mean age 5.82) were recruited. Demonstrative comprehension was assessed based on participants' ability to place objects in certain locations according to experimenters' instructions which involved these demonstratives in three different conditions (same-, opposite-, and spectator-perspective conditions). Four false-belief tasks were administered to measure ToM, and the word-span task and the dimensional change card sort task were used to measure two subcomponents of EF -- working memory and mental flexibility -- respectively. Children on the autism spectrum were found to score below TD children in the comprehension of spatial demonstratives. In addition, the results showed that ToM and working memory were conducive to the correct interpretation of spatial demonstratives. The two cognitive abilities mutually influenced their respective roles in spatial demonstrative comprehension in the three different conditions. The findings suggest that the comprehension of spatial demonstratives comprehension is an area of need in Mandarin-speaking children on the autism spectrum, and it might be linked to their differences in cognitive abilities.

This study reports feasibility, fidelity and acceptability of a pilot of START; a 12-week parent-toddler, group-based, neurodiversity-affirming programme aiming to support executive function development in toddlers at elevated likelihood of autism or ADHD. After 4 days' training, community early years practitioner pairs delivered START to 13 UK families with a toddler showing elevated autistic traits, or with a parent or sibling with autism or ADHD, in groups of 6 and 7. Sessions were audio-recorded and rated by practitioners and researchers regarding the extent to which programme and session aims were met. Practitioners' reflections on strengths and challenges in session delivery, adaptations to the session plan and researchers' observations from the audio recordings were probed in weekly debrief calls, and one-to-one interviews at programme end-point. Recruitment and retention were monitored. Parent participants were asked to complete a feedback questionnaire after each session. Results show recruitment to the programme is feasible, but a large minority of parents experience barriers to regular attendance, which is a challenge for achieving exposure targets. Practitioners delivered the programme to a high quality and at least partially met programme and session-specific aims in every session. The most significant barrier to fully meeting session aims was families' late arrival. Parents reported regularly engaging with the suggested activities at home and found the sessions useful, although not all parents responded each week. Overall, the results of this small-scale pilot indicate START is feasible and acceptable as a parent-mediated programme to support toddlers at elevated likelihood of autism or ADHD to thrive.

Background: The literature suggests that educators can use parent-educator communication to support parents with engaging their children in home learning activities (Epstein, 1995; Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 1997). Objective: This study examines the relations between parent-educator communication and preschoolers' numeracy, literacy, executive function, and vocabulary, and explores if the home numeracy environment (HNE) and the home literacy environment (HLE) was a better predictor of children's outcomes than parent-educator communication. Method: Data for this study came from a larger quasi-experimental study evaluating a state-funded preschool program (n = 558). Regression models were run controlling for child's age, sex, race/ethnicity, family income, group, parental education, and baseline skill scores. Results: Analyses revealed a significant relation only between parent-educator communication and numeracy skills ([beta] = -0.14, p = < 0.001). Unexpectedly, more frequent parent-educator communication in preschool were related to lower numeracy skills. Additionally, there was a statistically significant association between all three predictors -- parent-educator communication ([beta] = - 0.15, p = < 0.001), the HNE ([beta] = 0.14, p = 0.016), and the HLE ([beta] = - 0.18, p = 0.004) -- and children's numeracy skills. Specifically, more frequent parent-educator communication and higher HLE scores in preschool predicted lower numeracy skills. Additionally, the higher quality of the HNE predicted greater numeracy skills in the spring of preschool. Conclusion: There may be increased communication when the children are performing lower on their numeracy skills than their peers and teachers and parents are working to remediate those challenges.

Objective: The study aims to examine family functionality, emotion regulation difficulties, preference for loneliness, social exclusion, internalizing and externalizing disorders, and executive functions in children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Cognitive Disengagement Syndrome (CDS) and compare with ADHD, and ADHD+ Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD). Method: This study included 842 children aged 8-12 years. The subjects were categorized according to DSM-V as ADHD (n = 246), ADHD + ODD (n = 212), ADHD + CDS (n = 176), and Control group (n = 207). The solitude and social exclusion, difficulties in emotion dysregulation and Barkley SCT scales, Child Behavior Checklist, family assessment device, and Central Vital Signs (CNSVS) test were used. Results: According to the study, children with ADHD + CDS had higher rates of internalizing disorders. They also preferred being alone and experienced more difficulty communicating with their parents and solving problems within the family. Additionally, these children had difficulty recognizing and understanding the emotional reactions of others. The ADHD + ODD group presented a poorer performance on CNSVS domain tests except for the psychomotor speed test than other groups. Also, ADHD + CDS children had the lowest psychomotor speed scores and lower scores on reaction time and cognitive flexibility than pure ADHD children. Conclusion: This study will contribute to the etiology, treatment, and clinical discrimination of ADHD + CDS. (J. of Att. Dis. 2024; 28(12) 1555-1576)

