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Most of the early Hungarian tribes originated from the Volga-Kama and South-Ural regions, where they were composed of a mixed population based on historical, philological and archaeological data. We present here the uniparental genetic makeup of the mediaeval era of these regions that served as a melting pot for ethnic groups with different linguistic and historical backgrounds. Representing diverse cultural contexts, the new genetic data originate from ancient proto-Ob-Ugric people from Western Siberia (6th–13th century), the pre-Conquest period and subsisting Hungarians from the Volga-Ural region (6th–14th century) and their neighbours. By examining the eastern archaeology traits of Hungarian prehistory, we also study their genetic composition and origin in an interdisciplinary framework. We analyzed 110 deep-sequenced mitogenomes and 42 Y-chromosome haplotypes from 18 archaeological sites in Russia. The results support the studied groups’ genetic relationships regardless of geographical distances, suggesting large-scale mobility. We detected long-lasting genetic connections between the sites representing the Kushnarenkovo and Chiyalik cultures and the Carpathian Basin Hungarians and confirmed the Uralic transmission of several East Eurasian uniparental lineages in their gene pool. Based on phylogenetics, we demonstrate and model the connections and splits of the studied Volga-Ural and conqueror groups. Early Hungarians and their alliances conquered the Carpathian Basin around 890 AD. Re-analysis of the Hungarian conquerors’ maternal gene pool reveals numerous surviving maternal relationships in both sexes; therefore, we conclude that men and women came to the Carpathian Basin together, and although they were subsequently genetically fused into the local population, certain eastern lineages survived for centuries.

Here we present 115 whole mitogenomes and 92 Y-chromosomal STR and SNP profiles from a Hungarian ethnic group, the Székelys (in Romanian: Secuii, in German: Sekler) living in southeast Transylvania (Romania). The Székelys can be traced back to the 12th century in the region, and numerous scientific theories exist as to their origin. We carefully selected sample providers that had local ancestors inhabiting small villages in the area of Odorheiu Secuiesc/Székelyudvarhely in Romania. The results of our research and the reported data signify a qualitative leap compared to previous studies, since complete mitochondrial DNA sequences and Y-chromosomal data containing 23 STRs have not been available from the region until now. We evaluated the results with population genetic and phylogenetic methods, in the context of the modern and ancient populations that are either geographically or historically related to the Székelys. Our results demonstrate a predominantly local uniparental make-up of the population that also indicates limited admixture with neighbouring populations. Phylogenetic analyses confirmed the presumed eastern origin of certain maternal (A, C, D) and paternal (Q, R1a) lineages and, in some cases, they could also be linked to ancient DNA data from Migration Period (5th-9thcenturies AD) and Hungarian Conquest Period (10th century AD) populations.

Examination of STR markers using the MPS technology is becoming more common in forensic genetics, but scientists still have insufficient experience in dealing with ambiguous results. However, it is always essential to resolve discordant data if we want to use the technology as an accredited method in routine forensic casework. During the internal laboratory validation of the Precision ID GlobalFiler NGS STR Panel v2 kit, we observed two discrepant genotypes at Penta E locus compared to the previous capillary electrophoresis results. Each NGS software that we applied (i.e., Converge, STRaitRazor and IGV) returned the same 12,14 and 12,16 genotypes in the two samples, respectively, instead of the 11.3,14 and 11.3,16 genotypes previously observed with CE (Capillary electrophoresis) typing. In the case of the length variant 11.3 alleles, traditional Sanger sequencing confirmed a complete twelve repeat unit structure in both samples. However, after sequencing was extended to the flanking regions of the variant alleles, sequence data revealed a two-bases GG deletion downstream of the last TCTTT repeat motif in the forward strand. The determined allele variant has not been previously reported in the scientific literature and highlights the need for a careful evaluation and thorough concordance studies before using NGS STR data in forensic cases.

