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Previous studies have provided inconsistent evidence concerning the association between delayed retrieval of story information from long-term memory and retrieval of words on verbal fluency tasks. The current study looks for shared retrieval mechanisms in these tasks from childhood to old age. Three-hundred and eighty participants (ages 5-91) performed tasks of story recall, digit span, phonemic fluency, and semantic fluency. Significant correlations between delayed story recall and both fluency tasks emerged in all age groups, and the contribution of delayed story recall to fluency performance remained significant when analyzing the combined effects of story recall and digit span. These findings suggest that retrieval of information through story recall and retrieval of words on fluency tasks may share similar cognitive components., (Copyright © 2019. Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Mobile technologies are increasingly used to measure cognitive function outside of traditional clinic and laboratory settings. Although ambulatory assessments of cognitive function conducted in people's natural environments offer potential advantages over traditional assessment approaches, the psychometrics of cognitive assessment procedures have been understudied. We evaluated the reliability and construct validity of ambulatory assessments of working memory and perceptual speed administered via smartphones as part of an ecological momentary assessment protocol in a diverse adult sample ( N = 219). Results indicated excellent between-person reliability (≥0.97) for average scores, and evidence of reliable within-person variability across measurement occasions (0.41-0.53). The ambulatory tasks also exhibited construct validity, as evidence by their loadings on working memory and perceptual speed factors defined by the in-lab assessments. Our findings demonstrate that averaging across brief cognitive assessments made in uncontrolled naturalistic settings provide measurements that are comparable in reliability to assessments made in controlled laboratory environments.

We study the effect of memory impairment on triadic comparisons of animal names in a large clinical data set. We define eight groups of subjects in terms of their delayed free recall performance, and present standard analyses of the triadic comparison and free recall data that provide little insight into the effect of memory impairment on semantic structure. We then develop and apply two new methods for analyzing the data, based on cognitive models and using Bayesian statistical inference. The first new method focuses on modeling changes in semantic representation, by inferring multidimensional scaling (MDS) representations for each group based on their triadic comparisons. These representations reveal a successive decrease in semantic cluster structure and increase in uncertainty with increasing impairment. We propose a measure of spatial organization as a means of quantifying the visually evident changes in semantic organization, and demonstrate its usefulness. The second new method focuses on modeling changes in memory access with impairment, inferring the extent to which each individual makes triadic comparisons consistent with a common semantic representation. Although these inferences are based on just 12 comparisons per subject, we show that they vary systematically with memory impairment group. We conclude by discussing the potential for clinical application of our new models, measures, and methods.

Objective: We assessed the validity of a brief incidental learning measure based on the Similarities and Vocabulary subtests of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV)., Background: Most neuropsychological assessments for memory require intentional learning, but incidental learning occurs without explicit instruction. Incidental memory tests such as the WAIS-III Symbol Digit Coding subtest have existed for many years, but few memory studies have used a semantically processed incidental learning model., Methods: We conducted a retrospective analysis of 37 veterans with traumatic brain injury, referred for outpatient neuropsychological testing at a Veterans Affairs hospital. As part of their evaluation, the participants completed the incidental learning tasks. We compared their incidental learning performance to their performance on traditional memory measures., Results: Incidental learning scores correlated strongly with scores on the California Verbal Learning Test-Second Edition (CVLT-II) and Brief Visuospatial Memory Test-Revised (BVMT-R). After we conducted a partial correlation that controlled for the effects of age, incidental learning correlated significantly with the CVLT-II Immediate Free Recall, CVLT-II Short-Delay Recall, CVLT-II Long-Delay Recall, and CVLT-II Yes/No Recognition Hits, and with the BVMT-R Delayed Recall and BVMT-R Recognition Discrimination Index., Conclusions: Our incidental learning procedures derived from subtests of the WAIS-IV Edition are an efficient and valid way of measuring memory. These tasks add minimally to testing time and capitalize on the semantic encoding that is inherent in completing the Similarities and Vocabulary subtests.

Although previous work has shown that emotion regulation strategies can influence memory, the mechanisms through which different strategies produce different memory outcomes are not well understood. We examined how two cognitive reappraisal strategies with similar elaboration demands but diverging effects on visual attention and emotional arousal influenced explicit memory for emotional stimuli and for the strategies used to evaluate the stimuli. At encoding, participants used reappraisal to increase and decrease the personal relevance of neutral and emotional pictures. In two experiments, recall accuracy was highest for emotional pictures featured on increase trials, intermediate for emotional pictures featured on look (respond naturally) trials, and lowest for emotional pictures featured on decrease trials. This recall pattern emerged after a short delay (15 min) and persisted over a longer delay (48 hr). Memory accuracy for the strategies used to evaluate the pictures showed a different pattern: Strategy memory was better for emotional pictures featured on decrease and increase trials than for pictures featured on look trials. Our findings show that the effects of emotion regulation on memory depend both on the particular strategy engaged and the particular aspect of memory being tested.