This study examined the link between classroom ethnic diversity, cross-ethnic friendships, and children's theory of mind. In total, 730 children in the United Kingdom (54.7% girls, 51.5% White) aged 8 to 13 years completed measures of theory of mind in 2019/2020. Controlling for verbal ability, executive function, peer social preference, and teacher-reported demographic characteristics, greater classroom ethnic diversity provided opportunities for cross-ethnic friendships, and children with cross-ethnic friendships performed better than peers without cross-ethnic friendships on theory of mind. These results extend accounts of intergroup contact by using direct assessments of children's theory of mind and advance social accounts of theory of mind by demonstrating how experiences outside the family are linked with theory of mind.

This study examined the direct and indirect relationships between playfulness (social and cognitive spontaneity), executive functions, convergent thinking, divergent thinking, and academic skills in Hong Kong Chinese kindergarten children. Participants were 181 second-year (4 to 5 years) kindergarten children (45.9% boys) and their parents. Parents reported demographic information and children's playfulness and executive functions through a questionnaire. Children were administered behavioral assessments of convergent thinking, divergent thinking, Chinese word reading, and number word comparison at their kindergarten. Results from a path analytic model revealed the mediating roles of convergent and divergent thinking in the relationship between playfulness and number word comparison. In contrast, convergent thinking mediated the link between playfulness and Chinese word reading. Executive functions were positively related to playfulness but unrelated to children's academic skills. The findings suggest that playful children might develop better creative thinking processes, supporting their academic skills. Practically, the findings underscore the importance of play-based learning in developing children's creativity and academic skills in the early years.

Executive function (EF) skills are consistently associated with global mathematics assessments. However, less is known about which specific mathematics skills invoke EF in early childhood. We adapted batteries of EF, numerical, and patterning tasks to be conducted via synchronous video conferencing with typically developing 4-year-old children (N = 115, 56.6% female, 85.2% White, non-Hispanic, 7.8% Multiracial, 0.9% Hispanic, 0.9% Black, 1.7% American Indian/Alaska Native, 2.6% Asian and 0.9% missing) from primarily upper middle class households (maternal education range: some college to graduate or professional degree, mode = graduate or professional degree) in the United States. We found feasibility of remote adaptation varied greatly by task. Just over half of enrolled children (57.02%) completed all tasks and there were higher rates of missingness compared to an in-person sample with a similar age range collected in schools. Nonetheless, working memory predicted various mathematics skills, including patterning, verbal counting, and number comparison, controlling for age and maternal education. Relations between cognitive flexibility and patterning varied across model specifications. Overall, these findings provide insight into the costs and benefits of remotely administered direct assessments of EF and mathematics in early childhood and add to the growing body of literature suggesting working memory plays an important role in several foundational early mathematics skills. Suggestions are offered for remote assessment with preschoolers.

This study aimed at analyzing the differences in challenging behaviors between adults with intellectual disability and ASD and those who only had intellectual disability, as well as to explore associations between transdiagnostic and clinical variables to these differences. Therapists and educators of 163 adults with intellectual disability (83 with additional ASD diagnosis) completed the test battery. Mean difference analysis and univariate analyses of covariance were performed to determine the impact of clinical variables and transdiagnostic variables on the frequency and severity of challenging behaviors. Results showed that adults with ASD and intellectual disability presented higher frequency and severity of these behaviors. A significant effect of the diagnosis of ASD on the frequency and severity of self-injuries and stereotypies was found. Also, some transdiagnostic variables influencing the presence of these behaviors were highlighted. These factors should be considered when planning and designing interventions for behavioral problems in this population.

