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Fragmentation of the world's most intact forest landscapes will likely increase the severity of Human Wildlife Conflict (HWC). The way these threats affect top predators involves a series of complex social and ecological relationships, which are not completely understood, and thus require socio-ecological studies. The aim of this study is to examine the socio-ecological factors that affect the tolerance of local people towards the endangered Black-and-chestnut Eagle (Spizaetus isidori) in rural villages of the eastern Andes of Colombia. We conducted 172 interviews in 20 rural villages and estimated the proportion of forest cover (i.e. amount of remaining native forest), human density, the yearly losses of domestic fowl by the Black-and-chestnut Eagle, and socio-demographic parameters (i.e. economic activity, domestic fowl ownership, age, education, gender). The likelihood of villagers being tolerant towards the Black-and-chestnut Eagle decreased when the forest cover, human density and yearly losses of domestic fowl were higher. The integration of socio-ecological information allowed us to identify key areas with increasing HWC. Our findings were in consonance with the most recent evidence indicating that declines of top predator populations, as well as other vertebrate biodiversity, can be severely affected by the exacerbation of HWC on the border of intact native habitat and deforested areas.

In human-transformed landscapes, predators may feed on domesticated animals, and thus affect human well-being, creating negative perceptions and leading to conflict with people that can result in the persecution of the predator. We studied the factors that influence the perception of the Black-and-chestnut Eagle (Spizaetus isidori) in four rural Andean communities in Colombia and compiled historical and recent evidence on the persecution and other causes of mortality of this species in the country. We applied 267 questionnaires and conducted 16 interviews with local inhabitants, via visits to homes and schools in the surroundings of S. isidori nests. The perception of S. isidori by the inhabitants was largely negative and influenced by different socio-demographic factors such as gender, chicken (Gallus gallus) ownership, and chicken management. The records we obtained indicate that 47 eagles were shot, 16 were captured (three for illegal trafficking) and two were electrocuted on high-tension wires. The persecution of S. isidori occurs as retaliation or as a preventative measure against chicken predation, and is a significant cause of mortality of this species in Colombia. Effective conservation planning for S. isidori in Colombia needs to go further than the protected areas system, and include a socioecological perspective in conservation practices applied at landscapes scales that are dominated by people. Education programs and socioecological research, along with participatory work in local communities are key to the conservation of S. isidori in breeding territories. This approach can also prevent conflict over food resources-G. gallus and other poultry-that are shared by humans and S. isidori in rural landscapes.

Despite the key role that knowledge on breeding biology of Accipitriformes plays in their management and conservation, survey of the state-of-the-art and of information gaps spanning the entire Neotropics has not been done since 1995. We provide an updated classification of current knowledge about breeding biology of Neotropical Accipitridae and define the taxa that should be prioritized by future studies. We analyzed 440 publications produced since 1995 that reported breeding of 56 species. There is a persistent scarcity, or complete absence, of information about the nests of eight species, and about breeding behavior of another ten. Among these species, the largest gap of breeding data refers to the former “ Leucopternis ” hawks. Although 66% of the 56 evaluated species had some improvement on knowledge about their breeding traits, research still focus disproportionately on a few regions and species, and the scarcity of breeding data on many South American Accipitridae persists. We noted that analysis of records from both a citizen science digital database and museum egg collections significantly increased breeding information on some species, relative to recent literature. We created four groups of priority species for breeding biology studies, based on knowledge gaps and threat categories at global level. Group I (great scarcity of information, plus higher categories of threat): Leptodon forbesi , Cryptoleucopteryx plumbea , and Buteogallus lacernulatus ; Group II (breeding data have recently increased, but threat categories are high): Spizaetus isidori , Accipiter gundlachi , Buteogallus coronatus , Pseudastur occidentalis , and Buteo ventralis ; Group III (“Near Threatened” species with still scarce breeding information): Accipiter poliogaster , Accipiter collaris , Buteogallus aequinoctialis , and Pseudastur polionotus ; and Group IV (other priority cases): Buteo ridgwayi , Buteo galapagoensis , four eagles ( Morphnus guianensis , Harpia harpyja , Spizaetus ornatus and Buteogallus solitarius ), Leptodon cayanensis , Accipiter superciliosus , Buteogallus schistaceus , and the three Leucopternis hawks ( L. semiplumbeus , L. melanops and L. kuhli ). We also discuss the way that novel breeding data can show in what manners different species and populations are responding to environmental changes.

