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Women employed in the New York paper box industry in 1913–1914 earned about 60% of what men did. This paper employs the human capital framework to analyze the wage differential due to productivity related factors versus discriminatory nepotism towards men. Years of schooling, years of experience in the paper box trade, and legislative restrictions on working hours of women account for virtually all of the observed wage differential, both for all men and women in the paper box industry, and between the skilled occupations of cutters and strippers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Female empowerment can promote gender equality and realize women's comprehensive development, while the Internet has opened up an effective channel for female empowerment. Methods: Given the relative lack of women's rights in rural China and the rapid Internet development, this paper, based on the 2021 China Comprehensive Social Survey data, first analyses the effect of Internet embeddedness on rural women's non-farm employment using the Probit model. Then, it uses the mediation effect model to explore the role of women's rights perception in the mechanism between Internet embeddedness and women's non-farm employment. Finally, based on age and regional differences, we also analyze the impact of Internet embeddedness on female non-farm employment. Results: The paper draws the following conclusions: (1) Internet embedding can promote female non-farm employment, and the probability of female non-farm employment is 3.71% for each degree of Internet embedding. (2) Internet embedding can enhance women's perception of their rights and thus promote women's non-farm employment. (3) Internet embedding can enhance the perception of rights of young rural women, which can promote their nonfarm employment. However, the influence of internet embedding on middle-aged women's perception of rights is not significant. (4) Internet embedding in the eastern region can enhance women's perception of rights and realize women's non-farm employment; on the contrary, in the central and western regions, Internet embedding cannot enhance rural women's perception of rights. Discussion: Therefore, this paper proposes to release further the impact of the Internet in promoting rural women's non-farm employment to improve the deprivation of rural women's rights and promote gender equality and women's comprehensive development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the demographic dividend disappearing, the key to achieving high-quality development in China is to promote full employment of the workforce. Women are a significant group in the job market, but they frequently face greater pressure and higher employment thresholds. Ensuring high-quality employment for women will be one of the most important tasks in the future. Based on the China Family Panel Studies data, this paper uses two-way fixed effects models, causal stepwise regression analysis, and structural equation models to study the impact of digital transformation of households on female employment and how it works. The empirical results show that digital transformation of households significantly promotes female employment. For low-security employment and high-security employment, the promotion effect of digital transformation is significant. Further mechanism analysis shows that digital transformation of households mainly increases women's human capital, improves their search for information, and stimulates improvements in social skills, thus effectively eliminating employment-related gender discrimination and ultimately promoting women's employment. This paper can provide a significant reference for alleviating female employment pressure, promoting full employment, and achieving high-quality development in the context of digital transformation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on China Household Finance Survey (CHFS) data from 2019, this paper explores the impact of the residential pattern of coresidence with parents on the labor market performance of women in married families with minor children. The study finds that coresidence with parents significantly increases the possibility of female labor market participation and positively impacts women's employment income. To overcome the potential endogeneity problem of residential patterns, this paper uses the Heckman two-step method and the conditional mixed process estimation method (CMP method) for regression, and the conclusions remain robust. The mechanism analysis shows that coresidence with parents has both grandchild care and elderly care factors, which have a spillover effect and a crowding-out effect on female labor market performance, respectively. Since the spillover effect is more significant than the crowding-out effect, coresidence with parents positively impacts women's labor market performance. The heterogeneity analysis shows that in terms of labor force participation rate, coresidence with parents has a more significant impact on women in families with children aged 0–6, women in families without boys, and women in families with employed husbands. In terms of income, coresidence with parents has a more significant impact on women in families with employed husbands. This study provides a new perspective for promoting female labor market performance and can serve as a reference for future policy formulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines the pattern of female labour force participation since the 2000s in South Asia (SA) and the Latin America and Caribbean (LAC) countries. The objectives of the paper are twofold: first, to identify the factors that have led to changes in the patterns of female labour force participation in the two fastest-growing regions of SA and LAC and compare the underlying reasons behind the disparate trends; and second, to explore the policies appropriate for the two regions that