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From 1975 through 2003, because of the use of safety belts, an estimated 180,000 deaths from traffic crashes have been prevented. In order to assess the gains that have been made in safety belt use across the U.S., in individual states, and in communities, belt use surveys are conducted at regular intervals to determine use rates. The most valid method for surveying safety belt use is through direct observation. Direct observation surveys are conducted along roadways by trained researchers looking into passing vehicles and recording safety belt use. This method of data collection has been effective in the past through the use of paper-and-pencil data recording, yet it could be improved through the use of electronic and communication technology. Reported here is a study designed to compare electronic data collection, using personal digital assistants (PDAs), with collection using the traditional paper-and-pencil method during the annual statewide survey of safety belt use in Michigan that we have been conducting since 1984. The goals of the study were to develop a PDA database program for data entry in the field, to directly compare the PDA data collection process with the paper-and-pencil method on both accuracy and speed, and to assess mechanical and environmental facets, such as battery life, screen visibility, and reaction to adverse weather, that may act as limitations to the PDA method, in comparison with the paper-and-pencil method. In a direct comparison of methods, two observers collected data at the same roadway intersections, one using paper and a pencil and one using a PDA equipped with our custom software. The study showed that the PDA method was as fast and as accurate as the paper-and-pencil method. There were no adverse effects on the PDA caused by environmental conditions. The PDA was superior to the paper-and-pencil method in rainy weather and for data collector supervision. In addition, the use of the PDA obviated the need for entry of paper-recorded data into an electronic format. We conclude that the use of PDAs for safety belt field data collection is superior to the paper-and-pencil method. A Web address is given where the custom PDA safety belt data collection software can be obtained free of charge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the United States, motor vehicle crashes are the leading reason of fatalities for young drivers in the age group of 16-19 years. This paper used naturalistic driving study (NDS) data to examine the safety of young drivers. The NDS data consist of comprehensive information related to driving behavior. The statistical modeling method (logistic regression) was used to investigate the relationship between factors of driver attention such as secondary tasks, impairments, hands on wheel, and crash risk to aid in the formulation of teen driving policy. The results indicated that nondriving tasks engagement such as cell phone use, external distraction, food and drink intake, personal hygiene, and reaching and handling objects in the vehicle increase the possibility of involvement in a safety critical event [odds ratio (OR) = 1.67-1.93]. Risk estimation for the observable impairments indicated that emotional state of the driver (OR = 6.01) and impairments (drugs/alcohol, OR = 5.02) exerted greater influence on crash likelihood compared to involvement in secondary tasks. The study revealed that not all secondary tasks pose the same risk. Transportation agencies can design behavioral countermeasures targeted at young drivers to help increase driver attention. Countermeasures such as increased enforcement, treatment and monitoring of the offender, and education and outreach programs for teenagers may help alleviate impaired driving. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents an overview of current issues in road safety, describes some promising areas of research and provides an introduction for the papers contained in this special issue of the Journal of Transportation Engineering. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores the relationship between sight distance parameters, crash rates, and operating speeds at low-volume single-lane roundabouts in the United States. The understanding of the interaction of design, operations, and crash performance is a step forward in the development and application of performance-based standards for roundabouts. The specific objective of this paper is to quantify the relationship between crash rates, sight distance parameters, and operating speeds to present an approach to establishing performance-based standards that highway practitioners can adopt in roundabout design. Geometric, traffic, and crash data were collected on 72 approaches to 19 low-volume single-lane roundabouts in six states. The data for these sites were broken into two groups based on the posted speed limit (at and greater than ). In addition, the associations between different sight distance parameters, crash parameters, and operating speed data were investigated. The research findings provided insight into relating the operational and safety effects of sight distance geometry at roundabouts. This research also identified a methodology that provides guidance as to the development of performance-based standards that rely on a better understanding of these relationships. In general, the research findings were consistent with previously conducted studies and indicated that exceeding sight distance thresholds increases the risk of crashes occurring. It was also found that exceeding sight distance thresholds yielded greater speed differentials between the approach and the entry to these roundabouts. The results of this research can advance the state of practice in understanding the relationships of sight distance design attributes, operational characteristics, and safety metrics for low-volume single-lane roundabouts, which is necessary to the creation of performance-based standards. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Collision warning/collision avoidance (CW/CA) systems must be designed to work seamlessly with a human driver, providing warning or control actions when the driver's response (or lack of) is deemed inappropriate. The effectiveness of CW/CA systems working with a human driver needs to be evaluated thoroughly because of legal/liability and other (e.g. traffic flow) concerns. CW/CA systems tuned only under open-loop manoeuvres were frequently found to work unsatisfactorily with human-in-the-loop. However, tuning CW/CA systems with human drivers co-existing is slow and non-repeatable. Driver models, if constructed and used properly, can capture human/control interactions and accelerate the CW/CA development process. Design and evaluation methods for CW/CA algorithms can be categorised into three approaches, scenario-based, performance-based and human-centred. The strength and weakness of these approaches were discussed in this paper and a humanised errable driver model was introduced to improve the developing process. The errable driver model used in this paper is a model that emulates human driver's functions and can generate both nominal (error-free) and devious (with error) behaviours. The car-following data used for developing and validating the model were obtained from a large-scale naturalistic driving database. Three error-inducing behaviours were introduced: human perceptual limitation, time delay and distraction. By including these error-inducing behaviours, rear-end collisions with a lead vehicle were found to occur at a probability similar to traffic accident statistics in the USA. This driver model is then used to evaluate the performance of several existing CW/CA algorithms. Finally, a new CW/CA algorithm was developed based on this errable driver model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the development of active/passive roll control systems, a vehicle model that can represent realistic roll behavior is essential for predicting the impending rollover and for accurately applying the control force to avoid vehicle rollover. The vehicle roll center is a key parameter