Although most birds show karyotypes with diploid number (2n) around 80, with few macrochromosomes and many microchromosomes pairs, some groups, such as the Accipitriformes, are characterized by a large karyotypic reorganization, which resulted in complements with low diploid numbers, and a smaller number of microchromosomal pairs when compared to other birds. Among Accipitriformes, the Accipitridae family is the most diverse and includes, among other subfamilies, the subfamily Aquilinae, composed of medium to large sized species. The Black-Hawk-Eagle (Spizaetus tyrannus-STY), found in South America, is a member of this subfamily. Available chromosome data for this species includes only conventional staining. Hence, in order to provide additional information on karyotype evolution process within this group, we performed comparative chromosome painting between S. tyrannus and Gallus gallus (GGA). Our results revealed that at least 29 fission-fusion events occurred in the STY karyotype, based on homology with GGA. Fissions occurred mainly in syntenic groups homologous to GGA1-GGA5. On the other hand, the majority of the microchromosomes were found fused to other chromosomal elements in STY, indicating these rearrangements played an important role in the reduction of the 2n to 68. Comparison with hybridization pattern of the Japanese-Mountain-Eagle (Nisaetus nipalensis orientalis), the only Aquilinae analyzed by comparative chromosome painting previously, did not reveal any synapomorphy that could represent a chromosome signature to this subfamily. Therefore, conclusions about karyotype evolution in Aquilinae require additional painting studies.

Carrapatos são aracnídeos hematófagos que parasitam animais domésticos e uma diversidade de animais silvestres nos ambientes terrestres do planeta. Este trabalho registra novas ocorrências de carrapatos duros em espécies de animais selvagens oriundos do interior do Estado de São Paulo, e encaminhados ao zoológico do município de Sorocaba. Durante os anos de 2014, 2015 e 2016, utilizando-se chaves taxonômicas, foram identificados ixodídeos em animais silvestres atendidos no parque zoológico. No total, foram coletados 675 espécimes de 14 espécies diferentes de carrapatos, de um réptil, de quatro aves e de 31 mamíferos, totalizando 17 espécies distintas de animais selvagens analisados. Este trabalho registra, pela primeira vez, adultos de Amblyomma sculptum parasitando cágadode- barbicha (Phrynops geoffroanus) e ema (Rhea americana), assim como ninfas dessa mesma espécie de carrapato em águia-cinzenta (Urubitinga coronata), além de ninfa de Amblyomma parkeri em gavião-pega-macaco (Spizaetus tyrannus) e ninfa de Amblyomma brasiliense em veado-catingueiro (Mazama gouazoubira) no Brasil. Neste trabalho, ainda foram encontrados vetores de riquetsioses do grupo da febre maculosa, tais como Amblyomma aureolatum, Amblyomma ovale e A. sculptum, demostrando, dessa forma, que os jardins zoológicos são eficientes centros de investigação, triagem e pesquisa para diversidade de carrapatos.

Although primate predation is rarely observed, a series of primate anti-predation strategies have been described. Energetic costs of such strategies can vary from high-cost mobbing, via less costly alarm calling, to low-cost furtive concealment. Here we report the anti-predation strategies of red-nosed cuxiú, Chiropotes albinasus, based on direct observations from four study sites in southeastern Brazilian Amazonia. Over a collective period of 1255 fieldwork hours, we observed nine direct interactions between raptors (all potential predators) and red-nosed cuxiús. Of these, one (11%) resulted in predation. Raptors involved were: Harpia harpyja (four events), Leucopternis sp. (two events), Spizaëtus tyrannus (one event), and unidentified large raptors (two events). Predation attempts occurred in flooded-forest and terra firme rainforest, were directed at both adult and non-adult cuxiús, and involved both adult and juvenile raptors. Anti-predation strategies adopted by the cuxiús included: (1) group defence and mobbing behaviour (two occasions), (2) dropping into dense sub-canopy (seven occasions), (3) alarm calling (eight occasions), and (4) fleeing to, and hiding in, dense vegetation (eight occasions). During each encounter at least two of these behaviours were recorded. These are the first published records of predation, predation attempts, and anti-predator behaviour involving red-nosed cuxiú.

We document the occurrence of a black hawk-eagle (Spizaetus tyrannus) in tropical rain forest in the Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve, Veracruz, Mexico, based on two sequence fragments of mitochondrial genes—cytochrome c oxidase I (DNA barcode) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide dehydrogenase 2—taken from a feather recovered from the field. This record is significant because it documents the occurrence of the species in an area with few reliable reports of its occurrence and illustrates the use of genetic identification to confirm the presence of a species in an area. Given that the black hawk-eagle is considered endangered in Mexico, the presence of this species in a natural area is important information relative to conservation efforts.

