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Knowledge transfer among research disciplines can lead to substantial research progress. At first glance, astronaut health and rare diseases may be seen as having little common ground for such an exchange. However, deleterious health conditions linked to human space exploration may well be considered as a narrow sub-category of rare diseases. Here, we compare and contrast research and healthcare in the contexts of rare diseases and space health and identify common barriers and avenues of improvement. The prevalent genetic basis of most rare disorders contrasts sharply with the occupational considerations required to sustain human health in space. Nevertheless small sample sizes and large knowledge gaps in natural history are examples of the parallel challenges for research and clinical care in the context of both rare diseases and space health. The two areas also face the simultaneous challenges of evidence scarcity and the pressure to deliver therapeutic solutions, mandating expeditious translation of research knowledge into clinical care. Sharing best practices between these fields, including increasing participant involvement in all stages of research and ethical sharing of standardized data, has the potential to contribute to humankind’s efforts to explore ever further into space while caring for people on Earth in a more inclusive fashion.

Deep-space missions — such as a crewed voyage to Mars — will require a comprehensive medical care system to treat and maintain astronaut health. This system must address many of the same medical conditions that occur on Earth, as well as several that are unique to spaceflight environments. Hardware constraints are numerous, including mass, volume, usability by nonspecialists, and minimal need for consumable supplies, all of which are also relevant to medical care in remote-, ambulatory-, or home-care settings on Earth. This review describes the expected medical needs on deep-space missions, outlines the current state of the art of onboard medical capabilities, and highlights approaches and technologies that will likely be necessary to achieve autonomous health care for astronauts.

Despite rigorous health screenings, medical incidents during spaceflight missions cannot be avoided. With long-duration exploration flights on the rise, the likelihood of critical medical conditions with no suitable treatment on board will increase. Therapeutic hypothermia (TH) could serve as a bridge treatment in space prolonging survival and reducing neurological damage in ischemic conditions such as stroke and cardiac arrest. We conducted a review of published studies to determine the potential and challenges of TH in space based on its physiological effects, the cooling methods available, and clinical evidence on Earth. Currently, investigators have found that application of low normothermia leads to better outcomes than mild hypothermia. Data on the impact of hypothermia on a favorable neurological outcome are inconclusive due to lack of standardized protocols across hospitals and the heterogeneity of medical conditions. Adverse effects with systemic cooling are widely reported, and could be reduced through selective brain cooling and pharmacological cooling, promising techniques that currently lack clinical evidence. We hypothesize that TH has the potential for application as supportive treatment for multiple medical conditions in space and recommend further investigation of the concept in feasibility studies.

The coming decades are poised to usher in an era of commercial spaceflight and extended duration missions beyond low-earth orbit. Urologic challenges and conditions have been central to the history of human spaceflight, and their effective management will continue to play a key role in future endeavors. Voiding equipment, such as the Universal Waste Management System aboard the International Space Station, is emblematic of the significant technical strides that have been made to improve the usability and functionality of non-terrestrial waste elimination and containment devices. Detailed investigations over the past few decades have demonstrated that crew members are at an increased risk of developing nephrolithiasis due, in large part, to the effects of microgravity. Renal calculi and their potentially debilitating effects represent one of the most significant urologic complications that could impact the success of future long duration missions. Other urologic conditions, such as urinary tract infections, urinary retention, and urinary incontinence have been well documented during flight and pose their own challenges. While preventive measures remain central to all mitigation strategies, imaging and treatment modalities such as a S-Mode ultrasound, burst wave lithotripsy, and ultrasonic propulsion are being developed and evaluated as in-flight countermeasures for urologic pathology. Parabolic flights have been conducted to develop and evaluate the feasibility of using surgical and endoscopic techniques to treat urologic conditions in microgravity. Although less often discussed, occupation-related delayed conception and the risk of radiation-induced gamete damage suggests that there may be a need for NASA to adopt a policy for Assisted Reproductive Technology for both male and female astronauts. The last 60 years of human spaceflight have provided a unique opportunity for discovery and medical technology innovation. This paper serves to highlight the advancements that will help pave the way for the next 60 years of human spaceflight.

