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Over 100 years ago, a plea was made by salmon conservationist Livingston Stone to create a system of refuges that would protect wild salmonids from the effects of development and a burgeoning Northwest population. His plea went unheeded, and artificial propagation of salmon through hatchery operations was used instead to mitigate for habitat loss. This chapter traces the history of the fish refuge concept over the last century, explores its application to current salmonid recovery efforts, and examines the challenges of implementation. We present a definition of a salmon refuge that creates, for the first time, a blueprint for the protection of salmonids and their habitats that is uniquely suited to the specific needs and complex life histories of anadromous species. We propose a three-step process to identify, prioritize, and establish refuges that will protect terrestrial and freshwater habitats and associated populations of salmon.

Salmon and steelhead Oncorhynchus spp. have been keystone species for ecosystems and human cultures of the North American Pacific coast for eons. Yet, in the past century, many populations have been greatly diminished and some are now extinct—the result of a combination of factors, including habitat loss and degradation, overfishing, natural variability in salmon production, negative effects of artificial propagation, and weaknesses in institutional and regulatory structures. We argue that a major shift is required, from the egocentric environmental approach (wherein each part of the ecosystem is managed as a unit) to the ecocentric ecosystem approach (wherein all parts are integrated for management). A management framework is proposed that contains—for each management unit such as a watershed—four elements: management goals; management objectives; ecosystem indicators; and a coordinated action plan. We also describe the Sustainable Fisheries Strategy, a consultative process for developing an ecosystem-based approach toward achieving sustainable Pacific salmon and steelhead populations and fisheries. This book is one of three important underpinnings of the Strategy; the other two are the Strategy itself and a manual being developed to guide community-based programs embracing the principles of sustainable fisheries. This book contains important historical perspectives as well as numerous innovative ideas for moving toward ecosystem-oriented, sustainable management of Pacific salmon and steelhead.

