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This study evaluated the nutritional and sensorial characteristics of Pecorino di Farindola cheese at different commercial ripening stages. Moreover, in order to assess effectively the peculiar features of this product, the evolution of proteolysis and lipolysis, together with that of free amino acids (FAAs), was studied throughout ripening. A marked proteolysis of Pecorino di Farindola was found. At the end of ripening, FAAs with the highest content were glutamic acid, valine, leucine and lysine. Long-ripened cheeses had a light spicy feature that distinguishes them from other Italian Pecorino cheeses.

Drying is one of the most common preservation methods used to extend the shelf life of fruits and vegetables by reducing water content so as to prevent the growth and reproduction of microorganisms and to inactivate many of the moisture-mediated alterative reactions. Goji berries are mainly consumed dried. Several methods can be used to dry goji berries, such as sun drying, hot air drying, vacuum drying, and freeze drying. In this chapter the most used pre-treatment and drying processes found in literature on goji berries are described, together with their effect on their health promoting components, such as carotenoids, tocols, vitamin C, flavonoids and phenols. Moreover the effect of different pre-treatment and drying processes on antioxidant activities of goji berries will be discussed.

Carrot and parsnip slices were subjected to hot drying at 50, 60 and 70 °C with or without pulsed electric field (PEF) pre-treatment at 0.9 kV/cm and 1000 and 10,000 pulses. The effect of drying on processed samples was assessed by analysis of carotenoids, the furosine value, total phenols and the Whiteness Index (WI). PEF pre-treatment is effective in reducing drying times, but the degree of cellular breakdown makes the compounds more susceptible to chemical and enzymatic reactions. In our condition PEF pre-treatment increased the carotenoid degradation and promoted the Maillard reaction above all at the highest temperature of 70 °C. The assessment of carotenoid stability, together with the furosine value, were confirmed to be useful tools for the evaluation of effects of thermal damage and quality of dried food products, also after different drying treatments.

Lipophilic antioxidants are essential components, which have been pointed as bioactive beneficial for human health. This study aimed at evaluating the effect of domestic cooking (boiling, steaming) on the main carotenoids (lutein and β-carotene) and tocols in four different green leafy vegetables: Sonchus asper L. Hill, Sonchus oleraceus L., Spinacia oleracea L. and Cichorium intybus L. The total content of the analyzed compounds was determined following the method of alkaline hydrolysis of the matrix and solvent extraction. The leaching of soluble solids after domestic cooking was found to determine a gain in the investigated bioactive compounds in the cooked vegetables, so to cause an apparent content increase in all leafy vegetables, when expressed as mg/100 g dry matter. Considering solid losses, all lipophilic compounds were not affected by boiling, on the contrary, steaming slightly significantly decreased the contents of lutein and β-carotene (on average 20 and 15%, respectively).

The aim of this research was to study the evolution of carotenoid compounds, antioxidant &beta, ctivity, volatiles and sensory quality in two mango cultivars dried at 50, 60 and 70 &deg, C. Total carotenoids in fresh samples were about 12 and 6 mg/100 g (dry basis) in Keitt and Osteen samples, respectively. &beta, carotene was the main carotenoid, representing about 50% of total carotenoids. In both cultivars, carotenoids were more susceptible to drying at 60 &deg, C. Total phenols and metal reduction activity were higher in Osteen than in Keitt, which had higher values in radical scavenging capacity. The antioxidant activities were best preserved with drying temperatures at 50 &deg, C in Keitt and 60 &deg, C in Osteen fruits. Fresh Osteen mango fruits had a volatile compound content of about 37.1, while Keitt of about 5.2 mg/kg (dry basis). All the compounds with odorous impact were significantly reduced after drying. As regards organoleptic characteristics through sensory analysis, Keitt dried mangoes were quite similar to the fresh product, compared to Osteen.