A large number of questions in clinical and/or experimental neuropsychology require the multiple repetition of memory tests at relatively short intervals. Studies on the impact of the associated exercise and interference effects on the validity of the test results are rare. Moreover, hardly any neuropsychological instruments exist to date to record the memory performance with several parallel versions in which the emotional valence of the test material is also taken into consideration. The aim of the present study was to test whether a working memory test (WST, a digit-span task with neutral or negative distraction stimuli) devised by our workgroup can be used with repeated measurements. This question was also examined in parallel versions of a wordlist learning paradigm and an autobiographical memory test (AMT). Both tests contained stimuli with neutral, positive and negative valence. Twenty-four participants completed the memory testing including the working memory test and three versions of a wordlist and the AMT at intervals of a week apiece (measuring points 1. - 3.). The results reveal consistent performances across the three measuring points in the working and autobiographical memory test. The valence of the stimulus material did not influence the memory performance. In the delayed recall of the wordlist an improvement in memory performance over time was seen. The tests on working memory presented and the parallel versions for the declarative and autobiographical memory constitute informal economic instruments within the scope of the measurement repeatability designs. While the WST and AMT are appropriate for study designs with repeated measurements at relatively short intervals, longer intervals might seem more favourable for the use of wordlist learning paradigms., (© Georg Thieme Verlag KG Stuttgart · New York.)

Proactive interference (PI) that remains unidentified can confound the assessment of verbal learning, particularly when its effects vary from one population to another. The International Shopping List Task (ISLT) is a new measure that provides multiple forms that can be equated for linguistic factors across cultural groups. The aim of this study was to examine the build-up of PI on two measures of verbal learning-a traditional test of list learning (Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test, RAVLT) and the ISLT. The sample consisted of 61 healthy adults aged 18-40. Each test had three parallel forms, each recalled three times. Results showed that repeated administration of the ISLT did not result in significant PI effects, unlike the RAVLT. Although these PI effects, observed during short retest intervals, may not be as robust under normal clinical administrations of the tests, the results suggest that the choice of the verbal learning test should be guided by the knowledge of PI effects and the susceptibility of particular patient groups to this effect.

The Cognistat is a widely used screening instrument for the evaluation of higher cerebral functioning. The Verbal Memory subtest contains an alternate word list without the cuing (i.e., category prompts) and recognition stimuli presented with the primary word list. This leaves the examiner responsible for creating nonstandardized category cues and recognition memory foils when the alternate task is employed. We developed a categorization questionnaire to obtain cuing and recognition items for the alternate word list. Two groups of participants were evaluated: a young sample (n = 518) and an elderly sample (n = 43). Data for the cuing and recognition phases of the alternate verbal memory word list are presented.

Previous research has found that executive functioning plays a role in memory performance. This study sought to determine the amount of variance accounted for in the California Verbal Learning Test-Second Edition (CVLT-II) by a global executive-functioning factor score. Archival data were extracted from 285 outpatients in a mixed neurologic sample. Measures used included: CVLT-II, Wisconsin Card-Sorting Test (Perseverative Errors), Trail-Making Test-Part B, Controlled Oral Word Association Test, Animal Naming, and Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Third Edition Similarities. Executive data were reduced to a single executive-functioning factor score for each individual. Regression was used to determine the amount of variance accounted for by executive functioning in CVLT-II performance. Executive functioning accounted for minimal variance (0%-10%) in the following CVLT-II indexes: Total Learning (Trials 1-5), Semantic Clustering, Repetitions, Intrusions, and False Positives. However, executive functioning accounted for substantial variance (24%-31%) in CVLT-II performance for both Short- and Long-Delay Recall indexes and most discriminability indexes. CVLT-II indexes that would intuitively be associated with executive functioning accounted for a smaller-than-expected amount of variance. Additionally, level of executive functioning was related to level of CVLT-II performance. These results suggest that clinicians should consider executive deficits when interpreting mild-to-moderate memory impairments in recall and discriminability functions but that executive abilities have little effect on other aspects of memory.

The perception and processing of temporal information are tasks the brain must continuously perform. These include measuring the duration of stimuli, storing duration information in memory, recalling such memories, and comparing two durations. How the brain accomplishes these tasks, however, is still open for debate. The temporal bisection task, which requires subjects to compare temporal stimuli to durations held in memory, is perfectly suited to address these questions. Here we perform a meta-analysis of human performance on the temporal bisection task collected from 148 experiments spread across 18 independent studies. With this expanded data set we are able to show that human performance on this task contains a number of significant peculiarities, which in total no single model yet proposed has been able to explain. Here we present a simple 2-step decision model that is capable of explaining all the idiosyncrasies seen in the data., (Copyright © 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The Buschke Selective Reminding Test (SRT) measures verbal learning and memory during a multiple-trial list-learning task, which allows for analysis of encoding, storage, and retrieval data. This study of 443 healthy participants (ages 18 to 83 years with 3 to 18 years of education) presents normative data for the Greek population. Statistical analysis indicated that age and educational level were correlated with all the variables as well as sex, although to a considerably lesser extent. Performance on most of the measures decreased with increasing age and lower education, whereas sex differences favored women over men. Based on these results, the sample was stratified into six age groups and three levels of education, with mean and standard deviation for each group. Current norms for the Selective Reminding Test represent a useful neuropsychological tool in clinical practice for patients with memory dysfunction, irrespective of etiology.