can raise female labour force participation. From descriptive statistics and a review of existing research on gender inequality in employment in the two regions, the paper finds that a plethora of factors shape the extent of gender inequality in labour force participation. However, each of the factors has different roles and importance in the two regions, debunking any particular relationship pattern between economic growth and the gender gap in labour force participation. Hence, it is imperative to formulate multipronged, country- and region-specific policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The promotion of fuller and higher-quality employment is a prime task for China's high-quality development. Both employment security (ES) and employment quality (EQ) need to be improved for women who, as an essential part of labor force, have long been faced with high stress and employment threshold. The role of digital transformation in promoting women's employment through reducing the cost of job information search is analyzed with the Job Search Theory in this paper. By using China Household Finance Survey (CHFS) data, this research found that digital transformation of households in China contributes to women's employment significantly, raises the number and proportion of female family members in employment, and enhances women' access to medical care insurance, endowment insurance, unemployment insurance, housing fund and overtime pay. Digital transformation can improve the information accessibility of households, and the reduction in information asymmetries benefits women's employment, as indicated by the mechanism analysis. The positive impact of digital transformation is more pronounced for households in Central China, Western China and provinces with high unemployment rates, as well as those supporting the elderly and without housing. This paper will serve as a reference to fuel high-quality employment and reduce difficulties for women in the context of digital transformation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: This paper assesses the impact of this program on the rural women's employment opportunities using data from the 2015 round of the household's living standard survey (HLSS) of Côte d'Ivoire. Design/methodology/approach: In 2013, in order to improve the living conditions of the rural population, the Ivorian government launched the National Program for rural electrification (PRONER) to electrify all localities with more than 500 inhabitants. Findings: The results show that PRONER, while reducing the time allocated to performing household chores, increases women's employment through the reallocation of time to full-time paid work in the agricultural and non-agricultural sectors. The authors also find that the allocation of men's time is not affected by this programme. A possible mechanism that would explain such a pro-women effect is the labour-saving technology introduced to home production as an effect of the reform. Research limitations/implications: As a limitation, it is important to note that these results were obtained in the specific context of PRONER in Côte d'Ivoire and are not necessarily applicable to rural electrification programmes in other contexts. Furthermore, the choice of other indicators to measure women's empowerment is limited by the quality of the data available. It would be interesting for future research to extend this analysis to include other aspects of women's empowerment and household welfare. Originality/value: This paper is the first to the author's knowledge to apply a robust econometric method by combining an inverse probability weighted regression adjustment model with Heckman sample selection method to access a robust causal effect of the PRONER in Côte d'Ivoire. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The content of this abstract is a reaction to the various articles appearing in this special section of the Journal of Psychology in Africa with a focus on the Psychology of Poverty in African countries. The articles deal with the psychology of poverty from different perspectives, as they impact on African children, men and women. Some of the topics covered are focussed on poverty and education, poverty and employment, poverty and marital relationship, poverty in relationship to men and women who are friends on intimate basis. What is clear from the various presentations is that poverty is obviously affecting Africans adversely and presents a serious challenge to men and women. Such a serious challenge must be addressed by all those concerned so that Africans can lead a better life than that which they have been sentenced by poverty. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Women employment in India neither resonate with economic growth and nor with their rising educational levels. Women work participation (WWPR) rather is on a consistent decline and this is observed more strikingly in its rural areas. The Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) of 2017-18, shows only 16.5 per cent women are engaged in the workforce at the National level which is in stark contrast to their male counterparts (52.1 per cent). The declining WWPR has also impacted women's employment composition. The present paper attempts to study the level of women work participation and their status of employment along with industry sections at national level and in state of Haryana in particular. The study is based on various rounds of Employment Unemployment Survey, conducted by National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO). The result shows that women work participation in the state of Haryana is very low (9.5 per cent, PLFS, 2017-18). The employment status of women has also undergone change with decline in self- employment over a period of 3 decades. The rise in casual labour employment status of rural women is a cause of concern. In urban areas, the decline in self-employment is coupled with fluctuations in regular and casual work, reflecting a complex interplay between job availability and women's economic roles. The spatial variations and underlying causes have also been discussed for 2017-18. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gender equality in the labor market remains a difficult challenge in Latin America and recent literature shows that child penalties play an important role in explaining these gaps. While policies to address gaps related to parenthood were introduced in recent decades, evidence of its effects is still scarce. This paper presents comparable evidence on the adoption of family leaves legislation in 15 Latin American countries and discusses its relationship with the evolution of the gender gaps in the labor market and the prevailing gender norms. We document that from 2000 to 2019 almost all countries increased the weeks covered by maternity, paternity, or parental leaves. Following a similar approach to that of Olivetti and Petrongolo (2017), we exploit the variations over time and control for country and year-fixed effects to study the relationship between the extension of family leaves and women's outcomes. We find that these policies are successful in increasing female employment and reducing employment gaps in countries departing from a worse situation in terms of leave coverage or with more traditional perceptions of gender roles. On the other hand, for countries with more egalitarian gender perceptions, our results suggest that the extension of family leaves contributes to reduce the income gaps. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper studies new changes in elderly care in urban areas against the background of population aging with data from the China Social Survey 2021. The study revealed that urban families mainly adopt two models—the "living-with-the-elderly" model and the "providing-economic-support" model—and that there is a substitution effect between the two models. Regarding individual characteristics, younger individuals with higher education levels tend to use the providing-economic-support model instead of the living-with-the-elderly model. In terms of family features, the greater the number of underage children in a family is, the greater the probability of giving economic support and the lower the probability of living with elderly people, reflecting a family resource allocation model centered on "children". This paper further explores the impact of urban female employment on family care model choice and finds that employed women are more inclined to use economic support instead of living with elderly people. The study suggested that the government should gradually improve the public resource support system, promote community service infrastructure development, and expand professional service supply capabilities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction and objectives: Before the COVID-19 pandemic, Serbia belonged to the group of post-transition countries that were determined to reduce gender inequalities in the labour market through an improved institutional framework and measures to promote women's employment. However, the gender wage gap remains significant. This paper uses data from the Survey on Income and Living Conditions to examine the gender wage gap in Serbia. Methods: The estimates of the stochastic frontier model were obtained using the maximum likelihood estimation method. Results: The results indicate a statistically significant gender wage gap, showing that women on average have a log hourly wage 0.109 and 0.098 lower than men in 2019 and 2020, respectively. The labour market shows similar efficiency of employees. Conclusion: It is predicted that women are paid less than men, even after controlling for the observed factors. Comparing this with the results of previous studies, it can be concluded that the COVID-19 pandemic has contributed to a slight worsening of gender inequalities in the Serbian labour market. Implications and research limitation: Women's financial vulnerability can be exacerbated by leaving the workforce, taking up part-time employment or working in a job with lower benefits. The latter position of women in the labour market or their recognition as potential beneficiaries by pension and social security systems are two ways in which this has practical implications for the public policy. Similar research using data from the post-COVID-19 period would be of great value in assessing changes in women's position in the labour market. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyzes the occupational status and distribution of free women in the antebellum USA. It considers both their reported and unreported (imputed) occupations, using the 1/100 microdata files from the 1860 Census of Population, the only Census that asked free women's occupations while slavery was legal. After developing and testing the model based on economic and demographic variables used to explain whether a free woman has an occupation, analyses are conducted comparing their occupational distribution to free men, along with analyses among women by marital status, nativity, and the prevalence of slavery. This paper highlights the importance of including unreported family workers in discussions of free female labor market contributions, as their inclusion dramatically shifts the overall female labor force participation rate, as well as their occupational distribution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article discusses the importance of the new economy in Africa and its potential to provide employment opportunities for the growing population. The new economy, which includes the knowledge economy, relies on human capital such as education, intellectual services, and information and communication technology (ICT) to drive economic development. The article presents nine selected papers that contribute to the understanding of the new economy's impact on employment in Africa. These papers cover topics such as ICT adoption and employment, creativity and innovation, job creation and satisfaction, and institutional and economic growth perspectives. The findings highlight the importance of infrastructure, digital financial services, job satisfaction, and supportive organizational practices in promoting employment and career advancement. The article concludes by emphasizing the need for interdisciplinary research and robust policies to reduce unemployment and promote inclusion in Africa. [Extracted from the article]