that influences the vehicle roll dynamics. Since the roll center movement becomes important as the vehicle roll angle increases, it is desirable to include this effect in the roll-control system. This paper proposes a dynamic roll stability indicator (RSI) incorporating roll-center movement that generates rollover threshold in terms of lateral acceleration. A robust parameter identification algorithm using a disturbance observer is designed to estimate the lateral and vertical roll-center movements. These estimates are later used in the RSI to update the rollover threshold. The. effectiveness of the proposed method is demonstrated through simulations, and its performance is compared with other rollover warning algorithms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, the techniques for screening transportation networks to identify high crash locations have become more sophisticated with significant data requirements. This paper presents the results of an empirical analysis of screening and ranking for weather related crashes on rural 1.6 km (1 mi) highway sections of Oregon highways. The analysis includes data generated with the extensive use of spatial techniques and incorporates climate data to enhance environmental considerations. The paper compares the results of five ranking methods: Critical rate (by functional class), critical rate (by functional class and climate zone), potential for crash reduction, expected frequency (adjusted by empirical-bayes), and frequency. For the empirical-bayes methods, safety performance functions were generated using negative binomial regression techniques. The 20 top 1.6 km (1 mi) sections were identified for each method and compared. The results reveal that the frequency and expected frequency methods identified the most sites in common, followed by the rate-based methods. The potential for the crash reduction method identified the most unique ranked list. The results highlight the differences in ranking methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: To characterize the epidemiology of simultaneous traumatic brain injury (TBI) and ocular trauma. Materials and Methods: In this retrospective, observational study, de-identified data from patients admitted with ocular trauma and TBI was extracted from the National Trauma Data Bank (2008-2014) using International Classification of Diseases 9th Revision, Clinical Modification diagnostic codes and E-codes relating to injury circumstances. Mechanisms, types of ocular and head injuries, intention, and demographic distribution were determined. Association of variables was calculated with Student's t and chi-squared tests and logistic regression analysis. Results: Of 316,485 patients admitted with ocular trauma, 184,124 (58.2%) also had TBI. The mean (standard deviation [SD]) age was 41.8 (23) years. Most were males (69.8%). Race/ethnicity distribution was 68.5% white, 13.3% black, and 11.4% Hispanic patients. The mean (SD) Glasgow Coma Score (GCS) was 12.4 (4.4) and Injury Severity Score (ISS) was 17 (10.6). Frequent injuries were orbital fractures (49.3%) and eye/adnexa contusions (38.3%). Common mechanisms were falls (27.7%) and motor vehicle-occupant (22.6%). Firearm-related trauma (5.2%) had the greatest odds of very severe injury (ISS >24) (odds ratio [OR]: 4.29; p<0.001) and severe TBI (GCS <8) (OR: 5.38; p<0.001). Assault injuries were associated with the greatest odds of mild TBI (OR: 1.36; p<0.001) and self-inflicted injuries with severe TBI (OR: 8.06; p<0.001). Eye/adnexal contusions were most associated with mild TBI (OR: 1.25; p<0.001). Optic nerve/visual pathway injuries had greater odds of severe TBI (OR: 2.91; p<0.001) and mortality (OR: 2.27; p<0.001) than other injuries. Of associated head injuries, the odds of severe TBI were greatest with skull base fractures (OR: 4.07; p<0.001) and mortality with intracerebral hemorrhages (OR: 4.28; p<0.001). Mortality occurred in 5.9% of patients. Conclusion: TBI occurred in nearly two-thirds of ocular trauma admissions. The mortality rate was low with implications for challenging rehabilitation and long-term disability in survivors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Traffic barriers are in widespread all around the USA as safety countermeasures for reducing the severity of run-off-road crashes. The effect of traffic barriers' dimension had been ignored in past real-world crash studies due to the considerable cost and time needed for collecting field data. This paper presented two new analytical models to investigate the effect of different variables on the severity of crashes involving traffic barriers, and end treatments. For this reason, a field survey was conducted on over 1.3 million linear feet of traffic barriers (approximately 4,176 miles road) in Wyoming to measure traffic barriers' geometric features like height, length, offset, and slope rate. The collected data included 55% of all non-interstate roads of Wyoming. Based on results, the crashes involving box beam barriers were less severe than the crashes involved with W-beam or concrete barriers. The traffic barriers with a height between 28 and 31 in. were found safer than the traffic barriers shorter than 28 in., while there was no significant difference between the traffic barriers taller than 31 in. to those shorter than 28 in. in terms of crash severity. The end treatments located nearer to the traffic lane had lower crash severity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 2016 alone, around 4000 people died in crashes involving trucks in the USA, with 21% of these fatalities involving only single-unit trucks. Much research has identified the underlying factors for truck crashes. However, few studies detected the factors unique to single and multiple crashes, and none have examined these underlying factors to severe truck crashes in conjunction with violation data. The current research assessed all of these factors using two approaches to improve truck safety. The first approach used ordinal logistic regression to investigate the contributory factors that increased the odds of severe single-truck and multiple-vehicle crashes, with involvement of at least one truck. The literature has indicated that past violations can be used to predict future violations and crashes. Therefore, the second approach used risky violations, related to truck crashes, to identify the contributory factors to the risky violations and truck crashes. Driver actions of failure to keep proper lane following too close and driving too fast for conditions accounted for about 40% of all the truck crashes. Therefore, the same violations as the aforementioned driver actions were included in the analysis. Based on ordinal logistic regression, the analysis for the first approach indicated that being under non-normal conditions at the time of crash, driving on dry-road condition and having a distraction in the cabin are some of the factors that increase the odds of severe single-truck crashes. On the other hand, speed compliance, alcohol involvement, and posted speed limits are some of the variables that impacted the severity of multiple-vehicle, truck-involved crashes. With the second approach, the violations related to risky driver actions, which were underlying causes of severe truck crashes, were identified and analysis was run to identify the groups at increased risk of truck-involved crashes. The results of violations indicated that being nonresident, driving off-peak hours, and driving on weekends could increase the risk of truck-involved crashes. This paper offers an insight into the capability of using violation data, in addition to crash data, in identification of possible countermeasures to reduce crash frequency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the US, some states have begun to address rural high-speed intersection crashes by physically restricting minor-road crossing movements to simplify driver decision-making in terms of gap acceptance. These treatments are referred to in Minnesota (USA) as reduced conflict intersections (RCIs). Introduction of RCI design has been successful in preventing severe