Although neuroimaging and human lesion studies agree that the medial parietal region plays a critical role in episodic memory, many neuroimaging studies have also implicated lateral parietal cortex, leading some researchers to suggest that the lateral region plays a heretofore underappreciated role in episodic memory. Because there are very few extant lesion data on this matter, we examined memory in six cases of focal lateral parietal damage, using both clinical and experimental measures, in which we distinguished between recollection and familiarity. The patients did not have amnesia, but they did show evidence of disrupted recollection on an anterograde memory task. Although the exact mechanisms remain to be elucidated, lateral parietal damage appears to impair some aspects of episodic memory.

Objective: There is growing interest in the relationship between anorexia nervosa (AN) and obsessive-compulsive (OC) spectrum disorders (e.g., OCD, body dysmorphic disorder [BDD]). Previous neuropsychological investigations of OC spectrum disorders have identified problems with the efficient use of strategy on complex measures of learning and memory. This study evaluated nonverbal strategic memory in AN outpatients using an approach previously applied to OC spectrum disorders., Method: Eighteen patients with AN and 19 healthy control participants completed the Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure Test (RCFT), a widely used measure of nonverbal strategic planning, learning, and memory., Results: Individuals with AN differed significantly from healthy controls in the organizational strategies used to copy the RCFT figure, and they recalled significantly less information on both immediate and delayed testing. Multiple regression analyses indicated that group differences in learning were mediated by copy organizational strategies., Conclusion: These results are identical to study findings in OCD and BDD, indicating important shared neuropsychological features among AN and these OC spectrum disorders. As in OCD and BDD, the essential cognitive deficit in AN was impaired use of organizational strategies, which may inform our understanding of the pathophysiology of AN and potentially offer treatment implications., (Copyright (c) 2006 by Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Introduction and Aims: Interdisciplinary research made by neuropsychologist, neurologists and radiologists is making possible descriptions of the anatomic bases of memory. The hippocampus is one of the main structures related to memory processing. The aim of the present study was to study the relationship between verbal and visual memory, and the volumetry and relaxometry of the., Patients and Methods: 36 patients with temporal lobe epilepsy and mesial temporal sclerosis (MTS). Fist, a neuropsychological assessment of was made the verbal and visual memory. Second, hippocampal structure were studied by magnetic resonance image (hippocampal volumetry and relaxometry)., Results and Conclusions: Reactive gliosis measured by T2 relaxation time predicted poorer visual memory in patients with right or left MTS. These results indicate that structural damage in right hippocampus implies worse performance in visual memory. Moreover, MTS was found to have negative effects on contralateral memory (poorer verbal memory in right MTS, and poorer visual memory in left MTS). These results could be due to memory compensation. Thus, the memory function associated with the sclerotic hippocampus is adopted by the contralateral structure. Therefore, the more damage there is to the latter, the poorer is the memory functioning.

A computerized version of the Corsi blocks task (Milner, 1971) was assessed for standard forward-recall order (Experiments 1 and 3) and for reversed-recall order (Experiments 2 and 3) either in a single-task or in a dual-task design combined with articulatory suppression, matrix-tapping, random-interval generation or fixed-interval generation as concurrent tasks during the encoding stage. Concurrent performance of the matrix-tapping task impaired memory performance for short as well as for longer block sequences. The random-interval generation task, which loads executive processes, impaired memory performance mainly at intermediate- and longer-sequence lengths, while fixed-interval generation, which is presumed to put no load on executive processing, did not show any effect. Articulatory suppression did not impair memory performance on forward-recall order, but it impaired memory for longer sequences in the backward-recall condition in Experiment 2, but not in Experiment 3. The results are discussed within the context of the working-memory model of Baddeley and Hitch (1974).

Previous studies have reported that illiterates perform more poorly than literates on a variety of neuropsychological measures. We investigated the hypothesis that putative memory deficits in illiterates are an artifact of the assessment tools used rather than a reflection of an 'underdeveloped' ability. In order to accomplish this, we designed two tests, a word list learning test and an object learning test. The illiterate group performed more poorly than semiliterate and literate groups on most variables of the word list learning test, but only on delayed recall and semantic clustering on the object learning test. Our findings suggest that poor memory performance among illiterates can be attributed both to the nature of the task, as well as to the use of different cognitive mechanisms to recall learned information. Presumably, formal education may enhance the innate ability of learning through training individuals in efficient learning and retrieval strategies. We emphasize the importance of developing and using ecologically valid neuropsychological tests to assess illiterate individuals.