BackgroundAging is the most significant risk factor in many diseases and for mortality alike, and it is known to be influenced by both genetic and environmental factors. Due to dogs’ importance in human societies, the study of aging in companion dogs is worthwhile in its own right. Still, dogs could also be ideal translational model animals for human aging research. In this study, our primary goal was to investigate the gene expression changes with age in whole blood samples of dogs. The advantage of using blood is its accessibility and known biomarkers for diseases.MethodsWe sequenced the poly(A)-tailed RNA fraction in the blood samples of five young and five old companion border collie dogs and implemented a differential gene expression analysis. We removed haemoglobin related reads in silico, following standard raw data quality control and alignment to the reference genome. Sample collection and preparation, sequencing and data analysis were implemented using standard laboratory methods and RNA-seq data analysis pipelines.ResultsThe estimated statistical power of the study was 98% according to an initial power analysis with a 10% false discovery rate and minimum fold change of 3. Raw sequence data quality was high with an 86% alignment rate to the CanFam 3.1 dog reference genome. Following in silico haemoglobin read removal, 23-74 million reads remained for the differential gene expression analysis. In contrast to our expectations, we could not differentiate age clusters in either a multidimensional scaling analysis or in a principal component analysis. We found only a limited number of differentially expressed genes (n=61) between young and old dogs’ blood transcriptome. The only significant gene ontology term was response to bacterium with a fold change of 8.62.ConclusionsIn contrast with the large number of differentially expressed genes in the prefrontal cortical brain region of dogs, we could identify only one blood biomarker for aging in blood. Confounding factors (e.g., diet) might have influenced our results. Future research could also use biological age instead of the animals’ chronological age.

In this study we report 21 ancient shotgun genomes from present-day Western Hungary (3530 – 1620 cal BCE), from previously understudied Late Copper Age Baden, and Bronze Age Somogyvár-Vinkovci, Kisapostag, and Encrusted Pottery archaeological cultures. Our results indicate the presence of high steppe ancestry in Somogyvár-Vinkovci culture that was replaced by the Kisapostag group having an outstandingly high (up to ∼47%) Mesolithic hunter-gatherer ancestry, despite this component being thought to be highly diluted by the time of the Early Bronze Age. The Kisapostag population was also the genetic basis of the succeeding community of the Encrusted pottery culture. We also found an elevated hunter-gatherer component in a local Baden culture associated individual, but no connections were proven to the Bronze Age individuals. The hunter-gatherer ancestry in Kisapostag is likely derived from two main sources, one from a Funnelbeaker or Globular Amphora culture related population and one from a previously unrecognised source in Eastern Europe. We show that this ancestry not only appeared in various groups in Bronze Age Central Europe, but also made contributions to Baltic populations. The social structure of Kisapostag and Encrusted pottery cultures is patrilocal, similarly to most contemporaneous groups. Furthermore, we developed new methods and method standards for computational analyses of ancient DNA, implemented to our newly developed and freely available bioinformatic package. By analysing clinical traits, we found carriers of aneuploidy and inheritable genetic diseases. Finally, based on genetic and anthropological data, we present here the first female facial reconstruction from the Bronze Age Carpathian Basin.SignificanceThe hunter-gatherer ancestry we recovered in this study promotes the rethinking of the survival dynamics of Mesolithic populations, especially in the region of East-Central Europe. Despite strong genetic ties of patrilocal populations recovered at Balatonkeresztúr site toward groups of completely different social structure, high flexibility in social organisation can be assumed during the Bronze Age of the region. The newly presented bioinformatic tools ease the routine analysis of clinical and phenotype traits and help a yet underresearched part of the field. Reconstruction of a mass grave and a burial along with a forensic facial reconstruction bring closer past populations to our understanding of the prehistory.

The emergence of Massively Parallel Sequencing technologies enabled the analysis of full mitochondrial (mt)DNA sequences from forensically relevant samples that have, so far, only been typed in the control region or its hypervariable segments. In this study, we evaluated the performance of a commercially available multiplex-PCR-based assay, the Precision ID mtDNA Whole Genome Panel (Thermo Fisher Scientific), for the amplification and sequencing of the entire mitochondrial genome (mitogenome) from even degraded forensic specimens. For this purpose, more than 500 samples from 24 different populations were selected to cover the vast majority of established superhaplogroups. These are known to harbor different signature sequence motifs corresponding to their phylogenetic background that could have an effect on primer binding and, thus, could limit a broad application of this molecular genetic tool. The selected samples derived from various forensically relevant tissue sources and were DNA extracted using different methods. We evaluated sequence concordance and heteroplasmy detection and compared the findings to conventional Sanger sequencing as well as an orthogonal MPS platform. We discuss advantages and limitations of this approach with respect to forensic genetic workflow and analytical requirements.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

The ancient Hungarians originated from the Ural region of Russia, and migrated through the Middle-Volga region and the Eastern European steppe into the Carpathian Basin during the ninth century AD. Their Homeland was probably in the southern Trans-Ural region, where the Kushnarenkovo culture was disseminated. In the Cis-Ural region Lomovatovo and Nevolino cultures are archaeologically related to ancient Hungarians. In this study we describe maternal and paternal lineages of 36 individuals from these regions and nine Hungarian Conquest period individuals from today’s Hungary, as well as shallow shotgun genome data from the Trans-Uralic Uyelgi cemetery. We point out the genetic continuity between the three chronological horizons of Uyelgi cemetery, which was a burial place of a rather endogamous population. Using phylogenetic and population genetic analyses we demonstrate the genetic connection between Trans-, Cis-Ural and the Carpathian Basin on various levels. The analyses of this new Uralic dataset fill a gap of population genetic research of Eurasia, and reshape the conclusions previously drawn from tenth to eleventh century ancient mitogenomes and Y-chromosomes from Hungary.

