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Background: Kerala has initiated many Universal Health Coverage (UHC) reforms in the last decade. The Aardram Mission launched in 2017 stands out owing to its scope, objectives, and commitments for strengthening Primary Health Care (PHC) in the State. The current study proposes to explore access and financial protection through the lens of equity in Kerala especially in the context of major UHC reforms carried out during the last decade. This paper will also highlight the key lessons from Kerala's approach towards UHC and health systems strengthening through a political economy approach. Methods: Data from the Kerala state sample of 75th Round (2017-18) National Sample Survey is used for this study. Comparison is also drawn from the 71st Round Sample Survey, 2014, to measure the state's progress in terms of access and financial protection. Logistic regression was used for the calculation. The findings were further explored through a political economy approach. Results: The share of public facilities for outpatient care is 47.5%, which is a significant increase from 34.0% (in 2014) in the state. The share of public sector for out-patient care has increased for the lower socio-economic population in the state. The share of public sector for in-patient care has also increased to 37.3% in 2017-18 from 33.9% in 2014, but not to the extent as the increase shown in outpatient care. The average out-of-pocket-expenditure during hospitalization has increased more in private facilities as compared to public for both outpatient care and hospitalization. Conclusions: Overall increase in the share of public facilities for both outpatient care and hospitalization is indicative of the enhanced trust among the people at large of the public healthcare delivery system in Kerala, post the launch of UHC reforms in the State. The insurance linked UHC reforms would be insufficient for the State to progress further towards UHC. Kerala with a long and successful history in 'public provisioning' should focus more on strengthening PHC through Aardram Mission in its journey towards pursuit of UHC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Health financing equity analysis rarely goes below the state level in India. This paper assesses the equity and effectiveness of public spending on health in the state of Odisha. Using district-level public spending data for the first time, it sheds light on the incidence of public spending by geography and by type of services. There are three key findings. First, it identifies the weak link between district spending and district need, proxied by poverty rates or lagging sectoral outcomes, highlighting the potential for a more needs-based approach to public resource allocation. Second, the results indicate that at the household level health spending by the state is not pro-poor, especially in public hospitals, underscoring the need to improve access to care for the bottom 40% at these facilities. Third, an exhaustive analysis of micro-level treasury data brings into focus the importance of reforming public finance data systems to support evidence-based policy at the sub-state level. Significant district-wise variation in key health financing and equity indicators, combined with growing policy interest in the district level, underscore the utility of further empirical work in this area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The two relevant criteria for evaluating the performance of the Indian economy in regional terms, in respect of FDI flows, according to our understanding are efficiency and equity. Since FDI is primarily a relocation of international production it is based on the principle of optimal resource allocation. The notion of efficiency, in this context, refers to the tendency of FDI to flow to those regions or States which have efficient production. The other side of the coin is that an efficient State deserves to get a greater share of FDI. This spells out the notion of equity. The paper uses set of new indices, including index of rank dominance, which shows that the most dominant centre is Mumbai. The paper also uses a 2-Stage Least Square (2SLS) estimation procedure, with two panel regression fixed effects models. There is a very high elasticity of FDI flows w.r.t. SDP growth. Also the results show that there is an extremely high negative correlation (-0.996) between equity and efficiency. The states that are more efficient receive less of FDI flows. This points towards non-economic forces in operation that influence FDI flows and regional development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

India is currently in a good position to design a particularly Indian set of health reforms to help the health system meet the growing demands of its consumers and personnel. There are several managerial obstacles to ensuring availability, access, affordability, and equity in delivering health services to fulfil community requirements efficiently and effectively for Healthy India's Sustainable Development. In this paper, an attempt has been made to analyse the opinions of users who avail of services offered by Primary Health Centres (PHCs) in selected villages of Vadodara District. The data were analysed using descriptive statistics and the hypothesis is assessed by using Chi Square test as well as Friedman Rank Test was applied to know the preferences and measure perception of users considering the selected criteria of services offered by the PHCs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Crowdfunding as a medium of raising finance for the startups and small and medium enterprises has gained popularity all over the world. The development of crowdfunding can be attributed to the technological developments in the field of information and communication technologies particularly the Internet. In crowdfunding, a