Twenty closed-head injured (CHI) patients and 20 matched controls were tested with three different memory tasks: cued recall, word stem completion (WSC), and saving. Saving is defined as the advantage of relearning of a list of word pairs, in terms of the number of learning trials to the criterion of one errorless trial, over the original learning of the same list. It was predicted that CHI patients' explicit memory (i.e., cued recall), but not implicit memory (i.e., WSC), would be impaired. The question addressed in this study is whether the memory of CHI patients will be impaired when memory is tested with a saving task, with 2 weeks delay between original learning and relearning. The findings confirm impairment of CHI patients in explicit memory, although the learning rate is preserved. Implicit memory is preserved in CHI patients only when based on reactivation of preexisting knowledge, but not when dependent on forming new associations. Finally, the CHI patients, even after 2 weeks delay, demonstrated a significant saving in relearning old, as compared to new, pairs of words. The clinical contribution of this study is the delineation of those aspects of memory that are impaired and those that are preserved in CHI patients. The theoretical implications of the finding that memory could be preserved in CHI patients when measured by saving, are discussed in terms of the relationship between implicit memory and saving.

Unlabelled: We developed a Japanese version of the Everyday Memory Checklist(EMC), which was originally made by Wilson et al. to assess everyday memory problems, and examined its reliability and validity in assessing brain-damaged patients with memory deficits., Subjects and Methods: The subjects consisted of 393 brain-damaged patients with memory deficits aged between 17 and 90 years with the mean MMSE of 24.6, and 132 control subjects aged between 19 and 86 years with the mean MMSE of 28.5. Patients' everyday memory problems were both self-evaluated and evaluated by their caregivers, while those of control subjects were only self-evaluated with the EMC., Results: The test-retest reliability of the EMC evaluated in 149 randomly selected patients was acceptably high with intraclass correlation coefficient (0.950 for caregiver-evaluated scores and 0.759 for self-evaluated scores). The standard memory test scores were significantly correlated with the EMC scores of the patients evaluated by the caregivers; among them the scores of the Rivermead Behavioural Memory Test were most highly correlated with the EMC scores. On the other hand, the scores of the non-memory cognitive test scores were not significantly correlated with the EMC scores. The self-evaluated EMC scores of the patients were significantly lower than those of the patients evaluated by the caregivers, and were not correlated with memory test scores or with non-memory cognitive test scores. As the EMC scores of control subjects over 60 years were significantly higher than the scores of the subjects under 59 years, we compared the EMC scores between the patients and the control subjects after we divided each subject into two groups depending on age. The EMC scores of the patients evaluated by the caregivers were significantly higher than the score of the control subjects in groups of both over 60 years and under 59 years. However, the self-evaluated EMC scores of the patient were not significantly higher than the EMC scores of the control subjects. In the analysis of the diagnostic accuracy, the EMC scores of the patients evaluated by the caregivers correctly classified 40.9% of patients and 92.9% of normal subjects by setting the cut-off scores of 14/15 in subjects under 59 years, and classified 50.2% of patients and 85.5% of normal subjects by setting the cut-off scores of 16/17 in subjects over 60 years., Conclusion: When caregivers evaluated the amnesic patients, the Japanese version of the EMC is reliable and valid in assessing everyday memory problems.

Decreased memory skills have been reported in children with epilepsy. However, standardized instruments to evaluate learning and memory in children have been unavailable until recently. The present study was designed to assess memory patterns in children with epilepsy based on the California Verbal Learning Test-Children's Version (CVLT-C). The test was administered to 44 children with complex partial seizures and 21 children with generalized seizures between 8 and 13 years of age. Children in the study had been treated for epilepsy for at least 6 months, had well-controlled seizures on monotherapy, and had no evidence of anticonvulsant toxicity. Children with head injuries, learning disabilities, or hyperactivity were excluded. Test results did not reflect differences in memory performance based on seizure type. Scores for the entire sample indicated intact new learning, decreased intrusions and perseverative responses, and better short-term than long-term delayed recall. Recognition skills were stronger than long-term delayed recall skills and suggested that memory performance may be improved for these children when a multiple-choice format is available in academic settings.

The California Verbal Learning Test (CVLT) is a widely used measure of verbal learning and memory; however, there is little empirical evidence about the effects of the administration procedure on the test results. The primary goal of this study was to examine the effect of the semantic cuing condition on subsequent free recall of the material. A secondary goal was to assess whether prior knowledge that the words on the list are drawn from four semantic categories would enhance recall. Participants were 154 young healthy adults. The results suggested that participants who received semantic cuing according to the standardized test instructions generated the same number of correct words on the delayed free recall of the list as did those who did not receive cuing. Cuing did, however, lead participants to use greater semantic clustering in their delayed recall of the list. Participants who were provided with information prior to learning about the semantic structure of the test did not show enhanced learning relative to those who did not receive this information. We conclude that semantic cuing on the CVLT does not substantially enhance delayed recall of the material in healthy participants, although it is quite possible that cuing would have a greater effect in patients who have poor semantic organizational skills.