After 568 AD the Avars settled in the Carpathian Basin and founded the Avar Qaganate that was an important power in Central Europe until the 9thcentury. Part of the Avar society was probably of Asian origin, however the localisation of their homeland is hampered by the scarcity of historical and archaeological data.Here, we study mitogenome and Y chromosomal STR variability of twenty-six individuals, a number of them representing a well-characterised elite group buried at the centre of the Carpathian Basin more than a century after the Avar conquest.The studied group has maternal and paternal genetic affinities to several ancient and modern East-Central Asian populations. The majority of the mitochondrial DNA variability represents Asian haplogroups (C, D, F, M, R, Y and Z). The Y-STR variability of the analysed elite males belongs only to five lineages, three N-Tat with mostly Asian parallels and two Q haplotypes. The homogeneity of the Y chromosomes reveals paternal kinship as a cohesive force in the organisation of the Avar elite strata on both social and territorial level. Our results indicate that the Avar elite arrived in the Carpathian Basin as a group of families, and remained mostly endogamous for several generations after the conquest.

Red deer is the most valuable game of the fauna in Hungary, and there is a strong need for genetic identification of individuals. For this purpose, 10 tetranucleotide STR markers were developed and amplified in two 5-plex systems. The study presented here includes the flanking region sequence analysis and the allele nomenclature of the 10 loci as well as the PCR optimization of the DeerPlex I and II. LD pairwise tests and cross-species similarity analyses showed the 10 loci to be independently inherited. Considerable levels of genetic differences between two subpopulations were recorded, and F(ST) was 0.034 using AMOVA. The average probability of identity (PI(ave)) was at the value of 2.6736 × 10(-15). This low value for PI(ave) nearly eliminates false identification. An illegal hunting case solved by DeerPlex is described herein. The calculated likelihood ratio (LR) illustrates the potential of the 10 red deer microsatellite markers for forensic investigations.

In step with the evolution of molecular genetics, the application of non-human biological traces is an intensively researched field in forensic sciences [1]. Recently it has been widely acknowledged that this extended possibility – with associated abilities and pitfalls – for forensic DNA examination can provide innovative results in criminal and civil casework as well as in connection with associative evidence. Depending on the specific species or types of traces, the final results can have very different criminalistics value (e.g., plants, dogs or microbiome of soil traces), but it is unquestionable that non-human DNA has an increasing role in forensic biological evidence [2–4]. However, in contrast to the investigation of human DNA-traces, there currently exist no restrictions concerning DNA loci and privacy of genetic information, and a wide spectrum of genetic information and technologies may be applied. The field is developing with animal rights, international (e.g. CITES) conventions, national regulations and professional recommendations [5–7]. The Hungarian forensic practice on animal DNA examination has been developing since 2000 [8]. The range of cases is sufficiently broad, and includes fatal accidents and animal attacks (case #1) as well as illegal trade cases (case #2). In case of degraded animal hair samples we used two sets of Canine STR markers with shortened amplicons, and species specific primers ( Ursus sp.) for mitochondrial DNA analysis of mixed samples (case #2), respectively. The results supported the evaluation of individualization (case #1), confirming the species identification (case #2).

The EUROFORGEN Global ancestry-informative SNP (AIM-SNPs) panel is a forensic multiplex of 128 markers designed to differentiate an individual's ancestry from amongst the five continental population groups of Africa, Europe, East Asia, Native America, and Oceania. A custom multiplex of AmpliSeq™ PCR primers was designed for the Global AIM-SNPs to perform massively parallel sequencing using the Ion PGM™ system. This study assessed individual SNP genotyping precision using the Ion PGM™, the forensic sensitivity of the multiplex using dilution series, degraded DNA plus simple mixtures, and the ancestry differentiation power of the final panel design, which required substitution of three original ancestry-informative SNPs with alternatives. Fourteen populations that had not been previously analyzed were genotyped using the custom multiplex and these studies allowed assessment of genotyping performance by comparison of data across five laboratories. Results indicate a low level of genotyping error can still occur from sequence misalignment caused by homopolymeric tracts close to the target SNP, despite careful scrutiny of candidate SNPs at the design stage. Such sequence misalignment required the exclusion of component SNP rs2080161 from the Global AIM-SNPs panel. However, the overall genotyping precision and sensitivity of this custom multiplex indicates the Ion PGM™ assay for the Global AIM-SNPs is highly suitable for forensic ancestry analysis with massively parallel sequencing.