This work describes a methodology for the definition of indoor air quality monitoring plans in schools and above all to improve the knowledge and evaluation of the indoor concentration levels of some chemical pollutants. The aim is to guide interventions to improve the health of students and exposed staff connected with the activities carried out there. The proposed methodology is based on the simultaneous study of chemical (indoor/outdoor PM2.5, NO2, CO2) and physical (temperature, humidity) parameters by means of automatic analyzers coupled with gaseous compounds (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylenes, formaldehyde and NO2) sampled by denuders. The important novelty is that all the data were collected daily in two different situations, i.e., during school activities and no-school activities, allowing us to evaluate the exposure of each student or person. The different behaviors of all the measured pollutants during the two different situations are reported and commented on. Finally, a statistical approach will show how the investigated compounds are distributed around the two components of combustion processes and photochemical reactions.

Three wild edible plant species belonging to the Asteraceae family, Crepis vesicaria L. (s.l.), Sonchus asper (L.) Hill s.l., and Sonchus oleraceus L., usually consumed in the Mediterranean diet, were tested for their nutritional composition and content of carotenoids, tocols, thiamine and riboflavin. Low amounts of thiamine and riboflavin were found. All species were sources of xanthophylls (violaxanthin, neoxanthin, lutein, zeaxanthin and β-cryptoxanthin) and carotenes (α-carotene, β-carotene, 9-cis-β-carotene and 13-cis-β-carotene). Lutein accounted for the highest content (about 4mg/100g). They had good tocol amounts, in particularα-tocopherol (about 2–3mg/100g). Taking into account the Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA) established by the EU Regulation, the analyzed plants can be declared as a source of fiber, vitamin A and E. These data could be useful for database on the nutritional and bioactive compound profile of studied plants and can contribute in promoting their use in functional foods.

Interest in gluten-free grains is increasing, together with major incidences of celiac disease in the last years. Since to date, knowledge of the nutritional and bioactive compounds profile of alternative gluten-free grains is limited, we evaluated the content of water-soluble (thiamine and riboflavin) and liposoluble vitamins, such as carotenoids and tocols (tocopherols and tocotrienols), of gluten-free minor cereals and also of pseudocereals. The analysed samples showed a high content of bioactive compounds, in particular, amaranth, ca&ntilde, ihua and quinoa are good sources of vitamin E, while millet, sorghum and teff (Eragrostis tef, or William&rsquo, s Lovegrass) are good sources of thiamine. Moreover, millet provides a fair amount of carotenoids, and in particular of lutein. These data can provide more information on bioactive compounds in gluten-free grains. The use of these grains can improve the nutritional quality of gluten-free cereal-based products, and could avoid the monotony of the celiac diet.

The aim of this study was to fully characterize the main pigmented rice varieties, available to consumers on the Italian market, in terms of carotenoids, total phenolic compounds and anthocyanins, and to investigate the effect of cooking on these components. Lutein was the main carotenoid in all samples under investigation (0.33-4.11 µg/g d.m.), while anthocyanins were observed only in black genotypes. Phenolic compounds were found mainly in free form, and values ranged between 544.1 and 1508.3 mg/100 g (d.m.) in raw samples. Cooking decreased significantly (p 0.05) total lutein, free phenolic compound and anthocyanin content. In contrast, the increase of insoluble-bound phenolic compounds was observed in some samples, after cooking. The study provides data contributing to gain a better knowledge in novel food composition and enabling the estimation of dietary intake of health-promoting components.

A simple and rapid analytical method for the determination of lutein content, successfully used for cereal matrices, was evaluated in fruit and vegetables. The method involved the determination of lutein after an alkaline hydrolysis of the sample matrix, followed by extraction with solvents and analysis by normal phase HPLC. The optimized method was simple, precise, and accurate and it was characterized by few steps that could prevent loss of lutein and its degradation. The optimized method was used to evaluate the lutein amounts in several fruit and vegetables. Rich sources of lutein were confirmed to be green vegetables such as parsley, spinach, chicory, chard, broccoli, courgette, and peas, even if in a range of variability. Taking into account the suggested reference values these vegetables can be stated as good sources of lutein.