In 2 experiments, possible adult age differences in negative priming were explored using several variants of the Stroop color-word task. Negative priming was at least as high in the older adults as in the younger adults in every variant. Negative priming varied as a function of condition, but the age equivalence was unaffected. This result was true even when the possibility of general slowing was taken into account. Across conditions, interference and negative priming were positively correlated. The results do not permit a clear choice between the 2 major theoretical explanations of negative priming, inhibition and memory retrieval; they do show that negative priming can be systematically manipulated within an experimental paradigm.

Three experiments (ns = 14 per group) are reported which investigated the ability of Parkinson patients to remember the characteristics of conditions under which a memory was acquired. In Exp. 1, subjects were required to indicate for each item in a recognition memory test whether it was spoken by Experimenter 1 or by Experimenter 2 (external-external source memory). In Exp. 2, subjects had to indicate for each item whether it was generated by themselves or by the experimenter (internal-external source memory). In Exp. 3, subjects had to judge whether an item was generated by themselves in saying or in thinking (internal-internal source memory). We found that patients with Parkinson's disease were not impaired in the previous two kinds of source memory (Exp. 1 and 2) but were impaired in internal-internal source memory (Exp. 3) relative to the age-matched control groups. In addition, both groups' performance could be improved when given distinctive cues, i.e., perceptual cues in Exp. 1 and different-domain cues in Exp. 2. These results suggest that the availability of cues was critical for Parkinson's disease in source memory. Finally, the result of Exp. 2 also showed generation effects for patients with Parkinson's disease. The generation effect refers to better memory of information by people when they had to produce it, e.g., producing associates to a word, compared with memory of information given to them.

Pictorial stimuli and words have been widely used to evaluate mnemonic processes in clinical settings, neuropsychological investigations, as well as in studies on the mechanisms underlying the phenomena of memory. However, there seem to be few studies of standardisation of pictures for research in this field. The present paper aimed at adapting the use of a set of pictures standardised for English speaking subjects for Portuguese speakers. Name agreement of 150 pictures was assessed in 100 high-school students. Ninety pictures were found to present the same name for over 90 subjects. Results yield data that may help create more controlled tests for the study of memory for pictorial stimuli in Brazil.

Objective: To compare the Double Memory Test (DMT) with standard memory tests in the diagnosis of early dementia., Background: Diagnosis of dementia requires memory impairment, but few memory tests coordinate acquisition and retrieval to optimize encoding specificity for high sensitivity and specificity. The DMT was developed to improve early diagnosis., Design: We compared the discriminative validity of the DMT, Paired Associates (PA), and Logical Memory (LM) memory tests in a nested case-control study of 30 cases of early dementia and 90 controls matched for age, education, and sex., Methods: The DMT includes memory tests with (CCR) and without (ICR) encoding specificity. Both tests use category cues to elicit retrieval, but CCR optimizes encoding specificity because the same cues are used for acquisition and retrieval. ICR does not because category cues are used only for retrieval. We used conditional logistic regression to estimate diagnostic sensitivity and specificity., Results: The median BIMC of dementia cases was 10, indicating mild dementia. CCR had much higher sensitivity (93%) and specificity (99%) than ICR (53%, 94%), PA (68%, 91%), and LM (48%, 92%). CCR had the greatest advantage in the mildest cases., Conclusions: CCR has substantially higher sensitivity and specificity for diagnosis of early dementia than memory tests that do not coordinate acquisition and retrieval. Superior discrimination by CCR is due to an encoding specificity deficit in dementia that increases the difference in recall by cases and controls. CCR is an efficient test with excellent discriminative validity that should facilitate diagnosis of early dementia.

We investigated the impact of attention during encoding on later retrieval. During study, participants read some words aloud (ignoring the print color) and named the print color of other words aloud (ignoring the word). Then one of two memory tests was administered. The explicit test--recognition--required conscious recollection of whether a word was studied. Previously read words were recognized more accurately than were previously color named words. This contrasted sharply with performance on the implicit test--repetition priming in lexical decision. Here, words that were color named during study showed priming equivalent to words that were read during study; both were responded to faster than unstudied words. Thus, an attentional manipulation during study had a strong effect on an explicit test of memory, but almost no effect on an implicit test. Focal attention during study is crucial for remembering consciously but not necessarily for remembering without awareness.

Clinical examination of memory functions often includes the administration of simple free recall tasks, such as the recall of several words following a few minutes. Little is known, however, about the normative parameters or psychometric properties of such procedures, and such techniques have rarely been compared with more comprehensive, well-standardized memory indices. To address these issues, two three-word recall tasks were administered to a large group of carefully selected healthy subjects over the age of 50 years. The Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) was obtained as an index of global cognitive status, and the California Verbal Learning Test (CVLT) was used to exclude subjects with abnormal memory abilities. Significant but modest relationships were found between two three-word recall tasks and CVLT results. Substantial variability was seen on three-word recall, with a significant proportion of normal subjects recalling zero or one word. Results suggest using caution in interpreting simple recall performance as an index of memory, as great variability in results is seen among healthy (particularly older) individuals.