website acts as an intermediary (online platform) through which promoters of startups advertise their business ideas and seek funding from the prospective investors. A large number of investors registered with the online platform individually contribute small amount of money to the startups. The online platform facilitates raising money not only for commercial ventures but also for the social and charitable purposes. This paper presents the crowdfunding scenario in India and also in other countries. It discusses the merits and demerits of crowdfunding as a source of finance. It examines the modified regulatory framework being adopted in different countries of the world, including India so as to facilitate the growth and development of this innovative financial source. Finally the paper highlights the need for government support so as to expand the size and scope of crowdfunding in India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: In the last two decades, cesarean section (CS) deliveries in India have increased by six-fold and created economic hardship for families and households. Although several schemes and policies under the National Health Mission (NHM) have reduced the inequality in the use of maternal care services in India, the distributive effect of public health subsidies on CS deliveries remains unclear. In this context, this paper examines the usage patterns of CS delivery and estimates the share of public health subsidies on CS deliveries among mothers by different background characteristics in India.Data: Data from the fourth round of the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-4) was used for the study. Out-of-pocket (OOP) payment for CS delivery was used as a dependent variable and was analyzed by level of care that is, primary (PHC, UHC, other) and secondary (government/municipal, rural hospital). Descriptive statistics, binary logistic regression, benefit incidence analysis, concentration curve and concentration index were used for the analysis.Results: A strong economic gradient was observed in the utilization of CS delivery from public health facilities. Among mothers using any public health facility, 23% from the richest quintile did not pay for CS delivery compared to 13% from the poorest quintile. The use of the public subsidy among mothers using any type of public health facility for CS delivery was pro-rich in nature; 9% in the poorest quintile, 16.1% in the poorer, 24.5% in the middle, 27.5% among richer and 23% in the richest quintile. The pattern of utilization and distribution of public subsidy was similar across the primary and secondary health facilities but the magnitude varied. The findings from the benefit-incidence analysis are supported by those obtained from the inequality analysis. The concentration index of CS was 0.124 for public health centers and 0.291 for private health centers. The extent of inequality in the use of CS delivery in public health centers was highest in the state of Mizoram (0.436), followed by Assam (0.336), and the lowest in Tamil Nadu (0.060), followed by Kerala (0.066).Conclusion: The utilization of CS services from public health centers in India is pro-rich. Periodically monitoring and evaluating of the cash incentive schemes for CS delivery and generating awareness among the poor would increase the use of CS delivery services in public health centers and reduce the inequality in CS delivery in India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Balanced Mutual Funds were established with an objective of generating regular income and long term capital appreciation by investing in shares, bonds and sometimes money market instruments in a single portfolio. Balanced Mutual Fund is an avenue which offers an investor the opportunity to invest in equity as well as fixed income securities. All Balanced Mutual Fund schemes have the similar objective but each differs in terms of return generation and risk involved. As such, an analysis have been made in this paper for Balanced Mutual Funds in Indian mutual fund industry using Fama French three factor model. In particular 24 regular-growth oriented Balanced Mutual Funds have been taken for this study. The wide array of funds often makes it a little difficult for investors to choose the best scheme for them. The present study will act as a guide to overcome such problem and to make good investment decision regarding Mutual fund selection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In India, marginalised people with serious or chronic illness face particular challenges to finding sustainable treatment, and often experience financial devastation. One state welfare scheme (the EWS hospital bed quotas) holds the promise of treatment for those in Delhi's margins, through partnerships with corporate hospitals. Yet, the process of gaining access to treatment via the scheme is very frustrating. This ethnography illustrates the ways in which low-income patients' attempts to lay claim to state services often bring them into play with a mode of the state that is, in anthropologists' conceptions, opaque, arbitrary and erratic. In response to the 'illegible' modes of access to the scheme, patients and their families are compelled to construct and reproduce their eligibility to access treatment, through a repertoire of intricate and entwined practices, namely: the attainment of credible low-income documentation, the use of big men to leverage resources, and different kinds of performance. The burden of enacting these practices is further compounded and troubled by the state scheme's blurry entanglement with the private sector, in which roles and responsibilities for a 'duty of care' to citizens with illness are elusive. This paper therefore aims to be an original contribution to the social sciences, in interpreting health-seekers' experiences of state-private schemes in Delhi within anthropological