In order to evaluate the influence of an abrasive pre-treatment and drying at 50 °C, 60 °C, 70 °C of goji fruits (Lycium barbarum L.), changes in colour and carotenoids were studied. An extraction method was modified and adapted to assay the main carotenoid esters and saponified carotenoids of goji berries, before and after treatments. Goji berries were confirmed as a high source of zeaxanthin, with zeaxanthin-dipalmitate at about 2 g/kg dry weight. The reliability of the analytical method was confirmed by the high quantitative recoveries, about 100%, a higher repeatability than reference methods and a good reproducibility (lower than 5%). After drying, significant but small carotenoid losses (15–20%) were observed in both pre-treated and treated samples. The xanthophyll esters confirmed to be more stable than free carotenoids. The drying process significantly modified colour, in both pre-treated and untreated samples, however, pre-treatment reduced drying time and thus better preserved the colour of the goji berries for a drying temperature up to 60 °C. © 2018 Elsevier Ltd

The evolution of free amino acids (FAA) in Caciocavallo cheeses, made with cow milk (CC) and cow milk mixed with ewe (CE) and goat (CG) milk, was studied throughout ripening. In all Caciocavallo cheeses produced, the total free amino acid (TFAA) content increased during ripening. In general, the highest TFAA content was found in cow cheeses, and the lowest in CG cheeses, whereas CE cheeses ranged over an intermediate level. In all the analyzed samples, during ripening, the content of the individual FAA increased with the exception of arginine. Tyrosine and histidine were found only in CE samples from the middle to the end of ripening. The major FAA found throughout the whole ripening period, in all types of cheese, were leucine, phenylalanine, lysine, valine, asparagine, γ-aminobutyric acid, and ornithine. The TFAA and several AA showed significant differences in ripening time, whereas tyrosine and histidine showed significant differences in kinds of milk.

The efficacy of donkey milk as an alternative to hen's egg white lysozyme in preventing cheese blowing during ripening of Italian Grana cheeses was tested. Indices of proteolysis and lipolysis did not differ between the different cheesemaking processes. All tested products showed good microbiological and sensorial quality.

The kinetics of carotenoid and color degradation, as well as furosine formation, were investigated in apricot fruits during convective heating at 50, 60 and 70 °C. Degradation of carotenoids and color, expressed as total color difference (TCD), followed a first and zero order kinetic, respectively. The activation energy (Ea) for carotenoids degradation ranged from 73.7 kJ/mol for 13- cis -β-carotene to 120.7 kJ/mol for lutein, being about 91 kJ/mol for all- trans -β-carotene. Violaxanthin and anteraxanthin were the most susceptible to thermal treatment. The furosine evolution was fitted at zero order kinetic model. The Ea for furosine formation was found to be 83.3 kJ/mol and the Q 10 (temperature coefficient) varied from 1.59 to 4.14 at the temperature ranges 50–60 °C and 60–70 °C, respectively.

Lipophilic antioxidants are essential components of plant defense against stressful conditions. The response of carotenoids and tocols to water deficit and sulfur fertilization was investigated in durum wheat cultivars. The amounts of tocols and carotenoids were evaluated in both whole meal and semolina samples. Differences among cultivars were observed. Simeto cultivar showed a significant effect of water regime on whole meal and semolina carotenoids, with about 20% and 15% increase, respectively. Also tocols and tocotrienols of Simeto were positively affected by water stress (about 10% increase and 15% increase in whole meals and semolinas). Sulfur fertilization positively impacted mainly Ofanto whole-grain and semolina carotenoids, semolina tocols, and tocotrienols. In conclusion, water deficit occurring under a Mediterranean environment was responsible for an improvement of lipophilic antioxidant content in durum wheat; in contrast sulfur supplementation did not improve the response of the antioxidant pool under water deficit.