Neotropical hawk-eagles (Spizaetus spp.) are large forest raptors, having low population densities and high sensitivity to human disturbance. The three species of Brazil’s Atlantic forest (S. ornatus, S. melanoleucus, S. tyrannus) are threatened and little is known of many aspects of their biology, such habitat requirements, nesting behavior, and food habitats. Here I present data about the breeding biology, diet and behavior of the Ornate Hawk-Eagle (S. ornatus; OHE) and the Black-and-white Hawk-Eagle (S. melanoleucus; BWHW), and estimations of distribution - extent of occurrence (EOO) - and population sizes for the three hawk-eagles of the southern Atlantic Forest. I compiled data from nine years of field studies done in Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina combined with data from the literature (n = 191 records). I calculated the total amount of forest available for each species by GIS analyses and estimated population sizes based on species density data from the literature. The EOO was 123,551 km² for BWHE, 92,512 km² for OHE, and 67,824 km² for Black Hawk-Eagle (S. tyrannus; BHE). All species experienced more than 30% shrinkage in their historical distribution (before the year 2000). Forest remnants comprise 32% of BHE’s EOO and around 20% for other hawk-eagle species. Population sizes estimated for the southern region were 869 pairs for BHE (1,684 individuals), 1,532 pairs for BWHE (2,849 individuals), and 2,020 pairs for OHE (1,192 individuals). Population size estimates based only on forest patches larger than 10 km² were 542 pairs for BHE (RS = 48 pairs; SC = 494 pairs), 818 pairs for BWHE (RS = 67 pairs; SC = 751 pairs), and 1,178 pairs for OHE (RS = 67 pairs; SC = 1,111 pairs). I recorded displays and copulation of BWHE in July; the nest was built in an inaccessible, emergent tree in the hillside of a valley. Two nests of OHE were found in emergent trees (20 m and 30 m height) measured 138 x 115 x 45 cm and 132 x 100 x 100 cm; one egg was found (64.5 x 51.1 mm). Spizaetus seems to have very variable breeding cycles and begin breeding in the austral winter. I estimated egg laying occurs from July to September with fledging happening 3-4 months later. Diet of OHE consisted mostly of birds (90%) but also some mammals. Individuals of Spizaetus require large, unbroken forest areas to live, and my data reinforce the critical situation of hawk-eagles in southern Atlantic forest. All three species have lost habitat and their distributions have shrunk over the past decades. The estimated population sizes suggest concern and a need for conservation actions. Conservation of large raptors in the Atlantic Forest is not a simple task, requiring the need to preserve and limit the disturbance of remaining forests, establish connectivity among fragments and reduce direct threats to raptors (e.g., persecution). We also need to better understand the ecological requirements of hawk-eagles and establish public policies to protect both species and their habitats. RESUMO Os gaviões do gênero Spizaetus são espécies florestais de grande porte, que possuem baixas densidades populacionais e são sensíveis a alterações geradas pelo homem. As três espécies que ocorrem na Mata Atlântica (S. ornatus, S. melanoleucus, S. tyrannus) estão ameaçadas de extinção e o conhecimento sobre muitos aspectos de sua biologia, como habitat, comportamento reprodutivo e dieta, são pouco conhecidos. Neste trabalho eu apresento dados sobre a biologia reprodutiva, dieta e comportamento do gavião-de-penacho (S. ornatus, SORN) e do gavião-pato (S. melanolecus, SMEL), bem como estimativas da distribuição - extensão de ocorrência (EOO) - e estimativas de tamanho populacional para as três espécies de Spizaetus na porção sul da Mata Atlântica. Foram compilados os registros das três espécies oriundos de nove anos de estudos realizados no Rio Grande do Sul e em Santa Catarina e somados com registros da literatura (n = 191 registros). O total de remanescente de área florestal na área de distribuição de cada espécie foi calculado por análise espacial (SIG). O tamanho das populações foi estimado para cada espécie utilizando dados de tamanho de território e densidade de indivíduos existentes na literatura. A EOO resultante foi 123.551 km² para SMEL, 92.512 km² para SORN e 67.824 km² para o gavião-pega-macaco (S. tyrannus, STYR). A área de distribuição atual das três espécies apresentou uma redução superior a 30% em relação à distribuição histórica (anterior ao ano 2000). Os remanescentes florestais representaram 32% da EOO de STYR e cerca de 20% da EOO de SMEL e SORN. As populações estimadas foram 869 pares para STYR (1.684 indivíduos), 1.532 pares para SMEL (2.849 ind.), e 2.020 pares para SORN (1.192 ind.). Considerando apenas remanescentes florestais com mais de 10 km², as estimativas resultaram em 542 pares para STYR (RS = 48 pares; SC = 494 pares), 818 pares para SMEL (RS = 67 pares; SC = 751 pares), e 1.178 pares para SORN (RS = 67 pares; SC = 1.111 pares). Em julho/2009 eu observei um ninho de gavião-pato, construído em uma árvore emergente na encosta do vale do rio Vacas Gordas e que não pode ser acessado. Comportamento de corte e cópula foi observado na ocasião. Eu encontrei dois ninhos de gavião-de-penacho, construídos em árvores emergentes (20 e 30 metros de altura) que mediram 138 x 115 x 45 cm e 132 x 100 x 100 cm; um ninho continha um ovo (64,5 x 51,1 mm). Indivíduos do gênero Spizaetus aparentam ter um ciclo reprodutivo flexível, iniciando a reprodução durante o inverno austral. A postura foi estimada ocorrendo entre julho e setembro. A saída do filhote do ninho ocorre cerca de 3-4 meses após a postura. O gavião-de penacho consumiu principalmente aves (90%) e mamíferos. Os gaviões do gênero Spizaetus necessitam de grandes áreas de floresta preservada e as estimativas aqui apresentadas reforçam a situação crítica das populações na porção sul da Mata Atlântica. As três espécies apresentaram redução nas áreas de distribuição, com acentuada perda de habitat nas últimas décadas. Os tamanhos populacionais estimados atingiram limiares de risco, que enquadram as espécies nas categorias de ameaça de extinção da IUCN. A conservação de grandes gaviões florestais na Mata Atlântica não é algo simples; é preciso, além de preservar os remanescentes florestais existentes, reduzir a degradação dos mesmos e estabelecer conectividade entre os fragmentos. Além disso, é necessário que as ameaças diretas às aves de rapina sejam controladas (e.g., caça furtiva). Também é urgente que entendamos melhor as necessidades ecológicas estas espécies e que se estabeleçam políticas públicas para a proteção tanto das aves de rapinas quanto de seus habitats.