NEEDS AND VALUES FOR SUSTAINABLE FISHERIES Setting the Stage for Sustainable Pacific Salmon Fisheries Strategy, E.E. Knudsen, D.D. MacDonald, and C.R. Steward The Needs of Salmon and Steelhead in Balancing Their Conservation and Use, C.V. Burger Science and Management in Sustainable Salmonid Fisheries: The Ball is Not in Our Court, G.F. Hartman, C. Groot, and T. G. Northcote The Importance of "Stock" Conservation Definitions to the Concept of Sustainable Fisheries, K.D. Hyatt and B.E. Riddell The Elements of Alaska's Sustainable Fisheries, F. Ulmer Review of Salmon Management in British Columbia: What Has the Past Taught Us? D.W. Narver Aboriginal Fishing Rights and Salmon Management in British Colombia: Matching Historical Justice with the Public Interest, P. Copes STOCK STATUS The Status of Anadromous Salmonids: Lessons in Our Search for Sustainability, J.E. Williams Endangered Species Act Review of the Status of Pink Salmon From Washington, Oregon, and California, J.J. Hard, R.G. Kope, and W.S. Grant Review of the Status of Coho Salmon from Washington, Oregon, and California, L. Weitkamp, T.C. Wainwright, G.J. Byrant, D.J. Teel, and R.G. Kope Status Review of Steelhead from Washington, Idaho, Oregon, and California, P.J. Busby, T.C. Wainwright, and G.J. Bryant Status and Distribution of Chinook Salmon and Steelhead in the Interior Columbia River Basin and Portions of the Klamath River Basin, R.F. Thurow, D.C. Lee, and B.E. Rieman Status and Stewardship of Salmon Stocks in Southeast Alaska, B.W. Van Alen Kamchatka Steelhead: Population Trends and Life History Variation, K.A. Savvaitova, K.V. Kuzischin, and S.V. Maximov EXISTING MANAGEMENT International Management of Fraser River Sockeye Salmon, J.C. Woodey The History and Status of Pacific Northwest Chinook and Coho Salmon Ocean Fisheries and Prospects for Sustainability, G.S. Morishima and K.A. Henry Managing Pacific Salmon Escapements: The Gaps Between Theory and Reality, E.E. Knudsen Research Programs and Stock Status for Salmon in Three Transboundary Rivers: the Stikine, Taku, and Alsek, K. Jensen HABITAT ASSESSMENT The Effects of Forest Harvesting, Fishing, Climate Variation, and Ocean Conditions on Salmonid Populations of Carnation Creek, Vancouver Island, British Columbia, P.J. Tschaplinski Habitat Assessment in Coastal Basins in Oregon: Implications for Coho Salmon Production and Habitat Restoration, K.K. Jones and K.M.S. Moore An Overview Assessment of Compensation and Mitigation Techniques Used to Assist Fish Habitat Management in British Columbia Estuaries, C.D. Levings Human Population Growth and Sustainability of Urban Salmonid Streams in the Lower Fraser Valley, O.E. Langer, F. Hietkamp, and M. Farrell ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTION Minimizing Ecological Impacts of Hatchery-Reared Juvenile Steelhead on Wild Salmonids in a Yakima Basin Watershed, G.A. McMichael, T.N. Pearsons, and S.A. Leider Economic Feasibility of Salmon Enhancement Propagation Programs, H.D. Radtke and S. W. Davis The New Order in Global Salmon Markets and Aquaculture Development: Implications for Watershed-Based Management in the Pacific Northwest, G. Sylvia, J.L. Anderson, and E. Hanson Alaska Ocean Ranching Contributions to Sustainable Fisheries, W.W. Smoker, B.A. Bachen, G. Freitag, H.J. Geiger, and T.J. Linley MODELING APPROACHES The Proportional Migration Selective Fishery Model, P. W. Lawson and R.M. Comstock A Simulation Model to Assess Management and Allocation Alternative in Multi-Stock Pacific Salmon Fisheries, N.J. Sands and J. Hartman Defining Equivalent Exploitation Rate Reduction Policies for Endangered Salmons and Stocks, J.G. Norris Decadel Climate Cycles and Declining Columbia River Salmon, J.J. Anderson The Effect of Environmentally Driven Recruitment Variation on Sustainable Yield From Salmon Populations, S.P. Cramer Using Photosynthetic Rates to Estimate the Juvenile Sockeye Salmon Rearing Capacity of British Columbia Lakes, K.S. Shortreed, J.M.B. Hume, and J.G. Stockner HABITAT PROTECTION AND RESTORATION Protecting and Restoring the Habitats of Anadromous Salmonids in the Lake Washington Watershed, an Urbanizing Ecosystem, K.L. Fresh and G. Luchetti Rehabilitating Stream Channels Using Large Woody Debris with Considerations for Salmonid Life History and Fluvial Geomorphic Processes, L.G. Domingues and C.J. Cederholm Development of Options for the Reintroduction and Restoration of Chinook Salmon into Panther Creek, Idaho, D.W. Reiser, M.P. Ramey, and P. Devries Effectiveness of Current Anadromous Fish Habitat Protection Procedures for the Tongass National Forest, Alaska, C.H. Casipit, J. Kershner, T. Faris, S. Kessler, S. Paustian, L. Shea, M. Copenhagen, M. Bryant, and R. Aho Using Watershed Analysis to Plan and Evaluate Habitat Restoration, N.B. Armantrout Watershed Restoration in Deer Creek, Washington - A Ten-Year Review, J.E. Doyle, G. Movassaghi, M. Fischer, and R. Nichols Integrating History into the Restoration of Coho Salmon in Siuslaw River, Oregon, M. Booker TOWARDS SUSTAINABILITY Community Education and Cooperation Determine Success in Watershed Restoration: The Asotin Creek Model Watershed Plan, A. Thiessen and L. Vane Spring-Run Chinook Salmon Work Group: A Cooperative Approach to Watershed Management in California, N. Bingham and A. Harthtorne Creating Incentives for Salmon Conservation, R.M. Fujita and T. Foran Long-Term Sustainable Monitoring of Pacific Salmon Populations Using Fishwheels to Integrate Harvesting, Management and Research, M.R. Link and K.K. English Sanctuaries for Pacific Salmon, J.A. Lichatowich, G.R. Rahr, III, S.M. Whidden, and C.R. Steward One Northwest Community - People, Salmon, Rivers, and the Sea: Towards Sustainable Fisheries, D.D. MacDonald, C.R .Steward, and E.R. Knudsen INDEX