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to identify expectations of women active in the labor market from the generation perspective (Generations X, Y, Z). Design/methodology/approach: The presented research comprises results of pilot studies carried out among women in active employment in the contemporary labor market representing the following generations: X, Y and Z, and forms part of a larger research project. The pilot study used an original online survey questionnaire (CAWI) made available to respondents via the survio.com portal. The analyzes were performed using Statistica version 14.0. Findings: The research shows that there exist differences in terms of expectations regarding work among women. The older generation of women focuses on keeping their current jobs, while the younger generations (Y, Z) focus on finding their own professional path. The research shows how much the salary, the type of contract and benefits offered by employers are important among employees, no matter to which generation they belong. Research limitations/implications: The results presented in this paper comprise data collected during pilot studies. They are a contribution to further research in the presented area. Practical implications: The research shows that employers need to develop personalized job offers for specific groups of employees (taking into account their generational affiliation, seniority, experience, stage of professional development). Originality/value: The article focuses on identifying current needs and expectations among women in active employment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Istanbul Commerce University Journal of Social Sciences / İstanbul Ticaret Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi is the property of Istanbul Commerce University Journal of Social Sciences and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This paper aims to provide empirical evidence of the role of Social Entrepreneurship (SE) in bridging the Gender Gap. The unprecedented rise in the social and economic issues in developing countries, like Pakistan, has fostered efforts to achieve a new organizational model under SE to counter the said issues. SE is a new way of offering an innovative and creative solution to the problems of societies. In this paper, the authors have examined the role of SE in overcoming the GG in society, which is otherwise left unaddressed. A qualitative study is conducted by adopting the hermeneutic view of reality. The data is collected by conducting a semi-structured interview with social entrepreneurs working in Pakistan. For validating the findings, the secondary source of data is collected from the published reports by the British Council consulting on the role of SE in Pakistan. Findings revealed that SE is contributing to reducing the GG in Pakistan through increased women empowerment and employment. It is helping to create more opportunities for women in the field and overcoming the social issues of the country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates the association between family formation and the labour market trajectories of immigrants' descendants over the life course. Using rich data from the Trajectories and Origins survey from France, we apply multilevel event history models to analyse the transitions in and out of employment for both men and women by parity. We account for unobserved co-determinants of childbearing and employment by applying a simultaneous-equations modelling. Our analysis shows that women's professional careers are negatively associated with childbirth. There are differences across descendant groups. The female descendants of Turkish immigrants are more likely to exit employment and less likely to re-enter employment following childbirth than women from other groups. The negative impact of childbearing on employment is slightly overestimated among women due to unobserved selection effects. Among men, the descendants of European immigrants are less likely to exit employment after having a child than other descendant groups. The study demonstrates the negative effect of childbearing on women's employment, which is pronounced for some minority groups suggesting the need for further policies to help women reconcile work with family life. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper constructs a theoretical model where brain skills and capital are complementary, and female workers have a comparative advantage in brain-intensive occupations compared with brawn-intensive occupations. Financing constraints reduce the capital intensity and the demand for brain-intensive occupations, thus reducing the demand for female workers. Using data of manufacturing firms in China from 2004 to 2007, this paper finds that financing constraints reduce the female share of employment in firms. This effect is greater in industries with higher external finance dependence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The transition from one-child policy to two-child policy exacerbated women's employment discrimination in China. Three-child policy may exacerbate women's employment discrimination further. This paper aims to review past literature, on women employment discrimination, causes or factors of the discrimination and the challenges the women faced. Women employment discrimination in China is also reviewed, specifically from the fertility policy perspective. A qualitative