Recent theoretical analyses have shown that anti-predator benefits in social groups depend on the attack distance of the predator relative to prey spacing within groups. Both attack distance and prey spacing depend on the ability of predator and prey to detect each other. Previous work on forest predators suggest that many depend on surprise to ambush their prey, thus we test the hypothesis that detection distances by eagles of monkeys are greater than vice versa, despite the supposed advantages of sociality in facilitating detection of predators by prey. We used field experiments in the wild to assess detection distances of both raptor predators and their natural monkey prey. Live hawk-eagles (Spizaetus), under rehabilitation from injury, were placed tethered to perches in the home ranges of two habituated wild study groups of tufted capuchin monkeys (Cebus (apella) nigritus) in Iguazú National Park, Argentina. Analysis of video footage of the eagles during the approach of capuchin monkey groups allowed us to define the first moment of behaviours indicating detection by the eagle; detection behaviours of the monkeys near the eagle were recorded observationally by field assistants. The hawk-eagles always detected the monkeys (average distance 31.9 m) before the monkeys detected the predators (average distance 9.4 m). Predators always initially detected one or two spatially-peripheral individuals of the prey group. Distance of detection by the predators (and thus maximum possible attack distances) was significantly less than the prey group spread of 42–57 m. The short detection (and consequent short attack) distances by eagles of monkey prey in this habitat suggests that early warning of attacking eagles may not be a primary benefit of grouping in this case.

In anthropogenically transformed habitats, some birds of prey feed on domestic animals, triggering conflict between people and predators. To manage this conflict, it is important to understand the ecological circumstances associated with the predation of domestic animals. We studied variation in the diet of the endangered Black-and-chestnut Eagle ( Spizaetus isidori) in four different Andean landscapes in Colombia. We analyzed 261 prey items brought to five S. isidori nests during the period when the nestlings were being raised. Domestic fowl are relatively frequent prey in the diet of S. isidori in three of the four localities studied (frequency: 9.3%–36%), representing 12.2% to 37.1% of the total biomass of prey consumed. In terms of biomass, in Ciudad Bolívar, Jardín, and Campohermoso, the sites with the greatest forest cover, mammals were the most important prey in the diet of S. isidori, while in Gachalá, the most deforested site, domestic fowl were the most important prey. We recommend that forest cover be maintained and increased to provide habitat for wild prey in the breeding territories of S. isidori using the landscape management tools best suited to the specific socioecological contexts of this eagle’s territories. We also suggest that the management of domestic fowl under controlled conditions or the use of some deterrent be examined as strategies to mitigate or prevent conflict between people and S. isidori. Socioecological research and educational programs should be carried out to increase the public’s understanding of this eagle and its benefits to the ecosystem.