Every year, an increasing number of autistic youth enter a complex and underfunded adult service system after graduating from high school. Executive function (EF) challenges commonly co-occur with autism, especially related to flexible problem-solving and planning, and are linked to poor outcomes in post-secondary education and employment. The educational system is the primary service access point for autistic youth; however, evidence-based practices are rarely used to support them, and none exist to support pivotal EF skills in transition-age autistic youth. To meet this need, we developed "Unstuck & On Target: Ages 14-22," a school-based curriculum designed to increase independent, flexible problem-solving, planning, and self-advocacy skills in transition-age youth. We describe the iterative development of the "Unstuck: 14-22" curriculum and present implementation outcomes from a school-based trial. Ten schools, from which we enrolled 55 autistic 9th-12th graders with IQ [greater than or equal to] 80 were randomized to treatment as usual (TAU) or "Unstuck: 14-22" delivered by school staff. Teachers taught 25 lessons over a school year and provided implementation-related feedback on each lesson, which we used to revise curriculum content and materials. All "Unstuck: 14-22" schools taught the curriculum in its entirety, and teachers delivered it with high fidelity. Feasibility, acceptability, and satisfaction were similarly high. Findings indicate that "Unstuck: 14-22" could help build educators' capacity to provide targeted treatment to autistic youth in schools, which could be more widely accessed than clinic-based care. Trial registration NCT03199937, https://clinicaltrials.gov

This research study delves into the dynamics of instructional designers' decision-making practices concerning the integration of Universal Design for Learning (UDL) principles in online learning environments within higher education. The study emphasizes the influence of contextual factors on instructional designers' decision-making, recognizing the challenges they face in aligning with UDL principles. The methodology involved a Q-sort survey with 20 participants, exploring how they prioritize UDL aspects during online instruction design. The subsequent factor analysis revealed four distinct groups of instructional designers with varying priorities. Factor Group 1 emphasized alternatives for visuals and audio, prioritizing ADA accessibility needs, relevance, authenticity, collaboration, and community. Factor Group 2 focused on executive functions, misunderstanding some elements as faculty-oriented, emphasizing planning and strategy. Factor Group 3 prioritized text decoding, mathematical notation, and multimedia illustration, emphasizing deeper comprehension. The study concludes by presenting findings and trends, offering recommendations for heuristics development to address UDL in higher education institutions.

Executive functions (EF) and task persistence are key factors in academic development. However, EF and persistence have rarely been examined together, and it remains unclear whether these two constructs are independently related to intellectual development. The present study addressed this gap by examining whether EF and persistence in kindergarten predict math and reading achievement in second grade. We assessed 88 children (51% female; mean age = 73.4 months) on EF and persistence tasks at T1 and obtained teacher ratings of their academic competence at T2 (mean age = 94.6 months). Regression analyses showed that both EF and persistence predicted math achievement, but only EF predicted reading achievement. To sum up, our findings suggest that persistence may be particularly relevant for math, reflecting the ability to endure and sustain. These are skills that are typically not captured by EF measures. Consequently, early interventions should target EF and persistence to support children's mathematical potential.

Previous research and theory indicate an importance of the quality of the early caregiving environment in the development of self-regulation. However, it is unclear how attachment security and maternal sensitivity, two related but distinct aspects of the early caregiving environment, may differentially predict self-regulation at school start and whether a distinction between hot and cool executive function is informative in characterizing such predictions through mediation. In a 5-year longitudinal study (n = 108), we examined these associations using measures of maternal sensitivity and attachment security at 10-12 months, executive function at 4 years, and self-regulation at 6 years. Surprisingly, and despite methodological rigor, we found few significant bivariate associations between the study variables. We found no credible evidence of a longitudinal association between maternal sensitivity or attachment security in infancy and self-regulation at 6 years, or between executive function at 4 years and self-regulation at 6 years. The lack of bivariate longitudinal associations precluded us from building mediation models as intended. We discuss our null findings in terms of their potential theoretical implications, as well as how measurement type, reliability, and validity, may play a key role in determining longitudinal associations between early caregiving factors and later self-regulation and related abilities.