crashes; however, the unusual design has been met with some apprehension from operators of agricultural equipment and large trucks. In particular concerns have been raised that, as large trucks are required to make U-turn maneuvers, they occupy the travel lanes for longer than would be required for a left-turn or through maneuver from the minor road, and, consequently, are exposed to on-coming high-speed vehicles for longer. In response to these concerns, this paper summarizes results of a study which collected and evaluated large vehicle operational behavior at three rural RCI intersections in Minnesota and three similar non-RCI intersections, which were proximate to the RCI intersections. Data were collected in 2015 using a portable video trailer array. Exposure time, evasive maneuvers, and other metrics were compared between RCI and regular intersections. Exposure time was calculated at both the intersections. Results show that large trucks are exposed 4 to 10 seconds longer while making a through or left turn maneuver at control intersections than they are making a U-turn. The average number of evasive maneuvers per large vehicle at either the merge or U-turn location were much lower than for the control intersection. This is significant since most agencies had concerns about the U-turn creating additional evasive maneuvers. Queue time and travel time were also compared. Gap acceptance behavior shows that minor stream vehicles are more likely responsible for evasive maneuvers of on-coming high-speed vehicles even for the larger accepted gap size at control intersections compared to merge and U-turn sections. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Multivariate analysis can be used to identify the effects of several factors on the causes of a crash compared with univariate analysis. This paper uses a multivariate-analysis technique, the multinomial logistic regression (MLR) model, to examine the differences in crash-contributing factors for six collision types for both divided- and undivided-highway nonjunctions, given that a crash has occurred. Multinomial logistic regression was used to investigate (1) single-vehicle and (2) multivehicle collisions, which included (1) angular, (2) head-on, (3) rear-end, (4) sideswipe-same-direction, and (5) sideswipe-opposite-direction collisions. The risks associated with different collision types were found to be significantly influenced by various vehicle actions. The risk of sideswipe-same-direction collisions was higher while changing lanes and merging on undivided and divided highways. Similarly, while merging, drivers were prone to angular collisions, and when slowing down to rear-end collisions on undivided and divided highways. On weekdays, there was higher risk of multivehicle collisions, whereas on weekends, single-vehicle collisions were found to be statistically significant. The risk of single-vehicle collisions attributable to drivers negotiating a curve, driving on a wet road surface, during nighttime, when vision was obscured, avoiding objects on the roadway, and driving under the influence of alcohol was higher compared with that of other collision types. On the basis of the results of the analysis, it was found that the risk of single-vehicle collisions was higher on divided and undivided highways compared with other collision types. Further, binary logistic regression model was used to identify the factors that contribute to crash-injury severity, given that a crash has occurred. Drivers and passengers who did not wear lap and shoulder belts, and drove under the influence of alcohol were involved in serious crash injuries. Drivers involved in a crash on horizontal and vertical curves were prone to severe crash injuries compared with crashes on straight and level roadways. Head-on and single-vehicle collisions were found to be at a higher risk for severe injuries compared with other collision types. Additionally, collision types were strongly related to driver behavior (decision making) parameters, such as merging, changing lanes, and slowing/stopping, compared with parameters such as roadway geometry, atmospheric conditions, and surface conditions. From these results, the importance of different statistical techniques is evident, as the significant variables varied for crash severity and different collision types. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Treatment selection bias leads to an inaccurate estimation of treatment effects as applied to specific sites or problem locations. Treatment selection bias is a major source of inconsistency in the results obtained from conventional before and after and cross-sectional models. One of the major expressions of treatment selection bias concerns the use of collision occurrence data in justifying intervention. For example, in highway safety field, a treatment is often introduced at a given site based on its high collision experience. Under normal conditions we would expect these collision numbers to return to a lower long term expected value, regardless of intervention. For treated sites, conventional observational models ascribe this reduction in collisions to the given treatment. This results in an overestimation of treatment effect. In this paper, a propensity score model is introduced that deals explicitly with treatment selection bias. The model is applied to Canadian highway–railway grade crossings data to estimate reductions in collision subject to upgrades in warning devices. The results of the propensity score model are compared for similar types of treatments to a number of before and after and cross-sectional models for both U.S. and Canadian data. The propensity score method is shown to reduce treatment selection bias and has probable merit that need to be further examined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Although there is an ever increasing literature on older drivers, there is no comprehensive up-to-date presentation of how older drivers are impacted by traffic safety, and how they impact the road safety of others.Methods: This paper uses 1994-1996 US data to determine how many rates related to traffic safety depend on the age and sex of road users (fatalities, fatalities per licensed driver, etc.) Threats drivers pose to other road users are estimated by driver involvement in pedestrian fatality crashes.Results: It is found that renewing the licence of a 70-year-old male driver for another year poses, on average, 40% less threat to other road users than renewing the license of a 40-year-old male driver. The fatality risks drivers themselves face generally increase as they age, with the increased risk of death in the same severity crash being a major contributor. If this factor is removed, crash risks for 70-year-old male drivers are not materially higher than for 40-year-old male drivers; for female drivers they are.Conclusions: Most driver rates increase substantially by age 80, in many cases to values higher than those for 20-year-olds. Given that a death occurs, the probability that it is a traffic fatality declines steeply with age, from well over 20% for late teens through mid twenties, to under one per cent at age 65, and under half a per cent at age 80. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Motor vehicle accidents are the leading cause of death for young adults 18–29 years old worldwide, resulting in nearly 1 million years of life lost annually in the United States. Despite improvements in vehicle safety technologies, young women are at higher risk of dying in car crashes compared with men in matched scenarios. Vehicle crash testing primarily revolves around test dummies representative of the 50th percentile adult male, potentially resulting in these differences in fatality risk for female occupants compared to males. Vehicle occupants involved in fatal car crashes were matched using seating location, vehicle type, airbag deployment, seatbelt usage, and age. The relative risk for fatality (R) between males and females was calculated using a Double Pair Comparison. Young women (20s-40s) are at approximately 20% higher risk of dying in car crashes compared with men of the same age in matched scenarios. In passenger cars, 25-year-old female occupants in passenger car crashes from 1975–2020 exhibit R = 1.201 (95% CI 1.160–1.250) compared to 25-year-old males, and R-1.117 (95% CI 1.040–1.207) for passenger car crashes from 2010–2020. This trend persists across vehicle type, airbag deployment, seatbelt use, and number of vehicles involved in a crash. Known sex-based differences do not explain this large risk differential, suggesting a need for expanded test methodologies and research strategies to address as-yet unexplored sex differences in crash fatalities. These differences should be further investigated to ensure equitable crash protection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although the single point interchange (SPI) has been around for approximately 3 decades, very few attempts have been made to evaluate its safety performance with a similar configuration, the tight diamond interchange (TDI). This paper provides a crash comparison between the TDI and the SPI interchanges for intersection related crashes on the cross road only. The SPIs considered in this study are without frontage roads. Data from 27 diamond interchanges (DIs) in Washington were used in building a negative binomial model to predict total crashes and injury/fatality based on the off-ramp flow, cross-road flow, and separation distance between left and right ramp terminals. Crash analysis of 13 SPI sites was used to compare with newly developed crash models of diamond interchanges. Wilcoxon signed-rank test was applied for safety comparisons between the SPI and TDI. The safety comparison did not reveal a significant difference between the two types of interchanges neither for total crash. However, the single point urban interchanges were found to be safer than the comparable DIs for injury/fatality frequencies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates the potential effects of a single cultural means of claimsmaking-quantification-on the construction of a social problem through time. By analyzing salient historical uses of statistics in public debates on traffic accidents in the United States, the study seeks to advance the understanding of the role played by numerical claims in the broader dynamics of problem evolution and development. Specifically, key employments of numbers by early automobile clubs, the private insurance industry, safety movement and establishment, and printed media are closely traced and interrelated to flesh out their impacts on dominant representations of the issue over the long term. While numerical claimsmaking produced divergent, often contradictory effects on the construction of the problem, I argue that figures ultimately contributed to the gradual waning of the moralist and political zest that characterized much of the claimsmaking activities on the issue in the first half of the twentieth century. The argument provides one explanation of how traffic accidents can come to be defined in contemporary society as a 'necessary evil'-a regrettable yet largely unalterable price to pay for the benefits of the automobile. To the extent that many of these quantification effects are unintended, they are linked to both the nature of statistical argumentation employed in this case and its institutional contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The number of automobile recalls in the United States has substantially increased over the last two decades, and after a record of over 30 million cars recalled in 2004, in the last few years it has consistently reached between 15 and 17 million, and in 2010 alone 20 million cars were recalled. Toyota's recall crisis in 2010 illustrates how recalls can affect a large number of American drivers and the defects connected to them can result in loss of life and serious accidents. However, in spite of the increase in public concern over recalls and the loss of property and life attached to them, there is no empirical evidence of the effect of vehicle recalls on safety. This paper investigates whether vehicle recalls reduce accidental harm measured by the severity of injuries in vehicle accidents. The results of our analysis show that if a recall for a new-year model is issued, then the severity of injuries of accidents continuously diminishes during the first year after the recall, something we do not find among cars not subject to recalls. This is because defects are repaired over time but also because drivers react by driving more carefully until the defects are fixed. To minimize the losses attached to having dangerously defective cars on our roads, both quick and timely recall issuance are needed and more detailed information on defects should be delivered to owners of defective vehicles. The latter can be made possible through simple but important policy changes by the U.S. government regarding recall information sharing with drivers and insurance companies. ( JEL L51, L62) [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Under an experimental features study requested by the Federal Highway Administration, the Indiana Department of Transportation installed a proprietary cable median barrier system, i.e., the Brifen four-rope wire rope safety fence (WRSF), to assess issues in installation, maintenance, and repair of this WRSF system and to evaluate its in-service performance. The WRSF system was installed at two different sites, respectively. A total of 157 median crashes were examined to evaluate the safety performance of the WRSF system in terms of the effectiveness in intercepting errant vehicles and crash outcomes. Field visits were conducted to identify possible improvements to the layout of the WRSF system according to the roadway configurations. The construction and repair costs were examined to provide useful information for cost-effectiveness analysis. Models were developed to enable an in situ estimate of the damage to the WRSF system after each crash. This paper presents the process and findings for the field installation, safety evaluation, and cost analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective Graduated Driver Licensing (GDL) has been implemented in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, USA and Israel. We conducted an exploratory summary of available data to estimate whether GDL effects varied with age. Methods We searched MEDLINE and other sources from 1991-2011. GDL evaluation studies with crashes resulting in injuries or deaths were eligible. They had to provide age-specific incidence rate ratios with CI or information for calculating these quantities. We included studies from individual states or provinces, but excluded national studies. We examined rates based on person-years, not license-years. Results Of 1397 papers, 144 were screened by abstract and 47 were reviewed. Twelve studies from 11 US states and one Canadian province were selected for meta-analysis for age 16, eight were selected for age 17, and four for age 18. Adjusted rate ratios were pooled using random effects models. The pooled adjusted rate ratios for the association of GDL presence with crash rates was 0.78 (95% CI 0.72 to 0.84) for age 16 years, 0.94 (95% CI 0.93 to 0.96) for 17 and 1.00 (95% CI 0.95 to 1.04) for 18. The difference between these three rate ratios was statistically significant: p<0.001. Conclusions GDL policies were associated with a 22% reduction in crash rates among 16-year-old drivers, but only a 6% reduction for 17-year-old drivers. GDL showed no association with crashes among 18-year-old drivers. Because we had few studies to summarise, particularly for older adolescents, our findings should be considered exploratory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: As automobile transportation continues to increase around the world, bicyclists, pedestrians, and motorcyclists, also known as vulnerable road users (VRUs), will become more susceptible to traffic crashes, especially in countries where traffic laws are poorly enforced. Many countries, however, are employing innovative strategies to ensure that road users can more safely navigate the urban landscape. While bicyclists and motorcyclists are important road users, this paper will focus on pedestrian crash problems and solutions. Pedestrians are most at risk in urban areas due in part to the large amount of pedestrian and vehicle activity in urban areas. With this in mind, designing safe, accessible, and comprehensive facilities for pedestrians is vital to reducing pedestrian crashes. This paper will provide some insight into the magnitude of the pedestrian crash problem around the world, and will offer some lessons learned from several countries, particularly in Europe and the U.S., for improving pedestrian safety. Beginning with pedestrian safety statistics at the global, regional, and national levels, this paper will address potential countermeasures and strategies for improving pedestrian safety from an international perspective. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