Little is known about the current status of raptor populations in tropical Mexico. From 2008 to 2010 we studied resident diurnal raptors in the region of Los Tuxtlas, Veracruz. We surveyed forest habitats with different levels of conservation to confirm current raptor presence and to measure relative abundance. We found only 18 of the 24 species of resident raptors reported in the literature still present. Of the family Accipitridae, Gray-lined Hawk (Buteo nitidus) was the most abundant species, with an average rate of 0.20 individuals/km covered. Of the Falconidae, Crested Caracara (Caracara cheriway) was the most abundant, with 0.09 individuals/km. Species associated with forest habitats such as White Hawk (Pseudastur albicollis), Ornate Hawk-Eagle (Spizaetus ornatus), Black Hawk-Eagle (Spizaetus tyrannus), and Barred Forest-Falcon (Micrastur ruficollis) were observed infrequently, and exclusively in well preserved fragments of tropical rainforest and cloud forest. We believe that the main caus...

Extralimital and extinct species of birds and mammals with either tropical or western affinities are characteristic of numerous Florida Pliocene and Pleistocene vertebrate faunas. These sites document nonanalog or disharmonious faunas, recording the association of certain genera or species that are no longer sympatric, in particular taxa now restricted to drier habitats in western North America or tropical habitats in Middle America occurring together with species still found in Florida and the southeastern United States. Extralimital or extinct taxa of western origin in Florida Plio-Pleistocene nonanalog faunas include: the mammals Antrozous , Lepus , Spermophilus , Thomomys , and Baiomys ; and the birds Gymnogyps californianus , Teratornis merriami , Aquila chrysaetos , Tympanuchus cupido , two species of Glaucidium , and Pica pica . A large influx of tropical species occurred in Florida late Blancan and early Irvingtonian sites, primarily consisting of taxa of South American origin involved in the Great American Biotic Interchange. Besides large Interchange mammals, other mammals with tropical affinities now extinct or extralimital to Florida include: the bats Desmodus archaeodaptes , Desmodus stocki , Mormoops megalophylla, Pteronotus pristinus , and Eumops underwoodi , the carnivores Leopardus pardalis , Leopardus wiedii , Panthera onca , two species of Conepatus , and Tremarctos floridanus , and the peccary Pecari . Tropical birds in Florida Plio-Pleistocene faunas include the extralimital Tachybaptus dominicus , Laterallus exilis , Jacana spinosa , Buteogallus urubitinga , Milvago chimachima , Vanellus chilensis , and Ceryle torquata ; as well as several extinct species including Titanis walleri , a chachalaca (Family Cracidae), Amplibuteo concordatus , Spizaetus grinnelli , and Cremaster tytthus . These tropical and western taxa indicate the presence of biogeographic corridors during Plio-Pleistocene glacial intervals that connected the Florida peninsula to both the arid western United States and tropical Middle America. A mosaic of desert grassland and savanna habitats intermixed with wetlands apparently extended eastward from the arid Southwest through Texas and along a southeastern corridor to the Florida peninsula. A Gulf Coast savanna corridor supporting savanna and thorn scrub habitats probably existed during glacial low sea level stands on the exposed continental shelf and coastal plain along the northern margin of the Gulf of Mexico, connecting the Florida peninsula with Mexico and Central America. The occurrence of both tropical and western taxa in some of the same faunas strongly indicates that these distributional patterns were contemporaneous and corresponded to climatic conditions and vegetational associations that no longer exist in Florida.

Summary. 1 The Asiatic species of the genus Spizaetus are reviewed. A new subspecies, S. nams stresemanni, is described from Nias Island. 2 There is evidence, as yet inconclusive, that three species replace one another geographically on the West Sumatran Islands, only one species occurring on any one island.