understandings of the state and marginalised people's meaning-making of illegible state processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper focuses on the provision of center-based preschool education for children ranging in age from 3 to 6 years in India. It estimates access rates to various services and highlights issues related to equitable access to preschool services and the quality of preschool education. While India has made great strides in improving access to preschool education, numerous challenges have to be addressed to enhance its quality. The National Educational Policy 2020 and the country's commitment to meet UN Sustainable Development Goal Target 4.2 by 2030 and ensure that all girls and boys have access to quality pre-primary education provide opportunities to ensure equitable access to quality preschool education. Central to meeting national targets is the enforcement of the National Quality Standards for Early Childhood Care and Education. Further, increased budget allocations to preschool education, prioritizing professional preparation of the early childhood work force and harnessing technology to monitor government programs have considerable potential to enhance the early childhood system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The National Health Mission (NHM), the largest ever publicly funded health programme worldwide, used over half of the national health budget in India and primarily aimed to improve maternal and child health in the country. Though large scale public health investment has improved the health care utilization and health outcomes across states and socio-economic groups in India, little is known on the equity concern of NHM. In this context, this paper examines the utilization pattern and net benefit of public subsidy for institutional delivery by the level of care in India. Methods: Data from the most recent round of the National Family Health Survey (NFHS 4), conducted during 2015–16, was used in the study. A total of 148,645 last birth delivered in a health centre during the 5 years preceding the survey were used for the analyses. Out-of-pocket (OOP) payment on delivery care was taken as the dependent variable and was analysed by primary care and secondary level of care. Benefits Incidence Analysis (BIA), descriptive statistics, concentration index (CI), and concentration curve (CC) were used to do the analysis. Results: Institutional delivery from the public health centres in India is pro-poor and has a strong economic gradient. However, about 28% mothers from richest wealth quintile did not pay for delivery in public health centres compared to 16% among the poorest wealth quintile. Benefit incidence analyses suggests a pro-poor distribution of institutional delivery both at primary and secondary level of care. In 2015–16, at the primary level, about 32.29% of subsidies were used by the poorest, 27.22% by poorer, 20.39% by middle, 13.36% by richer and 6.73% by the richest wealth quintile. The pattern at the secondary level was similar, though the magnitude was lower. The concentration index of institutional delivery in public health centres was − 0.161 [95% CI, − 0.158, − 0.165] compared to 0.296 [95% CI, 0.289, 0.303] from private health centres. Conclusion: Provision and use of public subsidy for institutional delivery in public health centres is pro-poor in India. Improving the quality of service in primary health centres is recommended to increase utilisation and reduce OOP payment for health care in India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Equity and justice in healthcare payment form an integral part of health policy and planning. In the majority of low and middle-income countries (LMICs), healthcare inequalities are further aggravated by Out of Pocket Expenditure (OOPE). This paper examines the pattern of health equity and regional disparities in healthcare spending among Indian states by applying Andersen's behavioural model of healthcare utilization. Methods: The present study uses data from the 66th quinquennial round of Consumer Expenditure Survey, of the National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO), conducted in 2009-10 by Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI), Government of India (GoI). To measure equity and regional disparities in healthcare expenditure, states have been categorized under three heads on the basis of monthly OOPE i.e., Category A (OOPE > =INR 100); Category B (OOPE between INR 50 to 99) and Category C (OOPE < INR 50). Multiple Generalised Linear Regression Model (GLRM) has been employed to explore the effect of various socio-economic covariates on the level of OOPE. Results: The gap in the ratio of average healthcare spending between the poorest and richest households was maximum in Category A states Category B (richest/poorest = 14.60), followed by (richest/poorest 11.70) and Category C (richest/poorest 11.40). Results also indicate geographical concentration of lower level healthcare spending among Indian states (e.g., Odisha, Chhattisgarh and all the north-eastern states). Results from the multivariate analysis suggest that people residing in urban areas, having higher economic status, belonging to non-Muslim communities, non-Scheduled Tribes (STs), and non-poor households spend more on healthcare than their counterparts. Conclusions: In spite of various efforts by the government to reduce the burden of healthcare spending, widespread inequalities in healthcare expenditure are prevalent. Households with high healthcare needs (SCs/STs, and the poor) are in a more disadvantaged position in terms of spending on health care. It has also been observed that spending on healthcare was comparatively lower among backward or isolated states. No doubt, the overall social security measures should be enhanced, but at the same time, looking at the regional differences, more priority should be assigned to the disadvantaged states to reduce the burden of OOPE. It is proposed that there is need to increase government spending, especially for the disadvantaged states and population, to minimise the burden of OOPE. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this paper is to reflect and comment on the lead article by Wylie, McAllister, Davidson, and Marshall (2013) with reference to people with communication disability in India and illustrated by the work of one Indian non-governmental organization. Key themes and questions from Wylie et al. are identified and discussed. Suggestions for how the recommendations of the World Report on Disability might be implemented in an Indian context are made, notwithstanding the magnitude and scale of the demand for services in the context of the vast population. Nine recommendations at the meso- and micro-level are included. These emphasize three major themes: methodologies to ensure access for all those who need speech-language pathology services; enhancement of speech-language pathology training capacities to deliver holistic professional services in urban and rural settings; promotion of the involvement of advocacy groups in policy-making and, hence, facilitating people with communication needs to be more assertive about rights and entitlement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The scope of this paper spans from macro-level national and inter-state comparisons to more micro-level intra-state scrutiny of systemic fault-lines shaping the contours of girls' education in India. Post independence, national level indicators have been suggestive of greater gender parity. Yet, there is more to inclusiveness of girls in Indian higher education than increasing absolute numbers or improving gender ratios. Rising female participation has coincided with a massive 'systemic expansion' of delivery systems and therefore, would have to be a function of this expanded availability. As a corollary, systemic skews and limitations, both qualitative and quantitative, are bound to influence how girls get incorporated into the system. This would matter not just in terms of how many access it, but also what courses do they access and where. In the course of this paper, we scan through several geographic layers of delivery systems to surface how critical systemic traits are shaping access to higher education in India, and how girls remain particularly vulnerable to them. It reveals how the progress achieved so far has spawned its own hierarchies, which do not get reflected adequately in the national level indicators. As we scale down to states, the first set of skews begins to surface in the form of inter-state disparities of access and uneven faculty-wise distributions. Moving to the next level of geographic dis-aggregation, further skews are revealed based on availability of medium of instruction; as also the guidelines of gender based affirmative action meant for improving girls' participation that ironically end up creating their own distortions. Through a study of these multi-layered hurdles, this paper brings forth the systemic side of impediments that have remained less explored in comparison with the cultural-attitudinal biases that have plagued girls' participation to higher education in India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Universal health coverage (UHC) has provided the impetus for the introduction of publicly funded health insurance (PFHI) schemes in the mixed health systems of India and many other low- and middle-income countries. There is a need for a holistic understanding of the pathways of impact of PFHI schemes, including their role in promoting equity of access.Methods: This paper applies an equity-oriented evaluation framework to assess the impacts of PFHI schemes in Chhattisgarh State by synthesising literature from various sources and highlighting knowledge gaps. Data were collected from an extensive review of publications on PFHI schemes in Chhattisgarh since 2009, including empirical studies from the first author's PhD and grey literature such as programme evaluation reports, media articles and civil society campaign documents. The framework was constructed using concepts and frameworks from the health policy and systems research literature on UHC, access and health system building blocks, and is underpinned by the values of equity, human rights and the right to health.Results: The analysis finds that evidence of equitable enrolment in Chhattisgarh's PFHI scheme may mask many other inequities. Firstly, equitable enrolment does not automatically lead to the acceptability of the scheme for the poor or to equity in utilisation. Utilisation, especially in the private sector, is skewed towards the areas that have the least health and social need. Secondly, related to this, resource allocation patterns under PFHI deepen the 'infrastructure inequality trap', with resources being effectively transferred from tribal and vulnerable to 'better-off' areas and from the public to the private sector. Thirdly, PFHI fails in its fundamental objective of effective financial protection. Technological innovations, such as the biometric smart card and billing systems, have not provided the necessary safeguards nor led to greater accountability.Conclusion: The study shows that development of PFHI schemes, within the context of wider neoliberal policies promoting private sector provisioning, has negative consequences for health equity and access. More research is needed on key knowledge gaps related to the impact of PFHI schemes on health systems. An over-reliance on and rapid expansion of PFHI schemes in India is unlikely to achieve UHC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper tries to understand the perception of SMEs' promoters in choosing equity as one of their sources of finance. To explore reasons the