systematic thematic literature review revealed specific themes, including employment discrimination and gender discrimination, women discrimination in employment, the influence of childbearing on women employment, fertility policy, and women employment discrimination. Furthermore, there are several causes of women employment discrimination: one of them being fertility policies. The review revealed some research strengths that can strengthen new research on women employment discrimination. Gaps in terms of research limitations are identified, such as a lack of empirical data on gender bias, a paucity of data on research on gender discrimination in relation to specific fertility policies, and a lack of in-depth analyses of women's career opportunities and barriers in different cultural settings. Despite China's concern with the impact of the number of children on women employment, in-depth research on the relationship between fertility policies, especially the latest three-child policy, and women employment discrimination is limited. Therefore, there is a need to conduct more comprehensive and substantive studies on women employment discrimination that is occurring in societies, including in China, undergoing rapid social change due to accelerated modernization, capitalism, and industrialization during this Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The continuous advancement of assisted reproductive technologies (ART) and the evolving attitudes towards marriage and fertility among the general public have led to an increasing number of groups requiring special attention (GRSA) desiring to fulfill their reproductive needs through these technologies. These groups include single women (including single mothers without children), same-sex couples, and women in high-risk occupations, among others. The purpose of this paper is to explore the feasibility of appropriately liberalizing ART for GRSA. Methods: This paper discusses the advantages of a moderate liberalization of ART for GRSA from two perspectives: a theoretical basis and a practical significance level. It also analyzes the current constraints on liberalizing ART and presents suggestions for moderate liberalization. Results: The moderate liberalization of ART can provide technical support for respecting and realizing the reproductive freedom of GRSA, which has certain theoretical and practical significance. However, it is also subject to constraints. Conclusion: We call for government to keep pace with the times, based on the current stage of political, economic, and social development, to further recognize and protect citizens' reproductive rights, prioritize the practical needs of the public, and explore policies and regulations for gradually loosening the restrictions on ART for GRSA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to show how critical moments in recent world history – the Covid-19 pandemic, the fourth industrial revolution, and migration crises – have affected employment in social enterprises and, more broadly, in the third sector. Design/methodology/approach: Analyses of international reports of global agencies, analysis of international studies on labour markets, analyses of situation of social enterprises from Poland in the perspective of historical institutionalism. Findings: Precariousness in the labour market will be one of the most critical challenges of modern times. Informal jobs will grow at the same rate as formal employment as a result of the COVID-19 Pandemic. Although recent estimates suggest a return to informal employment for both women and men, the most severe effects of the pandemic will play out along pre-existing lines of inequality and marginality, causing the most severe consequences for those who were already most vulnerable to them. Social implications: In the biggest risk of job insecurity are the social groups of less developed economies, where the economic downturn resulting from the pandemic is forcing a shift in corporate strategies toward cost-cutting and the search for labor savings. The global challenges of today's world mean that further research on the impact of exogenous shocks on job insecurity should be conducted. Originality/value: Analysis of modern exogenous shocks in perspective of historical institutionalism (important for scientific theory with applied aspects for social and economic practice). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The field of gender economics has seen significant growth in recent years, encompassing various subfields such as development economics, health economics, feminist economics, household economics, and macroeconomics. This special issue of the Eastern Economic Journal includes five papers that explore different aspects of gender economics, including the impact of sexism on voting patterns, the gender earnings gap, the gender pay gap among U.S. veterans during the Covid-19 pandemic, the role of household bargaining in addiction, and the effect of unpaid care work on employment outcomes in Nepal. These studies contribute to the growing body of research on gender economics and highlight the importance of addressing gender inequities in economic activities. [Extracted from the article]

This article presents the Government's White Paper on Women's Equality. It attempts to come to grips with the whole problem of discrimination against women by sympathetically recommending legislation which would outlaw the refusal of services and employment on grounds of sex or marriage. It further suggests the setting up of an Equal Opportunities Commission to which those who claimed discrimination could appeal, and which would " identify and deal with discriminatory practices by industries, firms or institutions." Society's demands on women are confused and hence its provision for women to meet those demands is confused and inadequate. Not so long ago an honorific status naturally attached to the production and care of two or three children.