Lagoa Santa, a small town in southeastern Brazil where naturalist Peter Lund lived, is regarded nowadays as an important historical site for the biological sciences. From 1847 to 1855, J.T. Reinhardt, hosted by Lund, collected 343 bird species. This material is an outstanding reference for many modern ornithological studies. The present paper reports the occurrence of some rare and threatened birds for the region of Lagoa Santa between 1998 and 2005. In this account I list the Rusty-margined Guan Penelope superciliaris Temminck, 1815; the Roseate Spoonbill Platalea ajaja Linnaeus, 1758; the Maguari Stork Ciconia maguari (Gmelin, 1789); the Wood Stork Mycteria americana Linnaeus, 1758; the Black Hawk-eagle Spizaetus tyrannus (Wied, 1820) and the Turquoise-fronted Parrot Amazona aestiva (Linnaeus, 1758). It is also reported the southernmost record for the Blue-and-yellow Macaw Ara ararauna (Linnaeus, 1758) and the range extension of the Crowned Slaty flycatcher Griseotyrannus aurantioatrocristatus (d'Orbigny and Lafresnaye, 1837). These data can be used as a baseline for studies of colonization and extinction.

The phylogenetic relationships within the New and Old World hawk-eagle assemblage (genus Spizaetus; Aves: Accipitridae) were studied using mitochondrial DNA sequences (cytochrome b, control region). Eighty-four specimens representing all Spizaetus species and almost all currently distinguished subspecies as well as 11 other booted and non-booted eagle genera from the Neotropics, Africa, Eurasia, South Asia and Australasia (Oroaetus, Harpia, Morphnus, Lophaetus, Stephanoaetus, Hieraaetus, Aquila, Ictinaetus, Spilornis, Pithecophaga, Harpyopsis) were investigated. Although the basal branching could not be resolved, our investigations clearly indicate that hawk-eagles represent a paraphyletic assemblage and thus their external similarities have to be ascribed to convergent evolution. The New World taxa of Spizaetus cluster together, but the South American species Oroaetus isidori appears embedded within this clade. The taxa from Southeast to East Asia form a clearly separated monophyletic group. It is further divided into two subgroups, which are also characterized by distinct juvenile plumage patterns. Spizaetus africanus, the only African representative of the genus, is found in a mixed cluster consisting of members of the genera Aquila and Hieraaetus. These findings are in accordance with previous studies of other authors based on various molecular markers and different sets of taxa, but disagree with current taxonomy. Therefore, we suggest assigning the species of the genus Spizaetus to three different genera: (1) Spizaetus (including Oroaetus isidori) in Central and South America and (2) Nisaetus for the Southeast to East Asian group. (3) The African taxon (Spizaetus africanus) is discussed to be included into the genus Aquila. Furthermore, we propose to use the former genus name Lophotriorchis Sharpe, 1874, for the monotypic species Hieraaetus kienerii, which has an isolated phylogenetic position.

In field studies between 2002 and 2004 in southern Brazil, we recorded antipredatory behaviors (N=9) of brown howlers (Alouatta guariba clamitans) under attack by the black hawk-eagle (Spizaetus tyrannus). We observed 2 types of behavioral responses: the descent to the understory followed by the dispersion of the group and immobility and silence. Brown howlers displayed behaviors specific to evading aerial predators, which are similar to the ones in other Neotropical primates.

A molecular phylogeny of the Spizaetus cirrhatus complex is presented in this study, based on two sections of the mitochondrial genome: partial sequences of the cytochrome b gene and of the control region (CR). The topologies derived from the two sequences are in agreement. Within S. cirrhatus distances are rather low (0–1.5% in cytochrome b). Among the cirrhatus subspecies the island taxa floris, vanheurni and andamanensis form distinct haplogroups in the CR trees, conforming to the earlier subspecific divisions which were based on morphological characters. On the other hand, the most widespread subspecies, limnaeetus, does not represent a monophyletic group in the gene trees and its haplogroups do not cluster according to geographic affinities. An unambiguous resolution of relationships among haplotypes and haplogroups, respectively, was not achieved, suggesting a more recent radiation of this group of hawk-eagles in the course of the last ice ages. Concerning the outgroup taxa Spizaetus philippensis and Spizaetus lanceolatus, our data indicate a clear genetic distinction between the two subspecies S. p. philippensis and S. p. pinskeri, suggesting that they should be treated as distinct species. Yet the phylogenetic relationships of the three outgroup taxa with respect to S. cirrhatus are ambiguous in our trees. The taxonomic consequences of applying different species concepts (BSC, PSC) are discussed. The species concept chosen would result in different conservation strategies.