Antioxidant activity (AA) of durum wheat ( Triticum durum Desf.) grains was studied using the innovative LOX/RNO method, able to simultaneously detect different antioxidant mechanisms, and the TEAC assay, one of the most widely used assays. Insoluble-bound and free-soluble phenols, hydrophilic and lipophilic compounds were extracted from eight different whole flour samples; extracts were analyzed for AA and their content in several antioxidants. The LOX/RNO method measured very high AA values, with the highest ones [850–1500 μmol Trolox eq./g whole flour (dry weight)] for insoluble-bound phenolic extracts, highly correlated to total phenolic ( r = 0.761, P r = 0.816, P r = 0.583, P r = 0.602, P r = 0.684, P

In order to optimise the pre-ripening of pasta filata cheeses, two traditional Italian cheeses, Caciocavallo and Scamorza, were dried for different times at 15 °C, 50% relative humidity and airflow rate of 1000 m3/h, by using a pre-ripening plant. During ripening, microbiological, chemical-physical and sensorial analyses were applied to the products in order to evaluate the impact of the innovative pre-ripening technique used on the cheese characteristics. The used plant led to commercial time saving and to the standardisation of the process, making it unaffected by the effects of temperature and humidity variations, common in small industries. The final products showed good chemical-physical and sensorial qualities and resulted in a higher microbiological safety, preserving their traditional characteristics.

The available literature reveals that vitamin decrease in cereal products occurs after technological treatments, depending on several physical and chemical factors, such as light, temperature, pH, O2, food composition and the presence of antioxidants. This paper investigates the influence of egg pasta-making process on tocols, carotenoids and retinols. Evidence suggests that processing may influence the levels of these compounds in the final products. In particular, an average of about 30% and 50% loss was observed for tocols and carotenoids, respectively, at the end of process. For retinols, a slight constant increase of cis retinols was observed during the whole production process, together with a slow decrease of all trans retinol. The 13-cis/trans ratio, namely degree of isomerisation, changed from about 12% in the mix to 32% in final pastas. Considering the whole production processes, the degradation of tocols and carotenoids was mostly limited to the kneading step, where several physical–chemical and enzymatic factors seem to exert an important role in determining their degradation, while the drying step did not induce significant changes. In contrast, a slight constant retinol isomerization was observed during the different technological steps, confirming the role of the retinol isomerisation ratio as a process index.

In order to verify a different genotype potential in barley varieties, in terms of tocols and β-glucans, and to demonstrate that pearling by-products have interesting amounts of these bioactive compounds, their content was investigated in 36 barley varieties and in the pearling by-products of a commercial hulled barley stock. The β-glucan content ranged from 2.64 g/100 g dw (dry weight) for Vanessa to 8.05 g/100 g dw for Ludine, with an average value of 3.95 g/100 g dw and 50% of the compounds were in the range between 3.45 and 4.36 g/100 g dw. The total tocol amount ranged from 50.3 mg/kg dw (Ladoga) to 88.6 mg/kg dw (Maggiodoro), with a mean value of 69.1 mg/kg dw and with most genotypes (50%) having a content between 62 and 75 mg/kg dw. Adagio and Sabel were the best source of vitamin E activity, expressed as Tocopherol Equivalents. In the pearling by-products there was no enrichment of β-glucans, on the contrary, a seven and a fivefold increase was observed for tocopherols and tocotrienols, respectively.

Fats are widely used in the food industry as ingredients in many processed foods, in particular, in bakery products, they cover an important technological and sensorial role. With the introduction of new EU Regulation on Food Information (1169/2011) fats, in particular refined vegetable oils, should be clearly identified. Tocopherols and tocotrienols are eight different compounds with a variable qualitative/quantitative content in different fats. In this work, the content of tocopherols and tocotrienols of 38 commercial bakery products, such as different type of biscuits, croissants and sandwiches loaves, available on the Italian market in 2013–2014, was evaluated. Significant differences were found in the tocol profile of analysed samples. Moreover, the tocol profile reflected the tocol composition of the specified fat used as ingredient, thus giving the possibility to use tocols as a tool to verify the information given in food labelling. Regarding vitamin E activity, expressed as Tocopherol Equivalent (T.E.), the 68% of the analysed bakery products can be declared in label as a source of vitamin E, in particular, all biscuits made with vegetable oils and croissants, while no analysed sandwich loaves provided the recommended allowance.