INTRODUCTION: Spaceflight Associated Neuro-ocular Syndrome (SANS) results from long-duration spaceflight and presents with a constellation of signs (e.g., optic disc edema, choroidal folds, globe flattening, refractive error shifts, etc.). Optic nerve tortuosity (ONT) has been detected in approximately 47% of astronauts after long-duration spaceflight but has not yet been fully analyzed. This review examines terrestrial ONT in order to better understand how the condition is caused and measured.METHODS: References were identified by PubMed and ScienceDirect searches covering 1955 to October 2018 using the terms “optic nerve tortuosity,” “optic nerve kinking,” “optic disc torsion,” “optic kinking,” and “ocular torsion.” Additional references were identified by searching relevant articles.RESULTS: ONT measurements have evolved and become more objective. One measure consists of meeting two criteria: 1) lack of optic nerve congruity in >1 coronal section; and 2) subarachnoid space dilation. This “criteria measure” is objective, sensitive, and specific for determining the presence of tortuosity. Another measure is the tortuosity index, which offers additional benefits by measuring the degree of ONT, including the potential to track changes over time. There are numerous terrestrial ONT causes, including intracranial hypertension, hydrocephalus, Chiari malformation, neurofibromatosis, glaucoma, and progeria, among others.DISCUSSION: To accurately measure ONT, it is crucial to adhere to objective, standardized techniques. The tortuosity index offers the potential to measure intraindividual change in ONT. Among the varied conditions associated with ONT, one commonality is pressure change. The impact of intracranial pressure on the vascular system and vice versa may offer insight into what is occurring in space.Scott RA, Tarver WJ, Brunstetter TJ, Urquieta E. Optic nerve tortuosity on Earth and in space. Aerosp Med Hum Perform. 2020; 91(2):91–97.

Background: Neurological adverse events with spinal cord ischemia (SCI) remain one of the most feared complications in patients undergoing thoracic endovascular aortic repair (TEVAR). These patients can develop irreversible paraplegia with lifelong consequences with physical and psychological agony. Case Presentation: We herein present a patient who developed SCI with bilateral lower leg paraplegia on the third postoperative day following TEVAR. Spinal catheter was inserted for spinal fluid drainage. A hyperbaric oxygen therapy was initiated for 90 minutes for 2 days, which was followed by therapeutic hypothermia for 24 hours with a target temperature of 33°C. The patient exhibited significant neurological recovery following these treatments, and he ultimately regained full neurological function without spinal deficit. Discussion: This represents the first reported case of full neurological recovery of a patient who developed complete SCI following TEVAR procedure. The neurological recovery was due in part to immediate therapeutic hypothermia and hyperbaric oxygen therapy which reversed the spinal ischemia.

Helicopter medical transport of prisoner patients has unique logistical and medical challenges, as well as potential risks to healthcare providers. Prisoners have specific requirements for safe transport, and it is of paramount importance to know the variables related to transport related mortality since most prisoners that need air evacuation are critically ill. Because we understand that there is a potentially dangerous nature of transport of this population, and because of the unique nature of them, we aimed to provide a detailed insight on predictors of outcome in prisoners who were injured as a result of trauma and that needed to be transported via air medical transport in Mexico City.A retrospective chart analysis was conducted using data from the Mexico City Police Helicopter Emergency Medical Service (HEMS) for air medical transport of felons that occurred between January 1, 2000 and December 31, 2013. Subject demographics, injury, procedures performed, transport time, Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS), and mortality were collected. Exploratory data analysis, Chi-square, and T-test were performed. Statistical significance was assumed to be p ≤ 0.05 for two-sided hypothesis.Fifty-three patients were included in this study. Forty-two were men and 11 were women. Median age of the patients was 30 ± 8 years. Total transport time was 23 ± 5 min. Gunshot wounds accounted for 39.6% of patients, stabbing wounds 28.3%, head trauma 7.5%, motor vehicle accidents 5.7%, blunt trauma (i.e., fist assaults) 5.6%, falls 5.7%, motorcycle accidents 3.8%, and prisoner-motor vehicle collisions 3.8%. Median heart rate was 114 ± 41 beats per minute (BPM), median systolic blood pressure (SBP) was 103 ± 14 mmHg, median diastolic blood pressure (DBP) was 70 ± 12 mmHg, and median GCS was 10 ± 5. Mortality rate was 16.9% (n = 9). The variables that were statistically significant, and therefore related to mortality were: heart rate 130 bpm (p 0.001), SBP95 mmHg (p = 0.039), GCS7 (p = 0.040), age 42 years (range, 17-47 years) p 0.001, and need for cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) (p 0.001).As dangerous and challenging as it may seem, air medical transport of prisoners by a police crew physician, may be safe and reliable, since no complications or safety events were observed.

Mexico City is the largest metropolitan area in the Americas and 1 of the largest in the world; its geographic location and uncontrolled population and industrial growth make this metropolis prone to natural and human-made disasters. Mass casualty disaster responses in Mexico City tend to have complications from multiple logistical and operational challenges. This article focuses on the experiences and lessons learned from an explosion that occurred in a government building in Mexico City and the current status of mass casualty disaster risks and response strategies in Mexico City as well as air medical evacuation, which is a critical component and was shown to be extremely useful in the evacuation of 15 critically ill and polytraumatized patients (Injury Severity Score > 15). Several components of the public and privately owned emergency medical services and health care systems among Mexico City pose serious logistical and operational complications, which finally will be addressed by a joint emergency preparedness council to unify criteria in communications, triage, and incident/disaster command post establishment.