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Lipophilic wood extractives commonly referred to as pitch, cause significant problems for the pulp and paper industries. The reduction of these extractives is an important aspect that concerns industries around the world. In the present work the change in the amount and chemical composition of lipophilic extractives from Eucalyptus spp. stored for 20, 40, 60, 100, 140 and 180 days after harvesting was investigated. The results showed a decrease in extractives content with storage time, with the most significant decrease occurring 60 days after harvesting. In addition, fatty acids and sterols were the main classes of compounds responsible for the significant decrease in extractive content. Data were analyzed by principal component analysis. PC1 explains approximately 99% of the total variance, and β-sitosterol was the major compound responsible for the differentiation. These studies demonstrate that in terms of economical aspects, quality of the pulp and paper and minimization of pitch formation, the best period of wood storage is 60 days. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Copyright of Colloquium Agrariae is the property of Asociacao Prudentina de Educacao e Cultura (APEC) and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

In the last decades, several methodologies for estimating crop phenology based on remote sensing data have been developed and used to create different algorithms. Although many studies have been conducted to evaluate the different methodologies, a comprehensive understanding of the potential of the different current algorithms to detect changes in the growing season is still lacking, especially in large regions and with more than one crop per season. Therefore, this work aimed to evaluate different phenological metrics extraction methodologies. Using data from over 1500 fields distributed across Brazil's central area, six algorithms, including CropPhenology, Digital Earth Australia tools package (DEA), greenbrown, phenex, phenofit, and TIMESAT, to extract soybean crop phenology were applied. To understand how robust the algorithms are to different input sources, the NDVI and EVI2 time series derived from MODIS products (MOD13Q1 and MOD09Q1) and from Sentinel-2 satellites were used to estimate the sowing date (SD) and harvest date (HD) in each field. The algorithms produced significantly different phenological date estimates, with Spearman's R ranging between 0.26 and 0.82 when comparing sowing and harvesting dates. The best estimates were obtained using TIMESAT and phenex for SD and HD, respectively, with R greater than 0.7 and RMSE of 16–17 days. The DEA tools and greenbrown packages showed higher sensitivity when using different data sources. Double cropping is an added challenge, with no method adequately identifying it. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to characterize the reproductive system and determine the importance of pollinators for fruit production of Caryocar brasiliense, an economically important tree, in preserved and degraded Cerrado areas in southeastern Brazil. For this purpose, we performed pollinator exclusion experiments to determine the frequency of self- and cross-pollination, and to determine fruit set. In general, fruit set was extremely low; only 2.92% and 2.71% of the flowers developed into fruits in the degraded and preserved areas, respectively. Fruit sets by manual cross-pollination and natural (open) pollination were higher than self-pollination in both areas. Pollen deposition was significantly higher at night and in the preserved area, although a relatively high amount of pollen grains is found in the stigmas during the day. The number of ripened and aborted seeds did not differ among areas, but fruits and seeds were heavier in the degraded area than in the preserved area. The abortion level was very high (64.5%), which may be related to low pollen quality due to selfing. Our study presents evidence that Cerrado degradation affects the reproductive biology of C. brasiliense, but whether such effect is a consequence of pollinator decline in degraded areas remains to be determined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Revista Caatinga is the property of Revista Caatinga and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