The present study was designed to determine which of the memory tasks included in the CERAD (Consortium to Establish a Registry for Alzheimer's Disease) neuropsychological battery best differentiate patients with early Alzheimer's disease from cognitively normal elderly control subjects and also best distinguish between the various levels of severity of the dementia process. A sample of CERAD patients with Alzheimer's disease was stratified by disease severity into those with mild, moderate, or severe dementia and matched with control subjects for sex, age, and education. Using multivariate procedures and cutting scores, the efficacy of each memory measure in distinguishing between these groups and control subjects was determined. The test for delayed recall was found to be the best overall discriminatory measure. The other tests of memory, ie, immediate recall, intrusion errors, and recognition memory, had poor overall discriminability. None of the CERAD memory measures were found to be particularly powerful in staging the severity of dementia. These findings suggest that tests for delayed recall may be particularly useful in the early detection of Alzheimer's disease and should be considered in screening batteries for dementia in community surveys.

A symptom is reported that has hitherto not been described in neuropsychological literature: Not infrequently, severe aphasics mix automatized verbal series or parts of them not only into their spontaneous speech but also into other modalities of the expressive language. Sometimes this form of automatism replaces a demanded answer. In the speech data of 134 aphasics this symptom was observed in half of the cases. Its incidence was analysed in relation to aetiology, type of aphasia and the modalities in which it was observed. 6 cases are described in detail. The serial reaction is a neuropsychological sign of clinical value, because it indicates an organic brain lesion.

Use of Anomalous Sentences Repetition Test (ASRT) in 16 patients with diagnosis of dementia of Alzheimer's type, 16 normal elderly and 18 patients with depression revealed no difference in the age adjusted scores between the three groups, suggesting that it is not a good test for diagnosing dementia or differentiating dementia from depression.

The purpose of this investigation was to determine the test-retest response consistency rate on a semantic memory task in persons with dementia of the Alzheimer type (DAT). Ten mildly and 13 moderately impaired DAT subjects and 14 normal controls matched for age, years of education, and estimated IQ participated in this study. The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT) was administered twice to each subject with a 7-day intertest interval. The mild and moderate DAT subjects responded inconsistently to significantly more PPVT items than normal controls. When the effects of guessing were considered, moderate DAT subjects gave significantly more inconsistent PPVT responses than normal controls and mild DAT subjects showed a trend toward giving more inconsistent responses. These results substantiate the conclusion that the impairment of specific conceptual knowledge in DAT subjects cannot be reliably measured with a single administration of a semantic memory task such as the PPVT.

A current model proposes that memory consists of two functionally separate systems that have different neurological substrates. Declarative memory appears to be dependent on the diencephalic medial temporal lobe system whereas some speculate that the basal ganglia may be a neurological substrate for procedural memory. This study tested the role of the basal ganglia in regulating different types of procedural skills by comparing performance on a motor and a visuoperceptual skill learning task. Twenty Parkinson's (PD) patients and 20 normal control subjects performed two procedural learning tasks (rotary pursuit and mirror reading) and one declarative learning task (paired associates) over 3 days. The results showed that PD patients were not impaired on mirror reading or paired associate learning. On rotary pursuit, performance levels on day 1 were similar between groups, but the PD group showed less improvement across days than controls. However, only patients with more advanced symptoms of PD showed impaired rotary pursuit learning, and this could not be attributed directly to deficits in primary motor or general cognitive function. These findings suggest that the underlying processes/procedures for procedural learning are specific to the task, and are supported by different neuroanatomical systems.

Memory deficits are among the most common initial complaints of patients who are suffering from neurological disorders. The present study compared the relative clinical utility of the Wechsler Memory Scale and the Luria Memory Words Test in differentiating brain-damaged (N = 60) from non-brain-damaged patients (N = 60). Separate stepwise regression analyses selected five variables from each test that accounted for the greatest between-group variance. Separate discriminant functions then were computed that used the WMS and the Luria Words variables selected through the regression analyses. The WMS correctly classified 72% of the subjects, whereas the Luria Words correctly classified 76% of the subjects. A final discriminant function was computed that used all 10 variables and resulted in a classification accuracy of 86%, with 6% false positives and 6% false negatives. Results are discussed relative to the use of each instrument in both a general psychological assessment situation and when specific memory functioning is in question.

Two studies addressed issues concerning the validity of the Presidents Test. The results of Study 1 substantiated that generalized impairment for recent presidents occurs frequently in the context of multifocal and diffuse cerebral disease. Performances of normal elderly (n = 31) on all four Presidents subtests were superior to those of patients with confusional states (n = 7), uncomplicated dementia (n = 24), and dementia with confusion (n = 20). Overall, 88% of the combined sample was correctly classified (control v. diffuse cerebral disease). In Study 2, generalized memory impairment for recent presidents was found to be rare among samples of patients with unilateral right- and left-hemisphere lesions (n = 40 each). A selective impairment in temporal sequencing was preferentially associated with right-hemisphere disease, whereas verbal deficit patterns were more common in patients with left-sided lesions. These findings further document the validity of the Presidents Test as an efficient, objective method for assessing recent memory impairment due to widespread cerebral disease and suggest that qualitative analysis of performance patterns may be useful for detecting certain nonmnemonic cognitive defects in patients with focal brain disease.