Executive functions (EFs) in early childhood are predictors of later developmental outcomes and school readiness. Much of the research on EFs and their psychosocial correlates has been conducted in high-income, minority world countries, which represent a small and biased portion of children globally. The aim of this study is to examine EFs among children aged 3-5 years in two African countries, South Africa (SA) and The Gambia (GM), and to explore shared and distinct predictors of EFs in these settings. The SA sample (N = 243, 51.9% female) was recruited from low-income communities within the Cape Town Metropolitan area. In GM, participants (N = 171, 49.7% female) were recruited from the rural West Kiang region. EFs, working memory (WM), inhibitory control (IC) and cognitive flexibility (CF), were measured using tablet-based tasks. Associations between EF task performance and indicators of socioeconomic status (household assets, caregiver education) and family enrichment factors (enrichment activities, diversity of caregivers) were assessed. Participants in SA scored higher on all EF tasks, but children in both sites predominantly scored within the expected range for their age. There were no associations between EFs and household or familial variables in SA, except for a trend-level association between caregiver education and CF. Patterns were similar in GM, where there was a trend-level association between WM and enrichment activities but no other relationships. We challenge the postulation that children in low-income settings have poorer EFs, simply due to lower socioeconomic status, but highlight the need to identify predictors of EFs in diverse, global settings.

Childcare services are widely used by families and thereby exert an important influence on many young children. Yet, little research has examined whether childcare may impact the development of child executive functioning (EF), one of the pillars of cognitive development in early childhood. Furthermore, despite persisting hypotheses that childcare may be particularly beneficial for children who have less access to optimal developmental resources at home, research has yet to address the possibility that putative associations between childcare and EF may vary as a function of family factors. Among a sample of 180 mostly White middle-class families (91 girls), we examined if childcare participation in infancy was related to two aspects of EF (Delay and Conflict) at 3 years, and whether two aspects of maternal parenting behavior (sensitivity and autonomy support) moderated these associations. The results showed positive associations between participation in group-based childcare and Delay EF specifically among children of relatively less autonomy-supportive mothers. These findings suggest that out-of-home childcare services may play a protective role for children exposed to parenting that is less conducive to their executive development.

The goal of the study was to deliver and validate a new solution-focused instrument, the Focus Skills Questionnaire (FSQ), to assess the degree of executive functioning skills in the school context, for three different education levels (elementary, secondary, and tertiary education) and informant groups (students, teachers and parents) on a sample of 1109 students from Dutch and Belgian schools. The factor structure was evaluated by confirmative factor analysis (CFA) and the study examined how students' self-reports of executive functioning skills related to outcomes of neuro-psychological tests of executive functions (EF). The CFA results showed a parsimonious model with a four-factor structure of the FSQ that was equivalent for all education levels and informant groups, but that does not correspond with the generally assumed executive functioning factors. There are differences in the perception of executive functioning skills by different informant groups and also differences per education level. Student perceptions of executive functioning skills do not correspond with EF test outcomes and in some subgroups clearly diverge from teacher or parent perceptions of the students' executive functioning skills. Although the new instrument does not converge with laboratory assessments of EF's, the new instrument could be useful in everyday school practice.

Background: Self-regulation is crucial for children's learning and development. Several studies have explored children's inter-individual differences in self-regulation, but little is known about sources of intra-individual variation. Aims: This study addressed the variability of children's self-regulation across typical classroom situations and how this might be associated with children's executive functions (EFs). Sample: The study included 148 children (54.7% girls; M[subscript age] = 56.73 months). Methods: Self-regulation was assessed with an observational measure in teacher-led and child-led activities within naturalistic classroom settings. Children's EFs were assessed with direct assessments at the start and end of the school year. Results: Linear mixed-effect models showed that children demonstrated higher levels of self-regulation in child-led in comparison with teacher-led activities. Children with higher levels of EFs at the start of the school year showed less variation across teacher-led and child-led activities in comparison with children with lower levels of EFs. Regarding other aspects of the classroom context, neither the group size in which the activity took place nor which school subject it was focused on were associated with children's self-regulation. However, in teacher-led activities the type of interaction involved in the activity and the type of task influenced children's self-regulation. Conclusion: These results suggest that children who start school with higher levels of EFs are more able to adapt to different situations, highlighting the importance of fostering these skills in early childhood. In turn, children with lower levels of EFs may need additional support from teachers to remain self-regulated across different contexts.

Although executive functions (EFs) have been identified as a cornerstone of cognitive development, knowledge of this fundamental ability in children is based primarily on research with North American and Western European samples of middle to high socioeconomic status (SES). In this article, we highlight advances in research on developmental EFs from Latin American regions, an understudied area that provides a unique context important to understanding EFs. Our narrative review suggests the potential for both universality (e.g., increasing cohesion and longitudinal stability among EFs' task performance, general positive associations with age, and other social and cognitive abilities) and cultural specificity in EF development (i.e., contributions of SES, educational environments, parenting styles, and cultural values). It is important to consider the development of EFs outside of typically examined samples--and specifically within Latin American countries--to understand more thoroughly these abilities and to generate interventions that consider cultural context.