We present a phylogeny of all booted eagles (38 extant and one extinct species) based on analysis of published sequences from seven loci. We find molecular support for five major clades within the booted eagles: Nisaetus (10 species), Spizaetus (4 species), Clanga (3 species), Hieraaetus (6 species) and Aquila (11 species), requiring generic changes for 14 taxa. Additionally, we recommend that the Long-crested Eagle (Lophaetus occipitalis) and the Black Eagle (Ictinaetus malaiensis) remain in their monotypic genera, due to their distinctive morphology. We apply the recently resurrected genus Clanga for the spotted eagles (previously Aquila spp.) to resolve the paraphyly of the genus Aquila such that the clade including the Booted Eagle (H. pennatus), Little Eagle (H. morphnoides), Pygmy Eagle (H. weiskei), Ayres’s Eagle (H. ayresii) and Wahlberg’s Eagle (H. wahlbergi) can remain in the genus Hieraaetus. The Rufous-bellied Eagle should be retained in the genus Lophotriorchis. For consistency in English names, we recommend that the term “hawk-eagles” be used only for the species in the genera Nisaetus and Spizaetus. We suggest following new or modified English names: Cassin’s Eagle (Aquila africana), Bonaparte’s Eagle (A. spilogaster), Ayres’s Eagle (Hieraaetus ayresii), and Black-and-chestnut Hawk-Eagle (Spizaetus isidori). Molecular phylogeny, morphology, Nisaetus, Spizaetus, Clanga, Hieraaetus, Aquila, Oroaetus, Spizastur, Lophotriorchis © 2017 Magnolia Press. Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0

Five species of diurnal primates in the Kibale Forest of western Uganda— red colobus (Colobus badius),black- and- white colobus (Colobus guereza),redtail monkeys (Cercopithecus ascanius),blue monkeys (Cercopithecus mitis),mangabeys (Cercocebus albigena)-often associate in mixed- species groups that vary in size and composition from day to day. Across this range of species, we found no consistent effect of association on feeding rate. In addition, there is no systematic difference between the species- specific individual feeding rates when animals were in mixed- species groups feeding in a specific tree on one day and when individuals of one of the same species were feeding in the same individual tree on a subsequent day. If associating in a mixed- species group lowers the risk of predation, one might expect that the number of vigilant events would decrease in mixed- species groups. However, the only species to exhibit a consistent decrease in vigilant behavior when in association was the red colobus. Redtail monkeys were more vigilant when in association. We predicted that the density and distribution of food resources would both constrain the frequency of association and the size of mixed- species groups. Based on 22 months of data on food resources and bimonthly censuses, we found no relationship between the frequency of association (except mangabeys) or mean mixed- species group size and the density and distribution of food resources for all species. Finally, we examined the behavior of the monkeys in and out of association before and after the playback of a crowned hawk eagle call (Spizaetus coronatus),a known predator. When more species were in association, the amount of time they spent being vigilant following the playback was greater and the response more intense than when fewer species were in association or when the group was alone. The results of this study illustrate that the nature of the costs and benefits of polyspecific associations for these different monkey species are complex and vary from species to species.

Among the Accipitridae family, the genus Spizaetus is included in the group of the Booted Eagles (Griffiths et al., 2007; Haring et al., 2007), which according to old taxonomic classifications, was the most diverse, with 22 species that inhabited the tropical forests of the New and the Old World (Brown and Amadon 1968, del Hoyo et al. 1994, Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001). Most specimens of this taxon are medium sized (1,100-1,600g), but there are some exceptions which are smaller (S.nanus, 510-610g) or larger (S.nipalensis, 2,500-3,500g) (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001). The first description of the genus Spizaetus was introduced by Vieillot in 1816, when he described the taxon S. ornatus (Haring et al. 2007). This species, along with S.tyrannus, is found in the neotropical region, and both are divided into two subspecies (Brown and Amadon 1968, Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001). Only one species occurs in the African continent, while most of the species of this genus are distributed throughout Southeast Asia (Haring et al. 2007). However, the grouping of this genus based on comparisons of the external morphology and feather patterns, according to traditional taxonomy, was refuted by a recent classification based on genetic studies (Haring et al. 2007). These authors consider the genus as paraphyletic, segregating the taxon into three distinct groups (Neotropical, African and Asian): while the neotropical representatives maintained the genus name due to Vieillot’s first classification (Spizaetus ornatus, 1816); the African representative was inserted in the genus Aquila and the Asian ones renamed as Nisaetus.

The Black Hawk-Eagle Spizaetus tyrannus (Wied, 1820) is a typical forest raptor classified as an endangered species in the state of Minas Gerais, southeast Brazil. Threats include deforestation and fragmentation of forest areas. Although the present investigation points 16 new records of the species in the Quadrilátero Ferrífero, it is noteworthy that the advance of mining activity and expansion of forestry of Eucalyptus spp. in this region are subtracting the forest remnants and increasingly reducing available habitats for this predator inside its limits.