An American version of a psychometric test for clinical assessment and differentiation of verbal memory and learning ability (AVLT = auditory verbal learning test by Rey) was translated into German and evaluated in a population of 100 healthy adult subjects. The theoretical basis for this test and its diagnostic usefulness will be reported and discussed.

The route recall task in the Rivermead Behavioural Memory Test may be difficult to administer to immobile patients or to those being assessed at home. A comparison was made of 20 stroke patients' performance on this task when asked to walk the route around a room and when moving a small figure around a line drawing of a similar room. The results suggest the line drawing may be used in place of walking the route.

The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised (PPVT-R), Boston Naming Test (BNT), Paired Associate Learning of the Wechsler Memory Scale (PAL), and verbal fluency tests were administered to 241 normal children aged 6-12 years. Normative data were compiled for the BNT, PAL, and verbal fluency tests. A Principal Components Factor Analysis with Varimax Rotation was conducted to determine whether the tests evaluated similar or differential functions. Three factors emerged, accounting for 67.7% of the variance: Factor 1 contained loadings from two semantic fluency measures (animals and food), Factor 2 contained the PPVT-R and the BNT, and Factor 3 contained two measures from the PAL (easy and hard associations). In children, the BNT relates more to word knowledge than to retrieval or fluency, and verbal memory appears to be relatively independent of these linguistic functions.

Three experimental modifications of the Token Test were presented to 40 aphasics with predominantly expressive disturbances and 40 control patients with diffuse brain damage. On each token a human figure was drawn (a man, woman, boy, or girl); the size, color, and form of the token were given in the instructions, or the depicted figure was given as the target either in addition to or instead of the size and form. The mere fact that a figure was depicted on the tokens did not affect the performance of the patients. However, when the figures were mentioned in the instructions, the aphasics' performance improved significantly, although it never reached the level of the controls. An analysis of the error types suggested that the poor performance of the aphasics in the Token Test is at least in part due to difficulties identifying complex stimuli when the features are separately named in the instructions.

Older subjects (institutionalized in a home for the aged and non-institutionalized) were compared in a test battery according to the recommendations of the NINCDS-ADRA. The institutionalized subjects were not distinguishable from the controls when only a small amount of information was to be processed or when the information had to be recalled with no distraction. Possible reasons for the observed differences are discussed.

An automated visual search experiment was carried out on patients with incipient Alzheimer's disease, non-demented Parkinsonians and healthy controls to test for selective attention control within the framework of the Norman and Bobrow (1975) model. The performances of the Parkinsonians and healthy controls were consistent with the predictions of this model but those of the Alzheimer patients were not. These patients appeared to be no longer sensitive to the facilitation supplied by the stimulus context and to spend most of their residual resources on achieving accuracy. The reduction of their attentional resources possibly interferes with the control of the speed-accuracy trade-off.

The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between subjective memory and objective assessment using a test designed to reflect daily life memory skills, the Rivermead Behavioural Memory Test (RBMT). A total of 78 patients was assessed seven months after a stroke. Each patient completed a questionnaire about memory problems experienced in daily life. A relative or close friend completed the same questionnaire about the patient. Each patient was assessed on the RBMT and some conventional memory tests. Questionnaire responses were more highly correlated with the RBMT than with conventional tests of memory.

One hundred seventy-eight subjects participated in a study to measure the degree of selective subtest decline on the WAIS-R as a function of increased error rate on the Memory-for-Designs Test. The data show that there is an initial, significant decline in the verbal knowledge component of the verbal scale as error rate on the MFD progresses. Performance factors are only significantly related to error rate on the MFD when the latter are maximized.

Digit repetition was investigated in samples of unilaterally (N = 87) and bilaterally (N = 75) brain-damaged adults. The study was designed to investigate the hemispheric and neuropsychological factors that underlie performance on these two dissimilar tasks. Digit repetition was disproportionately depressed in such patients, especially those with left hemisphere lesions. The incidence of individually impaired digit repetition performance, especially of digits backward, was significantly higher than in normals, again particularly within the left hemisphere sample. However, impaired digit repetition was not invariably associated with brain dysfunction. The data suggest, but do not confirm, a differential function hypothesis, as well as a unilateral hemispheric hypothesis that underlies the ability to repeat forward and backward digits; this finding is consistent with some previous literature. Group performance showed considerable overlap, which limited the possibility of demonstrating a double dissociation between digits forward and verbal measures, and digits backward and nonverbal factors. Digit repetition in brain-damaged patients appears to have some theoretical value, but limited clinical utility.

The Fuld Object Memory Evaluation (Fuld, 1981) was administered to 80 elderly adults (aged 60 to 90 years) who were hospitalized for evaluation and treatment of primary degenerative dementia (PDD), other organic disorders (e.g., Parkinson's disease or multi-infarct dementia), or major depression. Although mean performance in each of the diagnostic groups was below normative levels reported by Fuld (1981), PDD patients performed significantly more poorly than those with depression or other organic disorders. Analysis of subscore patterns failed to support the hypothesis of a selective memory deficit in depression, and substantial overlap in scores was observed between the depressed group and patients with organic disorders other than PDD. Object Memory Evaluation performance was influenced by global mental status and secondary psychiatric diagnoses, but not by education, age, or physical health.