Math development in children relies on several underlying cognitive functions, including executive functions (EF), working memory (WM), and visual-motor abilities, such as visual-motor integration (VMI). Understanding how these cognitive factors contribute to children's math performance is critical to supporting math learning and long-term math success. The present quasi-experimental waitlist control study (N = 28) aimed to (a) examine the unique contributions of EF, WM, and VMI to math abilities among children ages 5-8 years old with neurodevelopmental difficulties; (b) determine whether a math intervention (the Mathematics Interactive Learning Experience; MILE) that supports these cognitive processes was effective when modified to be delivered to small groups in a school setting, and (c) examine whether any participant characteristics, such as age or IQ, were correlated with post-intervention math score changes. At baseline, participants' math scores were significantly below the normative mean in all math content areas (ps < 0.01). EF, WM, and VMI were highly correlated with math ability; however, verbal WM was the only unique predictor of math ability in regressions analysis. Compared to a waitlist control group, children in the immediate MILE intervention group achieved significantly greater math gains overall. When all children who ultimately completed the intervention were considered together, significant improvement was observed in more than half of math content areas. Furthermore, at the individual level, 85.7% of participants showed reliable change in at least one math content area. Implications for supporting math learning in children with neurodevelopmental difficulties are discussed.

Autistic individuals are at significantly higher risk of suicide than non-autistic individuals, with transition-aged youth at potentially the highest risk. While lower executive function (EF) skills have been significantly associated with suicide risk in other clinical samples, the link between EF and suicidality has not yet been examined for autistic individuals. In this study, 183 transition-aged autistic youths completed routine suicide risk assessments and self- and informant-reports of autistic traits, depression, and EF skills. On the P4 Suicide Screener, approximately one-third of the sample (33.3%) endorsed having thoughts of hurting themselves with the intent to end their lives (i.e., suicidal ideation) in their lifetime. In addition to depressive symptoms, EF impairment independently predicted endorsement of suicidal ideation, indicating that both are crucial intervention goals to target suicidal risk for transition-aged youth on the spectrum. Findings suggest that executive functioning, a prevalent area of difficulty and common intervention target for the autistic community, is an important indicator of suicide risk in this population.

Prospective memory helps us to remember to perform tasks in the future. Prospective memory can be either time or event based. The goal of this study was to determine time- and event-based prospective memory in autistic adults across the life span. Autistic (n = 82) and non-autistic (n = 111) adults, aged between 30 and 86 years, performed the lab-based Amsterdam Breakfast Task, and several naturalistic prospective memory tasks. Preregistered analyses (AsPredicted #34249) were performed using classical frequentist as well as Bayesian statistics. On none of the prospective memory tasks, group differences were observed. Our results show no effect of age on naturalistic tasks, but age did affect our lab-based measure, indicative of the age paradox often described in non-autistic adults. Moreover, we found evidence for a parallel age-related effect of lab-based and naturalistic prospective memory in autistic and non-autistic individuals.

Addressing cognitive disparities has become a paramount concern in computational thinking (CT) education. The intricate and nuanced relationships between CT and cognitive variations emphasize the needs to accommodate diverse cognitive profiles when fostering CT skills, recognizing that these cognitive functions can manifest as either strengths or limitations in different students. Consequently, understanding the connections between students' cognitive functions and CT skills assumes pivotal importance in the design of personalized instructional strategies for CT. Despite a general consideration of learning variability in CT education, empirical insights exploring the correlation between cognitive skills and CT competencies remain notably scarce. This study endeavors to bridge this research gap by investigating the links between executive functions and CT skills, as well as the associations between their sub-dimensions. The results reveal a statistically significant correlation coefficient of 0.452 between these two domains, underscoring the notable connection between executive functions and CT abilities. Furthermore, the sub-dimensional analysis offers a comprehensive understanding of how specific executive functions uniquely contribute to certain CT skills. In light of these findings, this research offers a promising pathway for the development of tailored CT education programs that can cater to the unique needs of each individual, ultimately facilitating inclusive CT programs and making significant contributions to broaden STEM education and future workforce.