"Article number: 25472", Rare mitochondrial lineages with relict distributions can sometimes be disproportionately informative about deep events in human prehistory. We have studied one such lineage, haplogroup R0a, which uniquely is most frequent in Arabia and the Horn of Africa, but is distributed much more widely, from Europe to India. We conclude that: (1) the lineage ancestral to R0a is more ancient than previously thought, with a relict distribution across the Mediterranean/Southwest Asia; (2) R0a has a much deeper presence in Arabia than previously thought, highlighting the role of at least one Pleistocene glacial refugium, perhaps on the Red Sea plains; (3) the main episode of dispersal into Eastern Africa, at least concerning maternal lineages, was at the end of the Late Glacial, due to major expansions from one or more refugia in Arabia; (4) there was likely a minor Late Glacial/early postglacial dispersal from Arabia through the Levant and into Europe, possibly alongside other lineages from a Levantine refugium; and (5) the presence of R0a in Southwest Arabia in the Holocene at the nexus of a trading network that developed after ~3 ka between Africa and the Indian Ocean led to some gene flow even further afield, into Iran, Pakistan and India., This work was supported by the University of Pavia strategic theme “Towards a governance model for international migration: an interdisciplinary and diachronic perspective” (MIGRAT-IN-G), the Italian Ministry of Education, University and Research: Progetti Futuro in Ricerca 2012 (RBFR126B8I) (to A.A. and A.O.) and Progetti Ricerca Interesse Nazionale 2012 (to A.A., F.C., A.T. and O.S.), a Leverhulme Doctoral Scholarship award to M.B.R., a Newton International Fellowship to M.P., the intramural funding program of the Medical University Innsbruck for young scientists MUI-START, Project 2013042025 (to M.B.), an EMBO short-term fellowship (ASTF 70- 2014/Award) and a University of Huddersfield University Research Fellowship award to F.G. P.S. is supported by FCT, European Social Fund, Programa Operacional Potencial Humano and the FCT Investigator Programme (IF/01641/2013) and acknowledges FCT I.P. for CBMA’s strategic funding UID/BIA/04050/2013.

To facilitate forensic mtDNA testing in Hungary, we have generated control region databases for two Hungarian populations: 211 individuals were sampled from the urban Budapest population and 208 individuals were sampled from a Romani ("gypsy") population in Baranya county. Sequences were generated using a highly redundant approach to minimize potential database errors. The Budapest population had high sequence diversity with 180 lineages, 183 polymorphic positions, and a random match probability of 1%. In contrast, the Romani population exhibited low sequence diversity, with only 56 lineages, 109 segregating sites, and a random match probability of 8.8%. The mtDNA haplogroup compositions of the two populations were also distinct, with the large proportion of haplogroup M samples (35%) in the Roma the most obvious difference between the two populations. These factors highlight the importance of considering population structure when generating reference databases for forensic testing purposes. Comparisons between our Romani population sample and other published data indicate the need for heightened caution when sampling and using mtDNA databases of small endogamous populations. The Romani populations that we compared showed significant departures from genetic uniformity.

Previous studies have shown that population analyses in Hungary can be of great importance from the viewpoint of the examination of population differentiation. This study provides additional population genetic data of the Hungarian population on the thirteen CODIS core STR loci and on two penta STRs (PentaE, PentaD). Allele frequency and profile databases were generated for four population samples. Comparing the allele frequency values by G-statistic, calculating the FST indices and with the pair-wise comparisons of inter-population molecular variance (AMOVA) the four Hungarian populations could be distinguished.

Hungary has an old long cynophilic and cynologic tradition, and a significantly high canine population. However, during the last years, several (even lethal) attacks to man were observed. In some cases, the human remains on the dog's body or stomach content can prove the animal as perpetrator. Lacking this evidence, the availability of certain canine-specific polymorphic STR loci is a significant tool for identification of canine individuals by their remains in the victim's clothes or the environment of the attack to solve such cases. Ten canine-specific STR loci were analyzed by fluorescently labeled multiplex PCR. The automated data collection was performed and compared applying fluorescent ladder. The forensic practice requires the availability of sequenced allelic ladders—which are constructed—and data concerning the frequency of the alleles in the local canine population (population studies are examined continuously in mixed and purebred populations).