research has been done in five phases which included: a literature review, offer document objectives, ratio analysis, and in-depth interviews of five SME owners of Gujarat. In the last phase, all the reasons have been simplified by including them in five broad themes. The study analyzed the five broad themes as bank loan barriers, financial factors, growth factors, economic factors, and other barriers. The research has been carried in Gujarat so there is a need for further research all over India. This is going to help SMEs in understanding the pros and cons of selecting a particular avenue as a source of finance. SMEs are the engine of most of the developing nations. This makes it necessary to study them in detail so that the environment can be made friendly for them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper focuses on irrigation schemes under rotational water supply in arid and semiarid regions. It presents a methodology for developing plans for optimum allocation of land area and water, considering performance measures such as productivity, equity and adequacy. These irrigation schemes are characterized by limited water supply and heterogeneity in soils, crops, climate and water distribution network, etc. The methodology proposed in this paper, therefore, uses a previously developed simulation–optimization model (Area and Water Allocation Model, AWAM) that considers the heterogeneity of the irrigation scheme in the allocation process, and modifies this to take account of equity and adequacy of supply to irrigated areas. The AWAM model has four phases to be executed separately for each set of irrigation interval over the irrigation season: 1. generation of irrigation strategies for each crop–soil–region combination (CSR unit), 2. preparation of irrigation programmes for each irrigation strategy, 3. selection of specified number of irrigation programmes for each CSR unit and 4. optimum allocation of land area and water to different parts of the irrigation scheme (allocation units) for maximizing productivity. In the modified AWAM model, the adequacy is included at Phase-2 (by including only the irrigation programmes for full irrigation of each CSR unit) and equity is included at Phase-4 (by including the constraints for equity). The paper briefly discusses the applicability of the modified AWAM model for a case study of Nazare medium irrigation scheme in Southern India. The results of the case study indicated that the performance measures of productivity, equity and adequacy conflict with each other. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: To reveal inequity in health in India. Subject and methods: The global paradigm of the knowledge economy propounds that growth and equity will occur if there is a free-market economy without state intervention and if patents are provided as incentives for innovation. In this paper, we explore the veracity of this thesis by investigating growth in the pharmaceutical and biotech sectors in India, and by looking at equity issues through the lens of gender health and health costs for poor consumers. We used data from current publications to support this thesis. Results: We found that growth has been characterized by multiple handicaps and oligopoly, with the nature of expansion not having relevance for the disease profiles in India. The scenario of gender health and health costs of the poor is grim due to state retrenchment and neglect of the provision of public good, such as in health matters. Conclusion: One can conclude that equity has not occurred under a growing pharmaceutical sector. This finding has huge implications for public policy in India and other emerging nations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Capital structure decisions are vital for the financial soundness of the company. Inappropriate decisions about the capital structure may lead to financial distress and eventually to bankruptcy. The top level finance executive sets the capital structure of their companies keeping in mind the objective of wealth maximization. However, they do choose different financial leverage levels in their effort to attain an optimal capital structure. The key to sustaining India's growth rate lies in developing India's infrastructure which has shown a tremendous potential in the recent times. Observing the growing scenario, the infrastructure companies are aiming at their best performance at all level starting from acquiring capital for their long-term and short-term projects to market expansion so that they can take utmost advantage of the industry's peak time. This paper shed some light on the analysis of capital structure of Infrastructure companies. An attempt has been made to analyze the various ratios like Debt Ratio, Debt-Equity Ratio, and Interest Coverage Ratio of Infrastructure companies which are related to capital structure. The main sectors covered under the infrastructure are Power, Gas, Construction, Cement, and Telecommunications for the purpose of analysis. Each sector is analyzed with the help of last five years financial data for leading five companies representing each sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The constitutional amendment in 1992 has entrusted local self-governing departments with the task of rural development. This system facilitates the emergence of governance at local level. Governance refers to the political and administrative authority which is responsible for the development of the society. It is the process of decision-making and its implementation by political leaders who are in the system. A clear understanding about the barometers of governance is very essential for improving the process and thereby ensuring development. This paper tries to identify the various factors that contribute to governance at grass root level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Millions of Indians