This chapter reports the ‘state of the art’ of the influence of the pasta-making process on tocols, carotenoids, and retinols. Available literature reveals that processing may influence the levels of these compounds in the final products, depending on several physical and chemical factors, such as light, temperature, pH, O2, food composition, presence of antioxidants, and the different extent of lipoxygenase activity in the kernel. During the pasta making process the degradation of tocols and carotenoids is mostly limited to the kneading step, where several physical-chemical and enzymatic factors seem to exert an important role in determining their degradation, while significant losses during drying treatments are observed only at high temperatures. An increase in geometric isomerization from the trans to the cis forms of carotenoids and retinols is also reported. The pasta-making process does not seem to influence the bioaccessibility of tocols and carotenoids from durum wheat pasta. The use of a suitable procedure for the extraction and determination of carotenoids, tocols, and retinols from cereal matrices is also discussed.

Traditional methods and a supercritical CO2 (SFE) method for the extraction of tocochromanols (tocopherols and tocotrienols) from cereals were compared. The tested SFE procedure showed no significant selectivity towards the different tocochromanols but the extraction yield obtained (about 85%) can be compared with the conventional extraction techniques like Soxhlet and Folch. Like traditional methods, SFE extracts free and esterified tocochromanols and is unable to give a total recovery of tocochromanols strictly bonded to matrix components, as shown after hot saponification of the lipidic extracts and the residues of extraction. The low solvent consumption and the short analysis time are the main advantages of the method proposed here compared with the classic solvent extraction methods.

This study assessed and compared the physicochemical, microbiological, and sensorial characteristics of Caciocavallo cheeses, made from cow milk and a mixture of cow with ewe or goat milk, during ripening. Different cheese-making trials were carried out on an industrial scale following the standard procedure of pasta filata cheeses, with some modifications. The percentage of the different added milk to cow milk influenced compositional and nutritional characteristics of the innovative products, leading to a satisfactory microbiological and sensorial quality.

In order to gain some insight into mitochondria permeability under water stress, intact coupled mitochondria were isolated from water stress adapted potato cells and investigations were made of certain transport processes including the succinate/malate and ADP/ATP exchanges, the plant mitochondrial ATP-sensitive potassium channel (PmitoKATP) and the plant uncoupling mitochondrial protein (PUMP). The VmaxL values measured for succinate/malate and ADP/ATP carriers, as photometrically investigated, as well as the same values for the PmitoATP and the PUMP were found to increase; this suggested that mitochondria adaptation to water stress can cause an increase in the membrane permeability.

Linoleic acid (LA) and other fatty acids added to respiring durum wheat mitochondria (DWM) were found to cause a remarkable membrane potential (deltaPsi) decrease, as monitored by measuring safranin fluorescence. The rate of deltaPsi decrease showed (i) saturation dependence on LA concentration; (ii) fatty acid specificity; (iii) inhibition by externally added ATP, GDP, GTP and Mg(2+) and (iv) sigmoid dependence upon initial DeltaPsi, thus suggesting the existence of an active plant mitochondrial uncoupling protein (PUMP) in mitochondria from monocotyledonous species (durum wheat, Triticum durum Desf.). Surprisingly, the rate of the linoleate dependent DeltaPsi decrease was found to be activated by reactive oxygen species (ROS) (hydrogen peroxide and superoxide anion) and, moreover, linoleate proved to lower the mitochondrial generation of superoxide anion. These results suggest that ROS can activate PUMP, thus protecting the cell against mitochondrial ROS production.