One hundred and seventy three entire mtDNA control region sequences were generated and analyzed in a population sample from Ashkenazi Jews living in Hungary. The control region was amplified in one piece and sequenced with different sequencing primers. Sequence evaluation was performed twice and validated by a third senior scientist. Phylogenetic analyses were used for quality assurance purposes and for the determination of the haplogroup affiliation of the samples. Upon publication, the population data are going to be available in the EMPOP database (www.empop.org).

Identification of vaginal fluids is an important step in the process of sexual assaults confirmation. Advances in both microbiology and molecular biology defined technical approaches allowing the discrimination of body fluids. These protocols are based on the identification of specific bacterial communities by microfloraDNA (mfDNA) amplification. A multiplex real time-PCR assay (ForFLUID kit) has been developed for identifying biological fluids and for discrimination among vaginal, oral and fecal samples. In order to test its efficacy and reliability of the assay in the identification of vaginal fluids, an interlaboratory evaluation has been performed on homogeneous vaginal swabs. All the involved laboratories were able to correctly recognize all the vaginal swabs, and no false positives were identified when the assay was applied on non-vaginal samples. The assay represents an useful molecular tool that can be easily adopted by forensic geneticists involved in vaginal fluid identification.

According to the opinion of a plaintiff (Mrs. B) and a co-plaintiff (Mrs. A), two samples had been exchanged during cytogenetic investigation of foetal chorionic villi (CV), because the child of Mrs. A was born with Down syndrome in spite of the negative CV result (46, XY). The CV investigation of Mrs. B had given a positive result (47, XY, +21), so the pregnancy was terminated, but histological sections of her abortus showed no pathological changes. DNA profiles were successfully obtained from the participants and both of the slides. Two complicating factors were observed during the investigation. Between mother (Mrs. A) and the Down syndrome child, a one-step germ line mutation was found together with a three-allele D3S1358 pattern in the same child's profile. The genetic investigation and its statistical interpretation strongly support the hypothesis that the putative exchange of samples did not occur. D 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Transylvania's ethnic mosaic is composed of Romanians, German Saxons and Hungarians. The ethnic groups of the Hungarian minority that settled in Romania show differences in dialects, customs and religious affiliations. In this study entire mtDNA control region sequences from 360 individuals of Hungarian ethnicity from two populations (the Csango and the Szekely), settled in the historical region of Transylvania in Romania, were generated and analyzed following high quality sequencing standards. Phylogenetic analyses were used for haplogroup determination, quasi-median network analyses were applied for the visualization of character conflicts, and median joining reconstructions were used for depicting haplotype structures. Affiliation of haplotypes to major west Eurasian haplogroups was confirmed using coding region SNPs. Gene flow between the two populations was low and biased towards a higher migration rate from the Csango to the Szekely than vice versa. Phylogeographic analyses revealed effects of genetic isolation within the Csango population, which is, in its genetic structure, clearly different from the Szekely population. The pronounced genetic divergence between the two populations is in sharp contrast to the expectation of high genetic similarity due to the close geographic proximity of their native homelands. The population data will be incorporated in the EMPOP database (http://www.empop.org).

To assess the mitochondrial DNA polymorphisms of the Hungarian population in the Carpathian basin and to facilitate forensic mtDNA testing a collection of control region sequences were generated from two population samples from Hungary and from two Hungarian speaking populations from Transylvania (Romania). Entire control region sequencing was performed by an automated laboratory process and data export without any manual transcription. The random match probability and pairwise comparisons within and between the datasets is reported. This study highlights the importance of considering population structure when generating reference databases for forensic testing. Comparisons between our population samples indicate the need for heightened caution when sampling, and using mtDNA databases of small endogamous populations. The population data will be incorporated in the EMPOP database (www.empop.org).