Pacific salmon management is in crisis. Throughout their range, salmon and steelhead populations are being adversely affected by human activities. Without coordinated, effective, and timely action, the future of the Pacific salmon resource is most certainly in doubt. To address the challenges that are currently facing salmon management, concerned citizens representing a diverse array of government agencies and non-governmental organizations have agreed to cooperate in the development of a Sustainable Fisheries Strategy for west coast salmon and steelhead populations. The Strategy builds on the contents of this book, resulting from the Sustainable Fisheries Conference and subsequent community- and watershed-based citizen forums. This chapter presents the key elements of the Strategy including a common vision for the future, a series of guiding principles, and specific strategies for supporting sustainable fisheries. As such, the Strategy embraces an ecosystem-based approach to managing human activities, rather than the traditional egocentric approach to managing salmonid populations and associated habitats. A system of community-based, watershed-oriented councils, including all stakeholders and agency representatives, is proposed for effective transition to ecosystem-based salmon and steelhead management. It is our hope that everyone involved in Pacific salmon management will embrace both the spirit and the specific elements of the Sustainable Fisheries Strategy as we face the difficult challenges ahead.

The effect of bubble oscillations and acoustic streaming are investigated in the context of heat deposition in a biological tissue-mimicking medium utilizing high-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) from a MHz transducer. Preliminary results indicate that enhanced heating (relative to linear absorption) is achievable for acoustic parameters chosen to maximize bubble effects.

Although diagnostic ultrasound is now a multi-billion dollar a year industry, the therapeutic applications of ultrasound were initially thought to have more promise. Indeed, the Fry brothers were performing brain surgery on human patients in the early 1950’s, and with considerable success [1]. However, therapeutic ultrasound has still not yet gained its promising potential. Recently, there has been an enormous resurgence of interest in this topic, and several major projects are underway at various facilities around the world. We shall review our own substantial efforts in this area, with brief discussions of topics in lithotripsy, ultrasound-enhanced drug delivery, and acoustic hemostasis.

The optical properties of tissue change during thermal ablation. Multi-modal methods such as acousto-optic (AO) and photo-acoustic (PA) imaging may provide a real-time, direct measure of lesion formation. Baseline changes in optical properties have been previously measured over limited ranges of thermal dose for tissues exposed to a temperature-controlled water bath, however, there is scant data for optical properties of lesions created by HIFU. In this work, the optical scattering and absorption coefficients from 400–1300 nm of excised chicken breast exposed to HIFU were measured using an integrating sphere spectrophotometric technique. HIFU-induced spatiotemporal temperature elevations were measured using an infrared camera and used to calculate the thermal dose delivered to a localized region of tissue. Results obtained over a range of thermal dose spanning 9 orders of magnitude show that the reduced scattering coefficient increases for HIFU exposures exceeding a threshold thermal dose of CEM43 = 600 ± 81 cumulative equivalent minutes. HIFU-induced thermal damage results in changes in scattering over all optical wavelengths, with a 2.5-fold increase for thermal lesions exceeding 70 °C. The tissue absorption coefficient was also found to increase for thermally lesioned tissue, however, the magnitude was strongly dependent on the optical wavelength and there was substantial sample-to-sample variability, such that the existence of a threshold thermal dose could not be determined. Therapeutic windows, where the optical penetration depth is expected to be greatest, were identified in the near infrared regime centered near 900 nm and 1100 nm. These data motivate further research to improve the real-time AO and PA sensing of lesion formation during HIFU therapy as an alternative to thermometry.

To combine individual participant data (IPD) from major international population-based cohorts, using harmonised OA data, to assess whether subjects with knee OA have an increased association with premature mortality.

Tissue undergoes changes in optical properties after ablation but “seeing” those changes at depth in tissue is challenging as light becomes diffuse after propagating a few millimetres resulting in insufficient resolution to see thermal lesions. In acousto-optic (AO) sensing a focused ultrasound beam is used to modulate photons that pass through a small region and by detecting the modulated photons the optical properties from a localised area can be determined. During high-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) the ultrasound can be used to modulate the diffuse light during treatment and so the interaction volume coincides with the treatment volume and light modulation can be measured in real-time. A full numerical model captures these effects and can be used to determine the optimal sensing geometry and most appropriate tissues.