The predation pressure put on primates by diurnal birds of prey differs greatly between continents. Africa and South America have specialist raptors (e.g. crowned hawk-eagle Stephanoaetus coronatus and harpy eagle Harpia harpyja) whereas in Asia the only such specialist’s (Philippine eagle Pithecophaga jefferyi) distribution is largely allopatric with primates. The almost universal absence of polyspecific groups in Asia (common in Africa and South America) may indicate reduced predation pressure. As such there is almost no information on predation pressures on primates in Asia by raptors. Here we report successful predation of a juvenile banded langur Presbytis femoralis (~2 kg) by a changeable hawk-eagle Spizaetus cirrhatus. The troop that was attacked displayed no signs of being alarmed, and no calls were made before the event. We argue that in insular Southeast Asia, especially, large Spizaetus hawk-eagles (~2 kg) are significant predators of arboreal colobines. Using data on the relative size of sympatric Spizaetus hawk-eagles and colobines we make predictions on where geographically we can expect the highest predation pressure (Thai–Malay Peninsula) and which colobines are least (Nasalis larvatus, Trachypithecus auratus, P. thomasi) and most (P. femoralis, T. cristatus) affected.

A single adult Cassin's hawk-eagle Spizaetus africanus was sighted on five occasions over three years in a highland forest in the Udzungwa Mountains, the first ever record of this species in Tanzania. This discovery has potentially significant biogeographical implications, strengthening ancient links between the forests of the Udzungwa Mountains and the Guineo-Congolian forests of central Africa. Journal of East African Natural History Vol. 96 (2) 2007 pp. 187-192

The phylogeny of the tribe Aquilini (eagles with fully feathered tarsi) was investigated using 4.2 kb of DNA sequence of one mitochondrial (cyt b) and three nuclear loci (RAG-1 coding region, LDH intron 3, and adenylate-kinase intron 5). Phylogenetic signal was highly congruent and complementary between mtDNA and nuclear genes. In addition to single-nucleotide variation, shared deletions in nuclear introns supported one basal and two peripheral clades within the Aquilini. Monophyly of the Aquilini relative to other birds of prey was confirmed. However, all polytypic genera within the tribe, Spizaetus, Aquila, Hieraaetus, turned out to be non-monophyletic. Old World Spizaetus and Stephanoaetus together appear to be the sister group of the rest of the Aquilini. Spizastur melanoleucus and Oroaetus isidori are nested among the New World Spizaetus species and should be merged with that genus. The Old World 'Spizaetus' species should be assigned to the genus Nisaetus (Hodgson, 1836). The sister species of the two spotted eagles (Aquila clanga and Aquila pomarina) is the African Long-crested Eagle (Lophaetus occipitalis). Hieraaetus fasciatus/spilogaster are closest to Aquila verreauxii and should be merged with that genus. Wahlberg's Eagle H. wahlbergi, formerly placed in Aquila, is part of a clade including three small Hieraaetus species (pennatus, ayresii, and morphnoides). The Martial Eagle (Polemaetus bellicosus) is the sister species of the Aquila/Hieraaetus/Lophaetus clade. Basal relationships within this clade remained unresolved. Parsimony reconstruction of the evolution of plumage pattern within Aquilini suggests that: (1) transverse barring of parts of the body plumage was lost in the Palearctic Aquila-Hieraaetus clade, (2) pale underparts in adult plumage evolved three times independently, and (3) dimorphic adult plumage is a derived character of the small-bodied Hieraaetus clade.

Species delimitation is fundamental to many areas of biology, and in cases where taxonomic status has not been sufficiently clarified the ramifications can be as serious as extinction due to the failure to implement conservation measures. Since 1931, the Mountain Hawk Eagle Nisaetus (Spizaetus) nipalensis Hodgson has included the allopatric Sri Lankan and southern Indian taxon N. kelaarti (Legge) as a subspecies, and its taxonomic status has not been re-evaluated. We found that N. kelaarti differs considerably from N. nipalensis in its relatively much larger bill and claws and short primary projection, and that it also differs consistently in numerous plumage characters and other mensural characters. Its vocalizations differ distinctly, and an earlier study found a moderate degree of genetic differentiation (4.4% in cyt b and 3.1% in CR) from N. nipalensis. The available evidence thus strongly and unambiguously supports the specific distinctness of N. kelaarti.