Our study provides population genetic data on two population samples collected in a Hungarian speaking region of Transylvania, Romania. Allele frequency and profile databases were generated on 17 autosomal STR loci (D2S1338, D3S1358, D5S818, D7S820, D8S1179, D13S317, D16S539, D18S51, D19S433, D21S11, VWA, FGA, TH01, TPOX, CSF1PO, Penta E and Penta D) as well as at the 12 European Y-STR extended haplotype loci (DYS19, DYS389-I/II, DYS390, DYS391, DYS392, DYS393, DYS385 loci, DYS437, DYS438 and DYS439). Data were compared to a Central Hungarian (Budapest region) population sample [B. Egyed, S. Furedi, M. Angyal, L. Boutrand, A. Vandenberghe, J. Woller, Z. Padar, Analysis of eight STR loci in two Hungarian populations, Forensic Sci. Int. 113 (2000) 25–27] that was used as a reference group of the Hungarian population. Calculating the F ST indices and with the pairwise comparisons of interpopulation molecular variance (AMOVA) the two populations from Transylvania could be fit into the Hungarian population data showing less substructuring effects as compared to the previous findings in Hungary [B. Egyed, S. Furedi, M. Angyal, L. Boutrand, A. Vandenberghe, J. Woller, Z. Padar, Analysis of eight STR loci in two Hungarian populations, Forensic Sci. Int. 113 (2000) 25–27; B. Egyed, S. Furedi, M. Angyal, I. Balogh, L. Kalmar, Z. Padar, Analysis of the population heterogeneity in Hungary using fifteen forensically informative STR markers, Forensic Sci. Int. 158 (2005) 244–249].

Several animal carcasses were found in the paddocks of a Hungarian County Zoo during 1 week. The ¶14 animals killed were thought to be the victims of a dogfight training. The primary suspect was the security guard of the Zoo with his guard dogs. DNA tests were carried out on hairs and bloodstains and 10 canine-specific STR loci were analysed by fluorescently labelled multiplex PCR using the ABI PRISM 310 Genetic Analyzer. The results confirmed that the killer was a single animal and all of the guard dogs were excluded.

A case of disputed paternity in dogs is reported. DNA examinations were carried out from hair samples of the individuals several months after the death of the putative sire. Ten short tandem repeat (STR) loci were analysed by fluorescence- labelled multiplex PCR using ABI PRISM 310 Genetic Analyser. Based on the results the candidate sire was included in the pedigree records as the biological sire. In spite o f the genetic homogeneity of pedigree dogs due to inbreeding, canine microsatellites can provide an adequate basis for assigning paternity in pure breeds.

STRs have become almost the exclusive tool of genetic scientists in forensic typing work. Consequently, large numbers of samples are genotyped and the detection of rare abnormalities is to be expected. We found rare losses of alleles, also known as drop-out, at the two STR loci D13S317 and CD4. Drop-out at D13S317 was accidentally found in typing of suspects in a murder case and three other examples of drop-out were found at locus CD4 during paternity testing. The lost alleles reappeared when alternative PCR primer pairs were used. Sequences of lost alleles were characterised at the molecular level after cloning. Variations were found in the primer sequences and these are believed to prevent amplification or to reduce amplification yield and to be the origin of the allele drop-out.

A collection of eight STR loci (D3S1358, FGA, D8S1179, D21S11, D18S51, D5S818, D13S317, D7S820) was used to generate allele frequency databases for two Hungarian population samples, Caucasians from the Budapest area and Romanies from Baranya county. During the analysis two intermediate sized alleles and a sequence variant allele were observed at the D7S820 locus. All three types of allelic variants were found to have modification (deletion, insertion, transversion) in the same block of a (T)9 stretch located within the 3′ flanking region of each allele, which may indicate a possible higher mutation rate of this (T)9 block. For the loci D3S1358 and D7S820 the Romany population database showed departures from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. The forensic efficiency values for the Romany population were slightly different from those found in the Hungarian Caucasian population. Comparing the allele frequency values by G-statistic, calculating the Fst indices and with the pairwise comparisons of inter-population variance, the two Hungarian populations could be distinguished using data of the eight STR loci.

As dogs are widespread and popular pets they have overriding importance from criminal point of view. The relevancy exists not only in cases of dog attacks or in traffic accidents, but also the scattered, shaded hairs can often provide indirect evidence in crime scene—person relation as well.

The primary application of STR markers is going to be a tool of high fidelity in forensic genetics, for instance identifying the cognate animal from traces. The microsatellite marker set also helps in the protection of red deer stocks from poaching in Hungary. Moreover, increasing interests of red deer farms have appeared to develop DNA based diagnostics for pedigree analysis. In addition, these loci will be useful in population genetic studies in order to assess the genetic diversity in the Hungarian population of red deer ( Cervus elaphus hippelaphus ). To achieve this goal a parentage control kit is being developed in Hungary in cooperation with academic and governmental institutes.