An improved understanding of ultrasound contrast agent (UCA) shell rupture is required to optimize therapeutic and diagnostic use. This experimental and theoretical study aims to explore the mechanism of UCA shell rupture by determining thresholds as a function of ultrasonic excitation parameters (driving frequency, pulse duration, and peak rarefactional pressure). The experimental setup is based on a passive cavitation detection system described in previous work. However, this system has been modified to allow simultaneous acquisition of the signals received with the 13-MHz passive receiver and the signals incident upon the lower frequency (0.9, 2.8 and 4.6 MHz) transmitting transducer functioning in the pulse-echo mode. Post-excitation signals were used to detect rupture thresholds. By allowing acquisition of the signals received by the insonifying transducer (pulse-echo during the excitation and passively at post-excitation) additional information is obtained within a frequency range and a transmission/reception configuration typical of ultrasonic diagnostic imaging. Data are analyzed to estimates the incident peak rarefactional pressure leading to 50% destruction. Comparison of experimental results with microbubble dynamics predicted using the Modified Herring equation was used to explore microbubble rupture indices based on radial expansion and peak velocity. © 2005 IEEE.

This paper considers the relationship between Europeans' religious characteristics and support for the European Union. Using Eurobarometer data from the 1970s through the 1990s, we find that Catholics have been far stronger supporters of European integration than Protestants have, and that the devout in both traditions have been more in favor of the integration process than have nominal adherents. The effects of religion survive both longitudinal and intensive cross-sectional analyses incorporating alternative explanations for support of the EU. These findings suggest that, if religion is declining as a social and political force, underlying support for European unity may also be dwindling. Public approval of the European Union may thus depend increasingly on the economic performance of national governments and of the Union itself.

Using a survey of three thousand Canadian adults conducted by the Angus Reid Group in the autumn of 1996, we examine the continuing role of religion in shaping partisan preferences. We find that traditional religious alignments still have some impact, but are being reshaped by both religious and political developments. We find that Evangelical Protestants are drawn toward the new Reform Party. Mainline Protestants still tend toward the Progressive Conservatives, and Catholics - both English- and French-speaking - remain the bulwark of the Liberal Party. The New Democratic Party, however, finds its greatest resonance among secular Canadians, and the Bloc Quebecois is strongest among nominal, rather than practicing, French-speaking Catholics. In multivariate analysis, these religious variables stand up well against other influences in explaining partisan preferences.

(1996). Reclaiming Zion: How American religious groups view the Middle East. Israel Affairs: Vol. 2, U.S.—Israeli Relations of the Crossroads, pp. 147-168.

Shock wave lithotripsy (SWL) is the process of fragmentation of renal or ureteric stones by the use of repetitive shock waves generated outside the body and focused onto the stone. Following its introduction in 1980, SWL revolutionized the treatment of kidney stones by offering patients a non-invasive procedure. It is now seen as a mature technology and its use is perceived to be routine. It is noteworthy that, at the time of its introduction, there was a great effort to discover the mechanism(s) by which it works, and the type of sound field that is optimal. Although nearly three decades of subsequent research have increased the knowledge base significantly, the mechanisms are still controversial. Furthermore there is a growing body of evidence that SWL results in injury to the kidney which may have long-term side effects, such as new onset hypertension, although again there is much controversy within the field. Currently, use of lithotripsy is waning, particularly with the advent of minimally invasive ureteroscopic approaches. The goal here is to review the state of the art in SWL and to present the barriers and challenges that need to be addressed for SWL to deliver on its initial promise of a safe, effective, non-invasive treatment for kidney stones.

Acoustic field measurements of electrohydraulic lithotripters (EHL) are typically conducted with single-element hydrophones and are subject to spatial averaging errors because the spark source location varies from shock to shock. Linear hydrophone arrays provide a means of obtaining the instantaneous sound field of EHLs and a more detailed understanding of EHL sound fields. Here, 20-element hydrophone arrays were used to study the variability of the instantaneous acoustic field of an experimental EHL. Calibrated arrays were placed at the geometric focus of an EHL and exposed to as many as 1500 shock waves using excitations of 14, 17 and 20 kV. Instantaneous data were acquired from all 20 hydrophone elements and then were processed for beamwidth, peak pressure location, and peak pressure. Instantaneous beamwidths were found to be smaller than when using a single-element hydrophone approach and peak pressures were observed to vary more as the excitation voltage increased.