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This chapter explores the responses to the exhibition Ecce Homo by Swedish photographer Elisabeth Ohlson Wallin in two countries where the exhibition was on display: Sweden (1998–99) and Serbia (2012). In this exhibition, Ohlson depicts twelve moments from the life of Jesus Christ, mixing the imagery and symbolism of church art and queer culture while positioning Jesus in present-day Sweden. The chapter aims to explore how public responses to art that is perceived to be blasphemous or controversial to illuminate the construction of religion and homosexuality in relation to national belonging. Located at the crossroads of religion, the secular, and the modern, blasphemy cases are instances of impure mixing Plate where both proponents and opponents of a certain work of art, cartoon, or pop song determine what “real” religion is, and in that sense blasphemy cases read like moments of identity politics. The chapter will argue that in Sweden, Ecce Homo led to a meaningful debate on the theological implications of the exhibition, resulting in a redefinition of what counts as sacred in Sweden: the inclusion of LGBT people by Christians, in general, and the Church of Sweden, in particular. In Serbia, public debates on Ecce Homo illuminate the role of Christianity, in particular, Orthodoxy, in the transformation of Serbia from a post-socialist to a postsecular state, a process in which the “two Serbias” (traditionalist, associated with Orthodoxy and liberal, cosmopolitan, secular) compete for the future of Serbian society.

This chapter discusses present-day discursive formations of the Antichrist on RuNet, the Russian segment of the Internet. Using the methodology of Critical Discourse Analysis, it focuses on how the notion of the Antichrist is employed in a secular context by Russian religious nationalists. The analysis presented in the chapter shows that the use of the figure of the Antichrist serves a number of rhetorical purposes. Evoking a long history of associations connected to the term, “the Antichrist” dehumanizes LGBT persons and those who support them, placing them outside of normative constructions of Russian national identity. However, the figure of the Antichrist turns out to be less absolute than might be expected. When evoked to denounce LGBT emancipation as a form of “evil disguised as good” it may fail to fulfill its purpose as boundary marker between traditional Russian values and those challenging those values.

This chapter argues that current (homo)nationalism must be placed in a historical genealogy. The case study focuses on the Second German Empire, wherein the discourse of political crisis was represented by a “male gender crisis,” which revolved round the Kaiser and his alleged “homosexual” circle. Just as with debates within the incipient gay movement, the discourse focused on the dispositive of “normal masculinity” as representative of the nation/state. This chapter addresses a religious contour of, and possible Jewish inflection in, this discursive constitution of homosexualities. The sexualization of Jewish religion played a significant role in marking an internal differentiation between an “effeminate,” “degenerate” Jewish inversion and an “ultra-virile,” Aryan, and state-supportive homosexuality of the “masculinists” around Hans Bluher. They were the right-wing, antisemitic part of the early gay rights movement in Germany. Their key model of an ideal state became the homoerotic “male band” as a misogynist and antisemitic form of male society.

This thesis is about constructions of homosexuality and religion in contemporary public discourse in the Netherlands. While it elaborates on studies about homonationalist, anti-Islamic discourses in the Netherlands, it focuses on the significant amount of unexplored source material from contemporary Dutch public discourses about homosexuality in which Christianity plays a discursive role. More specifically, it analyses secular discourses about (Christian) religion and Christian discourses in the presence of secular audiences. The Introduction offers an overview of the theoretical framework, focusing on the work of two philosophers of culture (Charles Taylor and Gabriël van den Brink) and that of scholars that engage in the critical study of religion, gender and sexuality (in particular Janet Jakobsen and Ann Pellegrini). It also sets this study’s temporal limits, defines the types of source material, describes the method of collecting these sources and explains the research methodology of critical discourse analysis. This thesis consists of four articles. The first analyses Dutch responses to speeches and messages by Pope Benedict XVI that were perceived to be about homosexuality. The second concerns debates about civil marriage registrars with conscientious objections against conducting same-sex wedding ceremonies (so-called weigerambtenaren). The third analyses public discourses by and on the Dutch Evangelical health care organisation Different, which has repeatedly been accused of offering reparative therapy. The fourth focuses on the way sexual and religious identities are more broadly conceptualised in Dutch public discourses about homosexuality. The Conclusion outlines the rhetorical success of secular discourses in favour of homosexuality or sexual diversity while pointing to the relative absence of religious institutions in public discourse. It describes the secular panic that is often noticed in responses to news about religion and homosexuality. It then discusses the differences and similarities between secular advocates and Christian critics of sexual and gender diversity, and between the respective attitudes of Muslims and (biblically orthodox) Christians towards homosexuality. It troubles the ideal-typical distinction between secular advocates and Christian critics by discussing several secular re-appropriations of the Christian tradition. Also, it points to the negative effects of the strong focus on ‘religion’ as the alleged main or even only obstacle towards the positive evaluation of sexual freedom and diversity. The Conclusion proceeds by highlighting the strong emphasis in debates about religion and homosexuality on finding juridical solutions for what is perceived as a social problem. Moreover, while equal treatment and freedom of opinion are evaluated positively by different secular groups across the political spectrum, many secular advocates of sexual and gender diversity are critical of the freedom of religion. This relates to the tension between being a marginalised minority and being recognised as such, a tension faced by LGBT persons because of the success of the LGBT movement and because (conservative) Christians are emphasising their marginalisation. The Conclusion ends by summarising how attitudes towards homosexuality have become an identity marker for certain secular Dutch citizens and certain biblically orthodox Christians and by making some queer theological suggestions for a more constructive discussion of issues addressed in this thesis.

Among orthodox reformed Christians in the Netherlands fierce debates have occurred on moral aspects of Christian life. This essay discusses three major controversial moral issues that are related to conceptions of sex, gender, and sexuality: divorce/remarriage, women’s ordination, and homosexuality. By analysing several contributions to debates on these issues, it proposes and explores a hypothesis that concerns the role of a particular understanding of marriage as characterized by a hermeneutical construct: a communal, deeply rooted and subconscious normative principle that drives our interpretations of texts and practices. This essay illustrates the problems of both the dominance of marriage within Christian communities and lived faith, as well as the modern, romantic aspects of this particular understanding of marriage.