There is a long tradition of research into autistic people's executive function skills. Yet, despite decades of research on EF in autism, the existing literature remains contradictory and 'confusing', with a large -- and unresolved -- discrepancy between small-to-moderate effect sizes demonstrated on laboratory-based EF tasks and large effect sizes on questionnaire-based everyday EF measures. We sought to understand this mismatch between 'lab and life' by inviting 12 autistic adolescents (12-19 years) and their mothers (n = 7) to convey their views and perspectives about their own, or their child's, EF skills as they transition to adulthood. We followed Braun and Clarke's method for reflexive thematic analysis using an inductive approach. Participants told us that their EF skills were highly variable, acutely dependent on the context in which they were deployed and potentially related to differences in the way that they process information more broadly. Participants' reports provided rare insights into their and their children's executive control -- insights that do not straightforwardly map onto traditional theoretical models of EF. Future work on EF needs to take seriously the perspectives and subjectivity of autistic people themselves, including by triangulating quantitative, objective assessments with qualitative, subjective reports in complementary (controlled, uncontrolled) settings.

Individuals diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are more likely to have suicidal thoughts and behaviors. However, little research delineates the temporal and mechanistic associations between potential risk factors and suicidality in autistic individuals. We assessed 129 autistic and 121 age-matched and sex-assigned-at-birth-matched typically developing (TD) children and youth at baseline and follow-up. We evaluated internalizing/externalizing problems, bullying experiences, and three executive function tasks at a mean baseline age of 13.4 years (standard deviation: 4.2 years). After an average of 5.8 years (standard deviation: 1.7 years), we evaluated their suicidal thoughts and behaviors. The experiences of being bullied partially mediated the temporal relationship between pre-existing ASD and later-reported suicidal thoughts. Several cognitive flexibility and sustained attention indices mediated the temporal relationship between pre-existing ASD and later-reported suicidal thoughts. A multiple mediation model confirmed that bullying victimization and cognitive flexibility jointly mediated the temporal relationship between ASD and suicidal thoughts. Better cognitive flexibility and experiences of bullying victimization in autistic children/youth were both associated with higher risks of later-reported suicidal thoughts in adolescence/adulthood. School bullying-prevention programs and tailored clinical support for autistic youth with better cognitive flexibility are warranted for personalized suicide prevention for the autistic population.

In recent years, an increasing number of studies have examined the association between mathematical abilities and executive functions (EFs). However, it remains unknown via which mechanisms' mathematical performance is associated with EFs. The current study examined the associations of overall task proficiency, strategy selection, and strategy execution when solving multi-step subtraction problems with three EFs (i.e., updating, inhibition, and shifting). With a choice/no-choice design, 150 fifth-graders' (M[subscript age] = 10 years, 11 months) direct subtraction (DS; e.g., 712 - 346 = ?; 712 - 300 = 412, 412 - 40 = 372, and 372 - 6 = 366) and subtraction by addition (SBA; e.g., 712 - 346 = ?; 346 + 54 = 400, 400 + 300 = 700, 700 + 12 = 712, and 54 + 300 + 12 = 366) use to solve multi-step subtractions was examined. Participants were offered ten subtractions in one choice condition (free choice between DS and SBA), based on which we obtained data about task proficiency and strategy selection, and in two no-choice conditions (mandatory use of either DS or SBA), which were used to examine strategy execution. The results showed that task proficiency in the choice condition was associated with updating and inhibition but not with shifting. Furthermore, strategy selection was associated with updating but not with inhibition and shifting. Strategy execution was associated with updating but not with inhibition and shifting. The inclusion of separate strategy selection and execution parameters helped to unravel how arithmetic performance and EFs are associated.

Comparative education research is complicated by the difficulty of identifying comparable units across contexts. This paper considers the advantages and limitations of a functional equivalence approach to comparative education. The functional equivalence approach allows us to meaningfully compare the operations that serve each function in the full curriculum value chain of design, application, and updating. We use a theory-based list of common processes in each phase to develop a survey for experts from nine countries, then code their responses to derive ten key common functions. The functional equivalence approach allows us to aggregate some operations that serve the same functions, so our set of functional equivalents is slightly shorter than the theory-based list of processes. In comparing across contexts, we find easily identifiable functional equivalents, functional equivalents that manifest through very different operations, functional equivalents carried out by a wide variety of actors and institutions, similar operations that are not functionally equivalent, and functional equivalents that are not consistently present in all contexts. The functional equivalence approach helps identify comparable operations despite contextual diversity.