SUMMARY The increasing share of light trucks in the USA has been characterized as an 'arms race' where individual purchases of light trucks for better self-protection nevertheless worsen traffic safety for society. This paper investigates the interrelation between traffic safety and vehicle choice by quantifying the effects of the arms race on vehicle demand, producer performance, and traffic safety. The analysis suggests that the accident externality of a light truck amounts to $ 2444 during vehicle lifetime and that 12% of new light trucks sold in 2006 and 204 traffic fatalities could have been attributed to the arms race. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The emerging dual threats of underaged drinking (UAD) and prescription drug misuse (PDM) require sustained prevention efforts across multiple levels of interventions. In response to the continuing proliferation of UAD and PDM among youth and young adults, the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) developed the Partnerships for Success (PFS) program. Across five cohorts funded from 2012 to 2016, PFS created linkages between health care providers, treatment and prevention services providers, government agencies, and nonprofit organizations for the delivery of multiple sets of services (e.g., prevention education, community activities, screening) targeted toward UAD and PDM. This paper reports on the impact of the PFS program on reductions in ethanol and prescription drug poisoning exposures as reported from data in the National Poisoning Data System (NPDS). Across 35 States, communities targeted by PFS interventions were compared to non-targeted communities using a non-equivalent comparison groups design and propensity score weighting. Using propensity-weighted, multilevel latent growth modeling, steeper reductions in ethanol and prescription drug poisoning exposure call rates were observed in States which had a higher proportion of communities participating in PFS. Grantee-level longitudinal analogs to Cohen's d effect sizes ranged from -0.24 to -0.97, whereas PFS' effects on individual communities (net of Statewide effects) were negligible. The study serves as a unique exemplar of using the NPDS to extract community-level intervention effects that might otherwise be "hidden" within epidemiological data while underscoring the cumulative effects of PFS' community-level efforts in stemming the tide on underaged drinking and prescription drug misuse. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • The bivariate framework examines geometry effects on safety across the road classes. • Three crash frequency models were estimated by crash severity level and road class. • The sensitivity of crash frequency to each geometric factor was investigated. • Results can help highway engineers to evaluate current design standards and policy. Abstract This paper examined the accident risk factors associated with highway traffic and roadway design, for each of three highway classes in the United States using a bivariate modeling framework involving two levels of accident severity. With regard to the highest class (Interstates), the results suggest that, compared to no-casualty accidents, casualty accidents are more sensitive to traffic volume and average vertical grade, but less sensitive to the inside shoulder width and the median width. For US Roads, it was determined that, compared to no-casualty accidents, casualty accidents are more sensitive to traffic volume, outside shoulder width, pavement condition, and median width but less sensitive to the average vertical grade. For the relatively lowest-class roads (State Roads), it was determined that, compared to no-casualty accidents, casualty accidents are more sensitive to the traffic volume, lane width, outside shoulder width, and pavement condition. Compared to the relatively lower-class highways, accidents at higher-class highways are more sensitive to: changes in traffic volume, average vertical grade, median width, inside shoulder width, and the pavement condition (no-casualty accidents only); but less sensitive to changes in lane width, pavement condition (casualty accidents only), and the outside shoulder width. This variation in sensitivity across the different road classes could be attributed to the differences in road geometry standards across the road classes, as the results seem to support the hypothesis that these standards strongly influence accident occurrence. It is hoped that the developed bivariate negative binomial models can help highway engineers to evaluate their current design standards and policy, and to assess the safety consequences of changes in these standards in each road class. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Motorcycle fatalities in the United States continue to increase on both crude and adjusted bases. This paper examines fatal motorcycle accidents as a cause of death, using a retrospective analysis of motorcycle operator fatalities from 2003 to 2008 in the state of Indiana. During these six years, out of more than 18,000 motorcycle operators in crashes, 601 were killed. Based on police report data, motorcycle operators during this period are examined to reveal key factors that are in place when a motorcyclist is killed in a collision. The major correlates of death identified were objects of impact, risky behaviors, and speed. The largest positive effects on the chances of death were linked to trees, posts-signs-poles, bridge-guardrail-median, and other motor vehicles. In conjunction with speed, these objects were the primary mechanisms by which fatal injuries were sustained by motorcyclists. Various types of risky behavior were also major correlates of death by motorcycle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Motorcyclists account for a much higher proportion of traffic fatalities relative to the share of motorcycles among all motor vehicles and vehicle miles driven in the U.S. In this paper, we posit that motorcyclists may be particularly vulnerable to the risks of distracted driving by others. Specifically, we examine whether state-specific texting/handheld bans significantly influence motorcyclist fatalities in the U.S. We use state-specific traffic fatality data in the U.S. (2005–2015, N = 550) from the Fatality Analysis Reporting System (FARS) merged with state-specific characteristics, texting/handheld device laws, and other traffic policies. Although research is mixed on the effectiveness of texting/handheld bans for overall traffic fatalities, our findings indicate that motorcyclists are at elevated risk of being a victim of distracted driving and thus could greatly benefit from these policies. This result is driven mainly by multiple-vehicle crashes (e.g., car hitting motorcycle) as opposed to single-vehicle crashes. Policy makers should consider strengthening texting/handheld bans along with their enforcement to improve safety and save lives, especially among motorcyclists. Highlights • Each day about nine Americans are killed in traffic crashes by distracted drivers. (82 characters). • Motorcyclists are at heightened risk of being a victim of distracted driving. (77 characters). • Texting/handheld bans significantly reduce motorcyclist fatalities in the US. (77 characters). • Traffic policies and technological advances can mitigate distracted driving deaths. (83 characters). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Today, in the midst of economic crisis, senior executives at US automakers and influential industry analysts frequently reflect on the progression that safety testing has taken from the crude trials done on the road, to controlled laboratory experiments, and to today's complex math-based simulation models. They use stories of this seemingly linear and natural sequence to justify further investment in simulation technologies. The analysis presented in this paper shows that change in the structures of automakers' organizations co-evolved with regulations specifying who was at fault in vehicle impacts, how vehicles should be built to withstand the force of an impact, and how testing should be done to assure that vehicles met those requirements. Changes in the regulatory environment were bolstered by new theories about crash test dynamics and changing technologies with which to test those theories. Thus, as new technological and regulatory innovations co-evolved with innovations in organizational structuring, ideas about how to best conduct crash tests shifted and catalyzed new cycles of technological, regulatory, and organizational innovation. However, this co-evolutionary story tells us that the move from road to lab to math was not natural or linear as today's managerial rhetoric would have us believe. Rather, the logic of math-based simulation was the result of technological, regulatory and organizational changes that created an industry-wide ideology that supported the move toward math while making it appear natural within the shifting structure of the industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A study sponsored by National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) in 1981 showed that the most deadly injuries to the accident victims were injuries of the chest and head. In this context, the present paper focuses on the use of the numerical simulation to predict rib fractures in case of motorcycle accidents and to evaluate a new safety system, i.e. an airbag integrated in the jacket. Different simulations were performed, with and without airbag, according to experimental tests (pendulum subsystem tests with post-mortem human subjects (PMHS)) to evaluate the influence of various parameters. For each configuration test, we analysed the load versus time curve of the pendulum and performed an injury report to evaluate ribs fractures. Concerning the airbag system, the study showed that this type of protection increases motocyclist's security. Indeed, for each simulations test, performed with airbag, no injuries were noted when the airbag was used. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on a research paper which aims to develop data accuracy of roadway departure crashes (RD) in the U.S, along with its implications. It cites a review of related literature, reports from the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), and analysis of some cases of RD crashes in Virginia. It states that the paper revealed that there are inadequate definitions for RD crashes and some discrepancies in reports of regarding RD death.

A review of the experience of 23 states on the use and effectiveness of cable median barriers is presented. As of 2007, 23 states have installed more than 4,183 km (2,600 mi) of cable median barriers. Experiences of the pioneering states, such as New York, Missouri, Washington, Oregon, North Carolina and Arizona that initiated the utilization of cable median barrier in the United States are included in this paper. Results of the review show that the use of cable median barriers in depressed medians with moderate slopes had a significant effect on the reduction of cross-median crashes in many states. While these results are encouraging, occasional fatal crossover crashes penetrating the cable barrier still demand attention and improved techniques or procedures for selecting or locating cable median barrier will continue to evolve. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In popular and policy framings in the USA, traffic accidents and fatalities involving teens are typically treated as having their own facticity. Much like other social phenomenon, teen driving accidents are regarded as though they are part of an objective reality external to a set of ideational or discursive processes and social organization of knowledge. Treated as such, teen driving accidents and fatalities are uncritically classified, counted, and compared with rates of accidents and fatalities among other groups of drivers with the purpose to direct public policy decisions and give authority to specific legislative agendas. Examining the rhetorical practices through which an event or an object appears as a factual given, 'as if' belonging to an objective and unproblematic reality, this paper examines how teen driving and the teen driver are social created through a public problems discourse, fueling panic among parents, policy officials and legislators, educators, and risk and safety experts. Significant consideration is given to the uses and misuses of statistics about teens and driving in various media outlets and by various claims-makers in the construction of teen driving as a public drama with specific policy and legislative outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This paper assesses group differences in severe and fatal road-traffic accidents by using a unique database that merges road-traffic records with the Israeli census data. The database traces, over a period of 9 years, a group of drivers that comprises 20% of the Israeli population and explores the probability of their being involved in an accident. This unique database enables the investigation of drivers’ socioeconomic and demographic characteristics, while controlling for a variety of variables, such as estimated daily distance traveled and license type. Testing a previously published theoretical paper on the social bases of accidents, the findings expose significant group differences in estimated probabilities of being involved in severe and fatal accidents. For example, estimated probabilities of accident involvement are higher for males than for females, for non-Jewish drivers than for Jewish, and for drivers whose origins are in Africa and Asia than in America and Europe. Furthermore, the higher one''s education and socioeconomic status, the lower is the probability of accident-involvement. The implications of the findings for developing road-safety programs and suggestions for future research are discussed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Traffic collisions kill about 43,000 Americans a year. Worldwide, road traffic injuries are the leading cause of death by injury and the ninth leading cause of all deaths. Photo Radar speed enforcement has been implemented in the United States and many other industrialized countries, yet its cost-effectiveness from a societal viewpoint, taking all significant impacts into account, has not been reported. This paper fills this gap, reporting on a Photo Radar traffic safety program introduced in 1996 in British Columbia, Canada, and incorporating the results of rigorous statistical analyses on speed and crash impacts into a comprehensive cost-benefit analysis from both societal and sponsoring-agency perspectives. The study reveals that the Rhoto Radar Program cost C$27 million per year in 2001 Canadian dollars (?US$21 million) and generated benefits valued at $142 million per year (?US$109 million), for net societal benefits of C$115 million per year (?US$88 million). It was estimated that the sponsoring agency saved C$38 million (?US$29 million) annually in claim costs. These results are robust to plausible alternate assumptions. Societal net benefits become negative only if the reduction in injuries and fatalities is one standard error below the expected value, or if private travel time is valued at or above C$15 per hour. Agency claim cost savings are greater than program costs under all scenarios tested. These results are likely applicable to jurisdictions in developed