In any sensory analysis, it is important to investigate whether the tasters agree with each other, because they can assign scores in a correlated, but not the concordant way. This work investigated the adherence and the concordance among tasters of the coffee sensorial analysis of the Arabica and Conilon varieties, and their impacts on the final quality ratings of these varieties. The samples were obtained from regions of the Espirito Santo state, Brazil, and were evaluated by six tasters, with five repetitions and four treatments, totaling 120 observations. Nonparametric statistical techniques were used to compare the distribution of grades, and Lin's concordance coefficient was used to analyze the concordance among tasters. The Factor Analysis by Principal Components revealed that different distributions and disagreements among tasters affect, mainly, the sensorial attributes body, overall, flavor and acidity, thus changing the final result of the evaluation and, consequently, the final quality ratings of the products. These results allow new approaches in conducting the coffee sensorial analysis. Practical applications: The production of specialty coffees brings an excellent opportunity to add value, especially for small producers, or family producers on properties where the relief and climate make harvesting difficult, such as the mountain regions of the state of Espírito Santo, Brazil. This new perspective allows small producers to participate in contests to promote their product, which can be sold at different prices in the national and international markets. However, if the quality assessment methods suffer some kind of interference, the final evaluation may be unfair, or at least, incompatible with the reality of each product. The objective of this study is not to disqualify the current evaluation methods, but to justify improvements in these methods, which must be appreciated and improved by evaluators in the area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work brings a refined estimation of the land use change and derived CO2 emissions associated with sugarcane cultivation, including changes in management practices and refined land-use carbon stocks, over the last two decades for Brazil's center–south and north regions. The analysis was carried out at the rural property level, considering spatially explicit land conversion data. With the refinements, we found a net carbon removal of 9.8 TgCO2∙yr−1 in sugarcane cultivation areas in the 2000–2020 period, which was due to the expansion of sugarcane over poor quality pastures (55% of the gross removals), croplands (15%) and mosaic (14%) areas, and the transition from the conventional burned harvesting to unburned (16%). Moreover, 98.4% of expansion was over existent agricultural areas. Considering all the land use changes within sugarcane-producing rural properties, the net removal is even larger, of 17 TgCO2∙yr−1, which is due to vegetation recovery. This suggests that public policies and private control mechanisms might have been effective not only to control deforestation but also to induce carbon removals associated with sugarcane cultivation. These results indicate sugarcane production system and derived products as contributors to net carbon removals in the land sector in Brazil and should be considered for both bioenergy and agricultural sustainability evaluation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With size, voting discipline, and technical resources superior to those of most Brazilian parties, in the last two decades, the support of the Agrarian Caucus has become crucial for the realization of presidents' legislative agenda. In a country where 87 percent of the population is urban, how have representatives of the agrarian elites become key players in bargaining on nonagrarian issues? This article argues that Brazilian agrarian elites have been so successful because they have devised an electoral strategy that maximizes their leverage in a fragmented party system with ideologically weak right-wing parties. Empirically, I show how agrarian elites in Brazil finance legislative campaigns, mobilize voters, and subsidize the legislative work of politicians from their ranks, independently of their partisan affiliation. Theoretically, I discuss the advantages of a candidate-centered electoral strategy: self-representation and multipartisanship. While self-representation has granted agrarian elites direct access to agenda-setting positions within Congress, having members in many parties has increased the number of agenda-setting positions they can control and guaranteed their presence in the legislative coalition of right- and left-wing presidents alike. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Whole-plant corn silage (WPCS) is a major source of forage for dairy cattle in Brazil. Improved kernel processing may be especially advantageous when feeding corn hybrids with vitreous endosperms. Two experiments were conducted to evaluate the effects of the theoretical length of cut (TLOC) and ensiling time on WPCS particle size and kernel processing with two types of forage harvesters. In the first trial, the plant was harvested by a pull-type forage harvester (PTFH) at TLOCs of 3, 6 and 9 mm. In the second trial, the harvesting was performed by a self-propelled forage harvester (SPFH) at TLOCs of 6, 12 and 18 mm, with a roll gap of 3 mm. The WPCS were stored for 0, 35 and 140 days. In the PTFH trial, the TLOCs of 3 and 6 mm did not affect the WPCS particle size distribution and mean particle length (MPL). However, the TLOC of 9 mm increased the MPL. The increase in the TLOC with the SPFH led to a higher MPL and percentage of long particles. The ensiling time increased the MPL and