Though late in breaking into the predominantly male profession of university teaching, women are entering university faculties in greater numbers every year. Because they come into higher education teaching with newly-minted Ph.D.'s, females enter the system at the Assistant Professor level, and—like their male colleagues—are expected to become adept at the tripartite tasks of teaching, scholarship and service within the first seven years of employment in order to be recommended for tenure and/or promotion. However, both overt guidelines for promotion and tacit expectations in almost all colleges and universities place highest value on faculty ‘proving their worth’ through publication of scholarly work in high status or at least refereed journals, books and professional periodicals. Even tenured faculty must climb higher on the scholarship ladder if they wish to be considered for promotion. The popular admonition, ‘Publish or perish,’ is evidenced in denied applications for tenure and promotion or termination of employment. Though women can and do contribute world-class scholarship in published formats, the disproportionately higher numbers of males who attain the full professor rank compared with females in that rank still points to an imbalance in the gender/scholarship equation. This paper explores the reasons why many women on the faculty may choose to expend more energy on teaching and service, impinging on their time to do significant research outside of the daily hours they devote to teaching and service to their colleges. It compares definitions of university level scholarship and explores why many important women's contributions to change agency are devalued as ‘service’ because they do not fit the strictest interpretation of scholarship as professionally and publicly validated work. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article explores the impact of female labor supply on aggregate labor market dynamics. It discusses the rise in female labor market participation, which has been influenced by factors such as reduced wage gaps, increased accessibility to childcare, and the growing importance of the service sector. The article also examines the lower volatility of female labor supply during recessions and the higher elasticity of female labor supply in response to wage changes. It suggests that the insurance role of female labor supply may contribute to the lower aggregate responsiveness of female labor supply. Additionally, the article discusses the slowdown in female employment recoveries since the 1990s and its implications for jobless recoveries. Overall, understanding female labor supply dynamics is crucial for interpreting broader labor market phenomena. [Extracted from the article]

Drawing on ethnographic fieldwork on young white-collar women training bodies after work in Shanghai, I demonstrate that core muscles serve as visual indexes of discipline and hard-work, and that women create social spaces to collectively cultivate such dispositions. The socially sanctioned value of core muscles is connected to the discourse of 'having it all' increasingly popular among professional women in corporate, urban China. This paper elaborates on how bodily training transposes dispositions of work ethics beyond the workplace and on women's anxieties about their bodies at the intersection of productive and reproductive demands from the society. This paper builds on and critiques existing approaches to the body, and attends not only to the woman's body at the intersection of production and reproduction but also to the social aspect of bodily training in spaces between home and work. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An integrated framework for studying the effects of COVID-19 policies on women selfemployment rates is not available despite the increased economic activity of women in selfemployment across several countries. The main objective of this paper is to develop a conceptual framework for the effects of COVID-19 policies on women self-employment rates, and the moderators of the relationship. Based on a critical review of the literature, we develop a conceptual framework, which consists of two types of COVID-19 policies, namely hostile lockdown policies (i.e., those that restrict community movement) and less/non-hostile policies (i.e., those that do not restrict movement). We then theorize the direct effects of these policies on women self-employment rates, and the factors that moderate the relationship. First, compared to men, hostile COVID-19 lockdown policies are more likely to have negative effects on women self-employment rates. Secondly, hostile COVID-19 lockdown policies are more likely to have a negative impact on women in self-employment, relative to women in wage employment. Third, the effects of COVID-19 policies on women self-employment rates are moderated by social factors (i.e., marriage and caring responsibilities) and economic development factors (i.e., level of human development, income support measures, size of the informal economy, and informal cross-border trading). The paper offers several guidelines for the formulation of public policies related to epidemics/pandemics and their effects on women self-employment rates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effect of the female labour force participation rate on urbanization, which is the question of reverse causality, was not investigated in the earlier literature despite the widespread belief that urbanization leads to modernization and social transformation. The paper used World Bank data from 217 countries from 1991 to 2022 to address this issue. The Random Effect (RE) Two-Stage least squares (2SLS) regression analysis suggests that urbanization has a detrimental effect on the ratio of female to male labour force participation. On the other hand, the proportion of women to men participating in the labour force positively influences urbanization. The GDP growth rate and the proportion of female employers favourably influence the participation rate of women in the labour force. However, the estimated results do not support the idea that long-term economic growth and the percentage of women in the labour force follow a U-shaped pattern. The results do not support a U-shaped association between the female labour force participation rate and urbanization. However, a