countries with similar traffic infrastructure: Greater use of highway photo radar speed enforcement would be good public policy. © 2006 by the Association for Public Policy Analysis and Management [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Drinking and driving has been identified as one of the most important contributors of motor vehicle fatalities. This paper addressed the existing gap in our public health knowledge regarding the current prevalence of driving after drinking and how this has changed over the past decade. Methods: Prevalence rates of drinking and driving in 2001–2002, and changes in those prevalence rates between 1991–1992 and 2001–2002, were examined in two large nationally representative surveys of the U.S. population. Results: Overall, the prevalence of driving after drinking was 2.9 percent in 2001–2002, representing approximately six million U.S. adults. This rate was about three-quarters of the rate observed in 1991–1992 (3.7 percent), reflecting a 22-percent reduction. Generally, the male-female differentials in the rate of driving after drinking decreased over the past decade. However, the sex ratios increased substantially for underaged youth over the past decade, reflecting the sharp decrease in prevalence of driving after drinking among 18- to 20-year-old women. Constant and emerging subgroups at high risk for drinking and driving included Whites, Native Americans, males, underaged young adults, and 21- to 25year-olds. Conclusions: The results of this study highlighted the need to continue to monitor prevalence and changes in driving after drinking. Results are discussed in the context of strengthening existing prevention and intervention efforts and developing new programs with the sociodemographic differentials observed in this study in mind. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Considerable past research has explored relationships between vehicle accidents and geometric design and operation of road sections, but relatively little research has examined factors that contribute to accidents at railway-highway crossings. Between 1998 and 2002 in Korea, about 95% of railway accidents occurred at highway-rail grade crossings, resulting in 402 accidents, of which about 20% resulted in fatalities. These statistics suggest that efforts to reduce crashes at these locations may significantly reduce crash costs. The objective of this paper is to examine factors associated with railroad crossing crashes. Various statistical models are used to examine the relationships between crossing accidents and features of crossings. The paper also compares accident models developed in the United States and the safety effects of crossing elements obtained using Korea data. Crashes were observed to increase with total traffic volume and average daily train volumes. The proximity of crossings to commercial areas and the distance of the train detector from crossings are associated with larger numbers of accidents, as is the time duration between the activation of warning signals and gates. The unique contributions of the paper are the application of the gamma probability model to deal with underdispersion and the insights obtained regarding railroad crossing related vehicle crashes. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

As recently as thirty years ago, impromptu roadside shrines of the type we see so commonly now were virtually non-existent in Canada and the U.S. Now nearly each time a road accident claims a young life, an ad hoc shrine springs up at the place where that life was lost. This paper explores, from various points of view, some of the possible motivations for these memorial shrines. As we struggle to come to terms with the changing zeitgeist at the beginning of the new millennium, we may try to understand phenomena by viewing them through various lenses. Thus, in this work, reference is made to material from ritual theory, morphic field theory, and post-modern thought. Ultimately, life is unfathomable. Accordingly, we are still naturally as fascinated by the mystery of what happens when the body ‘gives up the ghost’ as any of the ‘moderately intelligent primitives’ referred to by Dudley Young in ‘Origins of the Sacred’. In the midst of today's rationalism and consumerism, these ritual shrines have a jarring otherness about them, suggesting that people of our time are once again inviting mystery into the centre of their hurried lives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the Midwest, three states in recent years have re-examined their grade crossing model. Illinois conducted a study that developed a new model, the expected accident frequency formula, using a nonlinear regression analysis procedure. Kansas also recently re-examined their model and replaced their design hazard rating formula with a simpler one developed for New Hampshire. Finally, the Missouri Department of Transportation began a similar assessment in 2001. In this paper, we present a framework for assessing grade-crossing models and selecting a preferred model. The methodology consists of five steps that can be adapted to fit most any situation. After presenting this framework, we apply it to Missouri’s evaluation of its exposure index. A major strength of the five-step approach is that it brings together key stakeholders and involves them in the process of establishing characteristics of the “best” model. This dialog strengthens the credibility of any decision to keep or revise a state’s grade crossing model. We are confident that the five-step framework used in this study can be used by any agency seeking to upgrade its grade crossing model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is a prevailing assumption that Freeway Service Patrol (FSP) programs improve safety for unassisted motorists by reducing the likelihood of secondary accidents. This research identifies 84,684 accident records from the California Highway Patrol’s First Incident Response Services Tracking system, and subjects these data records to a sequence of filters that check for incrementally more stringent conditions consistent with secondary accidents. This paper shows that secondary accidents on Los Angeles freeways are much less frequent than suggested in the transportation engineering literature. Avoiding secondary accidents provides only a small incentive to deploy FSPs, but the expected benefits associated with reducing already low secondary accident rates may still be sufficient to justify accounting for these costs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the United States, passenger vehicles are shifting from a fleet populated primarily by cars to a fleet dominated by light trucks and vans (LTVs). Because light trucks are heavier, stiffer, and geometrically more blunt than passenger cars, they pose a dramatically different type of threat to pedestrians. This paper investigates the effect of striking vehicle type on pedestrian fatalities and injuries. The analysis incorporates three major sources of data, the Fatality Analysis Reporting System (FARS), the General Estimates System (GES), and the Pedestrian Crash Data Study (PCDS). The paper presents and compares pedestrian impact risk factors for sport utility vehicles, pickup trucks, vans, and cars as developed from analyses of US accident statistics. Pedestrians are found to have a two to three times greater likelihood of dying when struck by an LTV than when struck by a car. Examination of pedestrian injury distributions reveals that, given an impact speed, the probability of serious head and thoracic injury is substantially greater when the striking vehicle is an LTV rather than a car. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Evaluating the performance of a detection and warning system designed specifically to detect and warn no-passing zone violations on vertical curves of two-lane rural roads is the focus of this paper. The evaluation is mainly based on the unique simulation developed for that purpose. Many roadway, vehicle, and driver-related parameters were introduced in this simulation to reflect as close as possible what is occurring in the real world. More than 19,500 violation case simulation runs were made for the base scenario to reflect and calibrate the actual conditions of the parameters involved. The simulation runs were made for both “with” and “without” the warning system cases. The simulation outcome for the “without the system” case was very close to the actual real-world condition (1.41 versus 0.71 crash per year). The simulation runs of the “with the system” case showed also that the system could virtually eliminate all head-on collisions, should the violators obey the early warning messages displayed. Eleven sensitivity tests showed that the simulation is robust in describing the system performance. An economic feasibility analysis revealed a high benefits–cost ratio of 38.9, and modified internal rate of return of 65%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Vehicle run-off-road is one of the most frequent and fatal traffic accidents in the United States. Various lane-keeping assistance (LKA) systems have been developed in the last decade to help drivers stay on the road. Most of them are built upon linear driver–vehicle–road (DVR) models and treat road curvature as a disturbance. Albeit effective, their control performance would degrade if road curvature varies rapidly. This paper proposes a novel nonlinear DVR model by integrating a driver steering model into vehicle–road kinematics, which explicitly considers road curvature. Particularly, this nonlinear DVR system has been proven to be differentially flat, and a flatness-based LKA system is designed. Additionally, Model-Free Control is introduced to compensate for system modeling errors. Hardware-in-the-loop simulations and diver-in-the-loop experiments validate the proposed control framework and demonstrate the performance enhancement with respect to a representative linear robust LKA system. • A novel lane-keeping assistance system based on a nonlinear driver–vehicle–road (DVR) model. • Proofing the DVR model is differentially flat. • Algebraically estimating the flat output's derivatives without relying on the DVR model. • Introducing Model-Free Control to compensate for modeling errors. • Hardware-in-the-loop simulations and driver-in-the-loop experiments validating the performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Injury is a leading cause of preventable morbidity and mortality in the USA. Ongoing surveillance is needed to understand changing injury patterns to effectively target prevention efforts. Launched jointly in 2000 by the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the National Electronic Injury Surveillance System-All Injury Program (NEISS-AIP) provides national-level estimates of US emergency department visits for nonfatal injuries. A scoping review of peer-reviewed articles was conducted to characterize how NEISS-AIP data have been used for injury surveillance in the USA. Main Body: This review was conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Three bibliographic databases (PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar) were systematically searched for English language peer-reviewed articles that used NEISS-AIP data as the primary data source during 2001–2021. Key article characteristics from included articles were abstracted to generate descriptive summary statistics to understand the use and limitations of NEISS-AIP for injury surveillance. Database queries returned 6944 citations; 594 citations were manually reviewed, and 167 non-duplicate journal articles were identified. An average of 8.0 articles (range: 1–14) were published annually during 2001–2021. Articles appeared in 72 different journals representing a diverse audience with the majority of articles written by CDC authors. Starting in 2013, a higher proportion of articles were published by non-CDC authors. The largest number of articles examined injury among all age groups (n = 71); however, the pediatric population was the specific age group of greatest interest (n = 48), followed by older adults (n = 23). Falls (n = 20) and motor-vehicle-related injuries (n = 10) were the most studied injury mechanisms. The most commonly identified limitation identified by authors of reviewed articles was that NEISS-AIP only produces national estimates and therefore, cannot be used for state- or county-level injury surveillance (n = 38). Conclusions: NEISS-AIP has contributed to nonfatal injury surveillance in the USA. CDC and CPSC continue to work together to expand and enhance NEISS-AIP data collection. Researchers are encouraged to continue using this publicly available dataset for injury surveillance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Human injury in a vehicle crash is a critical subject of analysis. The injury severity of a person in crashes helps the transportation agency to determine crash conditions. This will in turn helps road safety manager or engineer to implement the counter measures and to improve and enhance the level of safety at the roadside. In this research study, the injury severity of a person in crash analysis across angles is analyzed using various machine learning models. For the injury severity prediction 2018 Fatality Analysis Reporting System (FARS) NHTSA (National Highway Traffic Safety Administration) dataset of United States is used. The person injury severity is predicted with the help of machine learning models like Multinomial logistic regression, Naive Bayes Classifier, Random Forest, Extra Trees, XGB Classifier and optimized XGBoost model. It is observed that optimized XGBoost method performs better than other machine learning models in terms of performance metrics like Accuracy, Error rate, Cohen-kappa-score, Loss and Misclassified samples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: This is a study that updates earlier research on the influence of a front passenger on the risk for severe driver injury in near-side and far-side impacts. It includes the effects of belt use by the driver and passenger, identifies body regions involved in driver injury, and identifies the sources for severe driver head injury.Methods: 1997-2015 NASS-CDS data were used to investigate the risk for Maximum Abbreviated Injury Scale (MAIS) 4 + F driver injury in near-side and far-side impacts by front passenger belt use and as a sole occupant in the driver seat. Side impacts were identified with GAD1 = L or R without rollover (rollover ≤ 0). Front-outboard occupants were included without ejection (ejection = 0). Injury severity was defined by MAIS and fatality (F) by TREATMNT = 1 or INJSEV = 4. Weighted data were determined. The risk for MAIS 4 + F was determined using the number of occupants with known injury status MAIS 0 + F. Standard errors were determined.Results: Overall, belted drivers had greater risks for severe injury in near-side than far-side impacts. As a sole driver, the risk was 0.969 ± 0.212% for near-side and 0.313 ± 0.069% for far-side impacts (P < .005). The driver's risk was 0.933 ± 0.430% with an unbelted passenger and 0.596 ± 0.144% with a belted passenger in near-side impacts. The risk was 2.17 times greater with an unbelted passenger (NS). The driver's risk was 0.782 ± 0.431% with an unbelted passenger and 0.361% ± 0.114% with a belted passenger in far-side impacts. The risk was 1.57 times greater with an unbelted passenger (P < .10). Seat belt use was 66 to 95% effective in preventing MAIS 4 + F injury in the driver. For belted drivers, the head and thorax were the leading body regions for Abbreviated Injury Scale (AIS) 4+ injury. For near-side impacts, the leading sources for AIS 4+ head injury were the left B-pillar, roof, and other vehicle. For far-side impacts, the leading sources were the other occupant, right interior, and roof (8.5%).Conclusions: Seat belt use by a passenger lowered the risk of severe driver injury in side impacts. The reduction was 54% in near-side impacts and 36% in far-side impacts. Belted drivers experienced mostly head and thoracic AIS 4+ injuries. Head injuries in the belted drivers were from contact with the side interior and the other occupant, even with a belted passenger. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]