Previous experiments with picture sorting and matching tasks have shown aphasics to give more deviant responses than controls when decisions require the identification of single features of concepts, whereas their responses are close to normal whenever decisions have to be based on the relative overlap of broad associative fields. The present experiment was designed to compare picture matching based on single features (property verification) with picture matching based on category membership (category verification). Fifty-five aphasics (14 amnesics, 18 Brocas, 13 Wernickes, 10 global aphasics) and 29 right-brain-damaged control patients served as subjects. Aphasics were poorer than right hemisphere controls on property as well as on category sortings, especially when the sorting criterion was not a dominant property of the object or when the object in question was not a typical member of the criterion category. Contrary to other studies, the "semantic distance" variable did not differentially affect Brocas as compared to Wernickes aphasics. Verbal labels denoting the sorting criterion and added to the picture presentation did not affect the performance of the right hemisphere controls but significantly improved that of the aphasics.

At present, there is no standardized method for assessing remote memory (RM) for visuospatial information in humans. The Fargo Map Test (FMT) uses knowledge of the locations of geographical features in regions of the country in which subjects currently live and formerly resided to provide a measure of this aspect of RM. Two different formats of the FMT have been developed, which differ in their demands for fine motor skill, ease of scoring, and in the amount and nature of geographical knowledge that can be measured. Preliminary findings suggest that both formats are equally sensitive to the influences of gender and age in normal subjects. Furthermore, knowledge of the geography of regions of prior residence appears to be stable over a period of at least 15 years.

Memory assessment is one of the principal objectives of neuropsychological evaluation. Yet, careful examination reveals very clear shortcomings in the memory tests employed by neuropsychologists. Specifically, most procedures are selected on the basis of their ability to detect structural brain pathology rather than their ability to assess memory performance per se or the constituent operations that underlie it. This paper addresses the shortcomings in the structure of several representative memory tests in neuropsychology, how some of these limitations have been overcome with newer scales, and presents practical and theoretical considerations for the development of new clinical memory measures.

Verbal learning was assessed according to the Selective Reminding Test (SRT) in order to establish normative data and to provide a comparison with measures of immediate attention, verbal IQ, and verbal memory. The 392 subjects, stratified by sex (202 women, 190 men), age (4 groups: 16-70 years), and education (3 groups), were free of conflicting pathologies. Learning curves were established on centiles (75, 50, 25, 5). Sex differences favoring women were found in percent of finishers (those who reached criterion), and at all percentile levels of acquisition. Data were analyzed for group differences in performance on the SRT and related concurrent measures, but sex differences were not found on the VIQ or immediate attention tests. Also, assumptions of age and education stratification were not confirmed. However, those who completed the task were better able to form associational strategies than those who were unable to finish. The present data indicate that it is important to use detailed norms by gender and criterion level if clinical interpretations are to be valid.

This study assessed the diagnostic utility of the Seashore Tonal Memory Test in detecting and localizing cerebral lesions. A group of 238 subjects with focal or diffuse cerebral lesions and a group of 112 normal comparison subjects were administered the Seashore Tonal Memory Test and the Halstead-Reitan Battery. All brain-damaged subgroups did significantly worse than the normal group on the Tonal Memory Test. Patients with right-hemisphere lesions were more impaired on this test than were those with left-hemisphere lesions. In contrast, Seashore Rhythm Test scores were not significantly different for groups with right- versus left-hemisphere lesions. Tonal Memory performance was not found to be related to more precise location of structural lesions within the right hemisphere. Step-wise discriminate function analyses indicated that the Tonal Memory Test adds to the Halstead-Reitan Battery in discriminating left-hemisphere from right-hemisphere lesions and that, for this purpose, it was a better discriminator than all but one of the individual tests currently in the battery.

Geographical knowledge, a measure of remote memory for visuospatial information, was studied in mildly and moderately demented patients who met NINCDS-Alzheimer's Disease and Related Disorders Association criteria for Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimer's disease patients were moderately impaired on a test that emphasizes locating gross features of US geography and profoundly impaired in locating cities on a map of the region of the United States in which they resided. The possibility that performance on tests of geographical knowledge can be used to predict impending difficulties of demented patients in wayfinding is discussed.

Four forms of a selective reminding test were administered to 20 male and 20 female subjects 1 week apart in one of four orders determined by a Latin square. On many of the dependent measures, Form 1 was significantly more difficult than the other three forms, which were equivalent in difficulty. For many of the measures, performance on the first test administered was significantly lower than that on the third and fourth tests administered. Performance on the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th tests administered was similar. Males made significantly more intrusions than females. Interclass correlation coefficients ranged from .414 to .654. Implications for clinical use of the selective reminding tests are discussed.