"Carotenoids are natural compounds whose nutritional importance comes from the provitamin A activity of some of them and their protection against several serious human disorders. The degradation of carotenoids was investigated during apricot drying by microwave and convective hot-air at 60 and 70 A degrees C. Seven carotenoids were identified: antheraxanthin, lutein, zeaxanthin, beta-cryptoxanthin, 13-cis-beta-carotene, all-trans-beta-carotene and 9-cis-beta-carotene; among these, all-trans-beta-carotene was found to be about 50 % of total carotenoids. First-order kinetic models were found to better describe all-trans-beta-carotene reduction during drying, with a degradation rate constant (k(1)) that increased two folds when temperatures increased by 10 A degrees C, in both methods. No differences were found in k(1) between apricots dried by hot air at 70 A degrees C (k(1) = 0.0340 h(-1)) and by microwave at 60 A degrees C. The evolution of total carotenoids (117.1 mg\/kg on dry basis) during drying highlighted a wider decrease (about 50 %) when microwave heating was employed, for both set temperatures. Antheraxantin was found to be the carotenoid most susceptible to heat, disappearing at 6 h during both trials with microwave as well as during convective hot-air at 70 A degrees C. For this reason, antheraxanthin could be a useful marker for the evaluation of thermal damage due to the drying process. Also the degree of isomerization of all-trans-beta-carotene could be a useful marker for the evaluation of the drying process."

In order to have a deeper insight into the retinol isomerization phenomenon, in this work different milk samples have been analysed for their content of trans retinol and its cis-isomers, by means of reliable HPLC techniques. Levels of the different isomers and the degree of retinol isomerization (13-cis/all-trans ratio, %) have been monitored during milk storage at different temperatures and after addition of specific microorganisms. In raw milk stored at 4°C for 96 h the degree of retinol isomerization shifted from 1·1 to 2·3%, while in raw milk stored at 22°C for 24 h it increased from 1·1 to 12·7%. Among microorganisms tested in pasteurized milk, the most active in causing an increment in the 13-cis/all-trans ratio (%), from 3·4 to 33·4% in 8 h, was Streptococcus thermophilus. The results obtained demonstrated a relationship between microbial evolution and retinol isomerization. Therefore, the determination of retinol isomers is of importance not only for a more precise evaluation of vitamin A activity but also for the evaluation of the microbiological quality of milk.

Color is an important parameter involved in the definition of semolina and pasta quality. This character is mainly due to natural pigments (carotenoids) that are present at different levels in cereals and cereal products, due to botanical origin, growing conditions, distribution in the kernel, and technological processes. In food industries, color measurements are usually performed by means of automatic instruments that are rapid and safe, as alternatives to the chemical extraction methods. In this study, automatic measurements (CIE, color-space system L, a, b), water-saturated butanol (WSB), and HPLC determinations have been applied to evaluate the carotenoid content in whole meals and respective semolina samples produced from wheat cultivated in the years 2001 and 2002. In whole meals, total carotenoids, determined by HPLC, were about 3.0 microg/g (2001) and 3.5 microg/g (2002) calculated on dry weight (dw) and about 3.0 and 3.2 microg/g dw in corresponding semolina samples. The b values for the same period were 19.78 and 15.75, respectively, in raw materials and 20.03-21.67 in semolina. Results have confirmed lutein and beta-carotene as the main components mainly responsible for the yellow color in wheat grains. The ability of the index b to express natural dyeing was dependent on sample characteristics as demonstrated by the relationships found between this index and pigments, although the best correlation resulted between HPLC and WSB.

Chromatographic techniques were used in order to determine the modifications induced in egg, by a spray-drying treatment, on the native constituents and on the formation of cholesterol oxidation products (COPs) and early Maillard reaction products. The same powdered egg was stored for 12 months at room temperature and at 4 °C, and sampled at 1, 3, 6 and 12 months, respectively. The spray-drying treatment did not affect tocopherol or retinol composition, but caused a severe Maillard reaction (furosine increased from 15 to 500 mg/100 g protein) and accelerated cholesterol oxidation (the sum of COPs increased from 24 to 55 μg/g fat). Only slight modifications were registered in powdered egg stored at 4 °C. During storage at room temperature, however, COPs increased significantly (up to 167 μg/g fat), tocopherols and retinols decreased, whereas furosine was not significantly modified. Thus, furosine can be considered as a suitable technology marker, whereas COPs are important markers of the storage conditions.