long particles only for the WPCS harvested by the SPFH. The strategy of reducing the TLOC with the SPFH increased the percentage of kernels smaller than 4.75 mm. Furthermore, the TLOC of 6 mm led to the best kernel processing with the SPFH. The ensiling time reduced the particle size of the kernel fractions for both forage harvesters. The corn silage processing score was improved with 140 days of ensiling with the SPFH. These findings suggest that increasing the ensiling time and a low TLOC in SPFHs (6 mm) may be good strategies to increase kernel damage and starch digestibility in WPCS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Irrigation & Drainage is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The United Nations included reducing harvest and postharvest losses as a Sustainable Millennium Development Goal in 2015, leading to increased research and policymaker interest in reducing losses to insure food security. This article analyzes the factors associated with self-reported harvest loss among soybean farmers in Paraná, Brazil, using a survey of 243 farmers. The principal–agent problem is the most important contributor to harvest and postharvest losses on the farm. Loss is lowered when the combines are operated at slower speeds and are adjusted properly, but combine operators have incentives to complete harvesting jobs and deliver soybean to storage facilities quickly. Farmers report training of the combine operators as one of the most important causes of postharvest loss. Empirical results show that farmers report a 1.5 percentage points higher harvest loss when they ask a third party to harvest. Similarly, the farmers' education level is negatively associated with harvest loss; farmers with college completion have 1.6 percentage points less loss compared to farmers with less than fourth grade. However, larger planted areas are associated with higher harvest loss. The paper suggests that who harvests the crop is critical in reducing harvest loss. Policies and contract designs that align incentives between farmers and combine operators might reduce harvest and postharvest loss. • Reducing harvest and postharvest losses contributes to greater food security. • The principal–agent problem contributes to harvest losses. • Farmers report combine operators' training as the primary cause of harvest loss. • The farmers' education level is negatively associated with harvest loss. • Aligning incentives between farmers and combine operators may reduce harvest loss. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The best sensorial Brown Turkey figs for the fresh market are the ones harvested soft. However, at this maturity stage, they have a very short shelf life, from two to seven days, depending on environmental conditions, which make their marketing very difficult. This research's goal was to increase the shelf life of soft 'Roxo de Valinhos' figs, a 'Brown Turkey' plant material grown in Brazil, stored under refrigeration, by applying 1-methylcyclopropene (1- MCP), an ethylene inhibitor. Soft 'Roxo de Valinhos' figs were submitted to 1-MCP at 0; 0.5; 1.0 and 1.5 μg. L-1 for 24 h in airtight, under refrigeration at 4 ± 1 ºC. Subsequently, fruits were stored for up to 17 days at 4 ± 1 ºC. After removing from refrigerated conditions, fruits were kept for one day at room temperature (22 ºC), and then they were evaluated to determine their physical and chemical features. 1-MCP at 1.5 μg. L-1 was able to increase the soft figs shelf life to 12 days. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Tropical Grasslands / Forrajes Tropicales is the property of International Centre for Tropical Agriculture - CIAT and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Brazil is one of the largest producers of eucalyptus that is used for manufacturing pulp and paper; this contributes directly to the issue of carbon emissions. Reforestation of eucalyptus appears as a viable alternative for mitigating these carbon emissions, leveraging their high productivity to that of other leading countries in the market, such as Finland and Sweden. This study aims to develop a model for monitoring and evaluating forest growth and quantifying wood stocks and sequestered carbon. System dynamics was used to simulate forest growth. Forest growth was modeled from eight regions with dissimilar edaphoclimatic characteristics, in the state of Minas Gerais, in Brazil. The model was sensitive enough to the characteristics of the regions, where the difference in forest stocks was 45.1% at the end of 30 years in a harvest cycle of 7 years. It was found that the typical harvest cycle in practice by leading companies did not always yield a higher sequestered CO 2 accumulated stock. By shortening the harvest cycle, it was possible to obtain a gain of up to 21.0% in the sequestered CO 2 stock. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Revista Caatinga is the property of Revista Caatinga and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This paper analyses variations in the quali-quantitative characterization of winery wastewater, and the behavior of the treatment of these effluents. The wastewater produced is sent to two disposition systems: Point A receives the wastewater from the production area whereas Point B receives the wastewater from the area where the washing of bottles takes place. Two Aerated Submerged Biofilter (ASB) reactors (with oyster shells as support material) were built at lab scale to promote the treatment of the winery effluent. Water usage and effluent production values of the 2008 harvest season indicate that grape processing accounted for 30% of the total water usage. The median value found for the effluent at Point A was 8,260mgCODL-1 and at Point B 358mgCODL-1. The average C/N/P ratio found at Point A was 100/0.29/0.28 during the harvest and 100/0.27/0.25 during the non harvest. For ASB 1 the COD removal efficiency ranged from 56% to 90%, with the removed organic load ranging from 1.5 kgCODm-3 d-1 to 2.7 kgCODm-3 d-1, respectively. For ASB 2 the COD removal efficiency ranged from 63% to 82%, with the removed organic load ranging from 1.8 kgCODm-3 d-1 to 1.7 kg CODm-3 d-1, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The San Francisco Valley region from Brazil is known worldwide for its fruit production and exportation, especially grapes and wines. The grapes have high quality not only due to the excellent morphological characteristics, but also to the pleasant taste of their fruits. Such features are obtained because of the climatic conditions present in the region. In addition to the favorable climate for grape cultivation, harvesting at the right time interferes with fruit properties. Results: This work aims to define grape maturation stage of Syrah and Cabernet Sauvignon cultivars with the aid of deep‐learning models. The idea of working with these algorithms came from the fact that the techniques commonly used to find the ideal harvesting point are invasive, expensive, and take a long time to get their results. In this work, convolutional neural networks were used in an image classification system, in which grape images were acquired, preprocessed, and classified based on their maturation stage. Images were acquired with varying illuminants that were considered as parameters of the classification models, as well as the different post‐harvesting weeks. The best models achieved maturation classification accuracy of 93.41% and 72.66% for Syrah and Cabernet Sauvignon respectively. Conclusions: It was possible to correctly classify wine grapes using computational intelligent algorithms with high accuracy, regarding the harvesting time, corroborating chemometric results. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this work, we present a model to assist in the equipment replacement decision process in the context of the Brazilian forestry sector using detailed equipment maintenance schedules. The approaches are based on the economic life (EL) method for three scenarios. In the first scenario, we considered buying a new machine during the first period. For the second scenario, we considered keeping the current machine for 24 months, and then buying a new one while for the third scenario, we considered selling the current machine, leasing a new one for 24 months and then buying a new machine. Our example draws from five tree harvesting machines that cut, delimb, and process the tree stem into logs in forest plantations of a large integrated Brazilian forestry company. The algorithms were coded in Visual Basic for Applications (VBA). The results show the new machine discounted cost (CNM) and rebuild machine discounted cost (CRM) scenarios presented higher values than the leased machine discounted cost (CRE) scenario, and those solutions should be rejected. The economic life policy proved optimum with 52 months for a new machine, while the best decision to make is sell the current machine, lease a new one for 24 months and then buy a new one. The solution and the algorithms used are described. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Acta Scientiarum: Agronomy is the property of Universidade Estadual de Maringa and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Knowing water consumption patterns in buildings is key information for water planning. This article aims to characterize the water consumption pattern and water end-uses in low-income houses in the region of Florianópolis, Southern Brazil. Data were collected by interviewing householders, as well as by measuring the flow rate of existing water fixtures and appliances. The results indicated that the shower was the fixture with the largest water consumption in households, i.e., about 30%-36% of total water consumption on average, followed by the toilet (18%-20%). The surveyed households consumed from 111 to 152 L/capita.day on average, based on different income ranges. No correlation was found between income and water consumption. The results of this study can be used to estimate the consumption of water for new buildings, as well as to develop