causal and long-term stable association exists between female labour force participation rate and urbanization. Finally, we suggest several policies that will benefit women's labour force participation rate during the process of economic growth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The construction industry's male-dominated image, working ethos, and environment have led to an abysmal representation of women professionals in the workforce. The industry, the second largest employer in India, contributing 9% to India’s GDP has a mere 2% representation of women professionals (architects, site engineers, quantity surveyors, planning engineers, safety professionals, etc.) in employment. Manpower shortage continues to challenge the industry and poses an opportunity for women and employers alike. In this context, the paper aims to identify and evaluate the barriers and approaches to improve the wellbeing, safety, and health of women professionals at project sites thus increasing their share in employment. A mixed approach of questionnaire survey, interviews, and focused discussion was adopted. The top three barriers identified were – Long working hours and a culture that working long demonstrate work commitment, Remote and changing work locations of project sites impacting family life, and Inflexible work hours; while the top three approaches were – Providing appropriate sanitary facilities, Separate and clean restrooms and Evaluating performance based on output rather than hours put in. Results suggest that men and women shared a common perception of all barriers and approaches except for three. The findings will aid in advocating for women's wellbeing, safety and health at construction sites and spread the word about the value of gender mainstreaming. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The urbanization process in Malaysia since 1957 has significantly transformed the role of women in society. Urbanization phenomena have transformed the structure, dynamics, and traditional roles of women within the basic unit of the family. This paper examines how urbanization and social changes in the post-independence period have influenced the shift in women's roles - from traditional domestic functions to becoming key income-generators for their families. The analysis is grounded in Census data and Vital Statistics from the Department of Statistics Malaysia (DOSM). A review of rapid urban growth from 1957 to 2025 indicates that urbanization has shaped a distinct pattern of increasing women's participation in the labor force and a rise in the proportion of women serving as Heads of Households. Concurrently, data shows a significant upward trend in women's enrollment in higher education (matriculation, colleges, and universities). Additionally, the data reveals a pattern of delayed marriage among working women (aged 27-29) and a tendency towards smaller nuclear family sizes. The profound changes observed between 1957 and 2025 demonstrate that the urbanization process has fundamentally reshaped the role of Malaysian women, transitioning them from traditional domestic roles to primary income-generators for their families. As women's economic roles have expanded, they require a supportive environment and appropriate policies to effectively fulfill their evolving responsibilities. This includes work-life balance initiatives, fair career opportunities, and more equitable distribution of household tasks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the association between women's relative employment positions and the transition to parenthood, focusing on women of Maghrebi, Turkish, and Southern European origin in Belgium. Whereas gender specialization is associated with higher chances of entering parenthood in the older literature, the economic preconditions to parenthood have shifted and more recent studies indicate that couples where both partners work are more likely to start a family. However, whereas this shift has been extensively studied among majority populations, we lack insight into whether similar patterns can also be found among population subgroups with a migration background. This paper uses Belgian census data from 2011–2015 to explore how women's relative employment positions are linked to the likelihood of entering parenthood and whether this association varies by women's age, generation, and origin of the male partner. The results indicate that couples in which both partners are employed are more likely to enter parenthood regardless of migration background. However, the results for women of Maghrebi or Turkish background suggest that single-earner couples and couples where both partners are unemployed delay entry into parenthood to a similar extent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Keywords: COVID-19 pandemic; employment; families; gendered impact EN COVID-19 pandemic employment families gendered impact 1927 1934 8 10/04/22 20221101 NES 221101 The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the importance of women in the labor market and the unrecognized value of essential occupations such as care and education (Queisser et al., 2020). At the intersection of work and family, how has the COVID-19 pandemic affected work-family balance among working men and women? Overall, this paper extends previous work on changes in gender attitudes during the pandemic (Rosenfeld & Tomiyama, 2021) by identifying some pandemic-related factors that may have triggered these changes as well as demonstrating variations across family and work contexts. Academically, how does the COVID-19 pandemic extend or challenge our theoretical knowledge about gendered labor markets, gendered workplaces, and/or gendered distributions of paid work, care tasks, household tasks, and leisure?. [Extracted from the article]