integrated water management strategies in low-income developments, in Florianópolis, such as water-saving plumbing fixtures, rainwater harvesting, and greywater reuse. Likely, there would be a deferral of capital investments in new water assets for enhancing water and wastewater services by saving water in low-income houses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Biotropica is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Economic Botany is the property of Springer Nature and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Throughout the Amazon of Brazil, manioc ( Manihot esculenta) is a staple crop produced through slash-and-burn agriculture. Nutrient losses during slash-and-burn can be large and nutrient demand by food crops so great that fields are often abandoned after two years. In recent decades, farmers have reduced the fallow phase from 20 to ~5 years, limiting plant nutrient accumulation to sustain crop yields. Improved fallows through simultaneous planting of trees with food crops may accelerate nutrient re-accumulation. In addition, slash-and-mulch technology may prevent loss of nutrients due to burning and mulch decomposition may serve as a slow-release source of nutrients. This study in Pará, Brazil, in a 7-year-old secondary forest following slashing and mulching of the vegetation, involved two main plot treatments (with and without P and K fertilizers) and two sub-plot treatments (with or without a N-fixer Inga edulis). A mixed-culture of trees and manioc was planted in all plots. P and K fertilizer increased tree mortality due to weed competition but growth of surviving trees in four of the five tree species tested also increased as did biomass production of manioc. In the N-fixer treatment trends of greater growth and survival of four of five tree species and manioc biomass were also observed. Fertilization increased the biomass of competing vegetation, but there was a fertilizer by N-fixer interaction as I. edulis caused a reduction in competing biomass in the fertilized treatment. After one year, fertilization increased decomposition of the mulch such that Ca, Mg, and N contents within the mulch all decreased. In contrast, P and K contents of mulch increased in all treatments. No influence of the N-fixer on 0-10 cm soil N contents was observed. Two years after establishment, this agroforestry system succeeded in growing a manioc crop and leaving a well-maintained tree fallow after the crop harvest. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Revista Brasileira de Engenharia Agricola e Ambiental - Agriambi is the property of Revista Brasileira de Engenharia Agricola e Ambiental and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Revista de Economia e Sociologia Rural is the property of Sociedade Brasileira de Economia e Sociologia Rural and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

1. As human population size increases, demand for natural resources will increase. Logging pressure related to increasing demands continues to threaten remote areas of Amazonian forest. A harvest protocol is required to provide renewable timber resources that meet consumer needs while minimizing negative effects on biodiversity and ecosystem services. Reduced-impact logging (RIL) may be a viable option to achieve these goals. 2. Effects of RIL (18 m3 ha−1) and forest physiognomy were assessed for populations of bats from Amazonian terra firme forest in Brazil at 20–42 months postharvest. 3. Based on 64 512 meter-hours of netting, 1468 bats were captured representing 47 species, 30 genera, four families and five feeding ensembles. Five species (one nectarivore and four frugivores) responded to management in a consistent manner: four were more abundant in logged forest and one was more abundant in undisturbed forest. Ten species (one nectarivore, two gleaning animalivores and seven frugivores) responded to forest physiognomy in a consistent manner: nine were more abundant in closed-canopy sites and one was more abundant in gaps. Three species (all frugivores) exhibited idiosyncratic responses to management that were contingent on physiognomy. 4. Using qualitative measures (changes in status from common to rare, or from present to absent), RIL elicited negative responses from 16 species, mostly rare taxa. After accounting for differences in total number of collected individuals, control forest harboured seven to 15 more rare species than did forest subjected to RIL. 5. Synthesis and applications. In the short term, RIL generally did not negatively affect populations of abundant bats. In contrast, reductions in abundance or local extirpation in response to RIL generally characterized uncommon or rare species. Arrangement of RIL sites in a matrix of undisturbed forest may allow source–sink dynamics to mitigate effects of RIL on rare or sensitive species and enhance sustainability at a regional scale. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In spite of heavy harvesting pressure on some of the most popular medicinal plant species, there are very few published studies concerning their conservation the semi-arid region of northeastern Brazil. In light of this fact, the present work sought to evaluate the local conservation and the harvesting sustainability of medicinal plants in an region of caatinga vegetation employing a fusion of biological and cultural approaches. Ethnobotanical methodologies and techniques were employed in the community of “Riachão de “Malhada de Pedra”” (municipality of Caruaru, state of Pernambuco, Brazil) in order to document local knowledge concerning medicinal plants and to examine the availability of those plants in a caatinga vegetation fragment located near that community. A total of 21 medicinal plant species were identified in the area and classified according to ecological factors and local uses. Two plants ( Ziziphus joazeiro and Myracrodruon urundeuva) stood out has having high priority for conservation efforts. Sixteen species were identified as having populations adequate for harvesting through a system of pre-determined quotas, while four species were deemed sufficiently abundant to be harvested without risk of causing significant impact on their sustainability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Brazil is one of the five leading exporting countries of tropical aquarium fishes in the world, and the interest in marine ornamental organisms has increased substantially there from the mid to the late 1990s. About 120 reef fish species are currently harvested in Brazil's ornamental trade. Among the 75 most harvested species, 26 (34.7%) are endemic, eight (10.7%) are rare, and six (8.2%) are estuarine-dependent species. Fifty-five species (75.3%) have complex reproductive strategies and/or parental care. In quantitative terms, the top 10 species comprises 62% of the species exported from Brazil to the USA and the European Community. The most harvested reef invertebrates include about 65 species. The most representative groups are crustaceans with 15 species (23%), and molluscs and stony corals with 10 species (15.4%) each. Among these, 15 (23%) are endemics, nine (13.8%) are rare species, and seven (10.8%) are important reef builders. A case of local extinction of the giant anemone Condylactis gigantea is reported. To alleviate ecological impacts a series of urgent measures is suggested, including the creation of specific laws for marine ornamental harvesting and improving law enforcement to prevent illegal trade in Brazil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A dynamic model of selective harvesting in multi-species, multi-age tropical forests is developed. Forests are predicted to exhibit different optimal harvesting profiles depending on the nature of their joint cost functions and own or cross-species stock effects. The model is applied to the controversy about incentives produced by various taxes. The impacts of specific taxes are shown to depend on the composition of the forest stocks, growth rates, and joint cost effects. Therefore, specific taxes may create different incentives and impacts in Indonesia than in Brazil or Malaysia, for example, suggesting that no single uniform forest tax policy will be appropriate for all countries or all forests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT / The Itapiranga Sustainable Logging Plan provides an example of how Brazil's licensing system functions for logging companies in the state of Amazonas. Two questions need to be dealt with: “How sustainable can logging in the Amazon be?” and “What and how effective are existing legal mechanisms to deal with logging projects?” The environmental impact assessment (EIA) and environmental impact statement (EIS, known as the RIMA in Brazil), present relatively detailed accounts of biodiversity and the need to adopt conservation strategies to protect it. However, social and health impacts are only superficially addressed. The economic sustainability of the operation over multiple cycles is not demonstrated. The multidisciplinary teams responsible for the EIA and EIS (RIMA) reports are hired by the project proponent, an arrangement inherently carrying the risk of biasing the result. Logging reduces biodiversity, releases greenhouse gases and inflicts social and health costs. These impacts reduce the ability of Amazonian forests to provide environmental services and to supply food and livelihood security to local populations. The reports inflate positive effects such as employment: the estimated number of jobs was cut by more than half in a revision made after the EIA and EIS (RIMA) had been approved. Not only do the reports need to be more realistic in assessing both positive and negative consequences of proposed projects, but better means are needed to ensure that promised mitigatory measures are enforced in practice. Many of the lessons that can be drawn from the Itapiranga Plan are not unique to logging projects and apply to licensing of development activites generally in Brazil and elsewhere. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]