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In knowledge-based organizations, conflict among interdependent occupations can be exacerbated by the absence of a clear hierarchical ordering of these occupations within the organization. Moreover, given women's inroads into some traditionally male-dominated occupations but not others, these workplaces are increasingly horizontally gender segregated. In this paper, we study how members of these symmetric and segregated occupations manage conflict in U.S. advertising agencies through the case of relationships between "creatives" (copywriters, designers, and creative directors) and "suits" or account practitioners (account executives, strategists, and managers). Creatives and suits are at the same organizational level in their agencies. While creatives are primarily men, suits, traditionally also men, are now primarily women. Drawing on participant observation in five different U.S. advertising agencies and over 100 interviews, we show how creatives and account practitioners use gender ordering to overcome jurisdictional conflict. These practices are grounded in enacting essentialist gender differences that transform symmetric occupational relationships into hierarchical ones by embedding the gender hierarchy. We find that, while gender ordering helps women and men in cross-occupational pairs get work done, it also reinforces women's disadvantage, because, for women, it involves low-status and emotionally taxing scut work that it does not involve for men. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: This paper aims to clarify an impact of Maternity Benefits Act, 1961 (Amendment 2017) on job employment of working mothers. It proposes the certain facts that has positive impact on employment of women from the point of view of Government of India, but at the same time it highlights some negative implications that are faced by the employers and working mothers. The objective of this act is to provide a woman with a financial assistance and make her free from engaging in any work so as to protect health of "New Mother" and "New Born child". Also, the act ensures women to take care of her child without having worry about loss of her job and loss of her employment. Design/methodology/approach: This paper carries efforts of researcher done on the topic of "Impact of Maternity Benefits Act, 1961 (Amendment 2017)" and measures its impact on employers and job employment of working mothers in India through literature review from various sources like SCOPUS, EMERALD, EBSCO, PROQUEST, SAGE, etc. The paper opted for an exploratory study using the questionnaire approach of grounded theory, including 50 in-depth interviews of working mothers. Findings: Outcome of this describes both positive and negative implications of this amendment on businesses and job employment of working mothers. It throws the limelight on implementation of this act in real life and identification of problems and stress faced by women employee either to get the job or to retain the job during pregnancy period which is very hazardous to the health of women and her inborn child also. Research limitations/implications: Because of the chosen research approach, the research results may lack generalizability. Therefore, researchers are encouraged to test the proposed propositions further. Practical implications: The paper includes implications of the Maternity Benefits Act, 1961 (Amendment 2017) on employers whether to hire women employee or not and on women though they are having capability to do work but because of ignorance of government on ensuring proper implementation of act, women are not getting opportunity to work after baby birth. Originality/value: This paper fulfils an identified need to study and find some measures for effective implantation of Maternity Benefits Act, 1961 (Amendment 2017) so as to protect and regulate employment of women workers before and after child birth so as to increase female labour force participation rate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper extends our understanding of employment and gendered rural ageing by examining the latent benefits of paid work for mid-life women in rural Ireland. Existing social gerontology literature deals extensively with manifest financial reasons to work, consequences of gendered pay and pension inequalities, work-related health concerns and the negative impacts to an extended working life for women. However, there is much less focus on the latent non-financial positive contributions that work provides for the older woman, especially within a rural context. Findings from this study show how mid-life women, even if in lower-paid, precarious work or in poorer health may choose to continue working into older age. Paid work provides not only financial autonomy, but also temporal structure, life purpose, personal agency, social connectivity and a self-identity that most women are reluctant to relinquish to retirement. Meaningful work plays a critical role in the ageing experience of older rural women. A qualitative study of 25 women aged 45–65 in Connemara, Ireland was undertaken from a lifecourse perspective and analysed using constructivist grounded theory to allow rich, novel narrative to emerge. Narrative from seven, who best represent all participants, are utilised in this paper. Conclusions suggest that the latent benefits of paid work are at least as, if not more important than financial gain for rural mid-life women. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The post-apartheid regime introduced reforms in the labor law of South Africa. The reforms aimed to redress inequality among workers regardless of gender. The article engages policies and labor laws under the Labor Relations Act 66 of 1995, to an association of trade unions’ rights. Specifically, the labor laws aspect that deals with equal pay was examined for women workers to understand the dimension of gender equality in the labor market of South Africa after 1994. Inequality in pay gaps for professional women across all sectors of the economy is yet to be unraveled. The study explores pay differentiation in the workplace from the dimension of policy review. Concepts of fairness, equity, and the legal framework of South Africa were explored in terms of working conditions and equal pay implementation (Matotoka & Odeku, 2022). The phenomenology approach was used in this study to understand the issues of pay gaps and career experiences of professional women. The findings are counter-intuitive. The analysis reveals the distance between equality policy and conflicting organizational cultures resulting in continued inequality experiences for professional women. This paper contributes to an understanding of corporate law and governance in terms of inequality and social injustice in post-apartheid South Africa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]