fall into poverty because of the private high Out of Pocket pattern of health financing, due to the absence of insurance coverage. Conditions like HIV and AIDS also influence poverty due to a lifelong treatment requirement. Access to insurance coverage (commercial or voluntary) has been denied to People Living with HIV (PLHIV) through various clauses. However lately, there have been certain experiments on inclusion of HIV into new or existing schemes. This paper provides a systematic review of coverage, managerial and financial systems of selected cases of HIV insurance pilots in India with an objective to explore its sustainability and ability to be replicated. A cross-sectional descriptive analysis of existing literature and in-depth case studies of relevant health insurance schemes were used for the review. Data was compiled using qualitative data collection tools such as in-depth interviews with officials. The schemes were analysed using two frameworks viz. managerial ability and coverage ability. The managerial ability was analysed through a Strength-Weakness-Opportunity- Threat (SWOT) analysis. The coverage ability was analysed through three dimensions viz. a) breadth b) depth and c) height. In India, there are two types of insurance policies vis-à-vis HIV coverage. These were categorised as HIV-specific and HIV-sensitive policies. Of the seven pilot schemes reviewed, the small-scale health insurance schemes show limited success owing to smaller pool and limited managerial capabilities. The large schemes offer avenues for mainstreaming but pose issues of governance as well as marketing among PLHIVs. The findings of the research identify a specific set of issues and challenges for sustainability and replication from three perspectives viz. a) market, b) cost recovery and sustainability and c) equitable coverage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: The Indian healthcare system is evolving towards better healthcare implementation and coverage. However, even today, the health-care system faces several challenges, a few of which are yet to be addressed. The present review is aimed to delineate the past and present healthcare scenarios in India, health-care policies, and other initiatives for achieving universal health coverage (UHC). Methods: A literature search was done on various government databases, websites, and PubMed for obtaining data and statistics on healthcare funding, health insurance schemes, healthcare budget allocations, categories of medical expenses, government policies, and health technology assessment (HTA) in India. Results: The available data indicates 37.2% of the total population is covered by any health insurance of which 78% are covered by public insurance companies. Around 30% of the total health expenditure is borne by the public sector, and there is high out-of-pocket (OOP) expenditure on healthcare. Discussion: Several new health policies and schemes, an increase in 2021 budget for healthcare by 137%, vaccination drives, augmenting manufacturing of medical devices, special training packages, Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning (AI/ML)-based standard treatment workflow systems to ensure proper treatment and clinical decision-making have been initiated by the government for improving healthcare funding, equity, and access. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – People often migrate from rural to urban areas within a country or from less developed to more developed countries for better life opportunities but may remain outside the range of health services. The purpose of this paper was to find out the socio-economic and health system factors that may affect the utilization of health services by the migrants. Design/methodology/approach – Five villages and three slums were randomly selected from 23 villages and 18 slums of Chandigarh, a northwest Indian city. Using stratified random sampling, 145 migrants and 63 native women, who were pregnant or had delivered a baby from April 1, 2009 to March 31, 2012 were interviewed using semi-structured interview schedule. χ2 was used for testing statistical significance of the differences, and logistic regression was utilized to evaluate the “independent effect” of migration on Maternal and Child Health (MCH) service utilization. Findings – The level of education was higher among migrants than the natives but their income was less than that of natives. Majority of the migrant women had registered themselves for antenatal care (ANC) in the first trimester of pregnancy (55 percent) compared to the natives (21 percent), but only few had availed more than three ANC check-ups (18 percent) as compared to the natives (44 percent). Knowledge about danger signs of childhood diarrhea and pneumonia was low among migrants compared to the natives (p < 0.0001). Health workers interacted less often with migrants (29 percent) than the natives (67 percent). After controlling the effect of socio-economic and -demographic variables, utilization of MCH care services were significantly higher among natives than the migrants. Inadequate community support among migrants led to the lower utilization of MCH care. Research limitations/implications – Present study reflects early ANC registration among migrants but the number of ANC visits much less than the natives. This could be further be investigated using qualitative methods. Practical implications – Specific strategies are required to address the health needs of migrants such as formation of community-based support groups. Health services and health workers need to be oriented to support migrants to the special needs of migrants. Social implications – Reduction in inequality in accessing health between natives and migrants can be addressed with social support. Originality/value – The study supports the fact that migration is one of the social determinants of health. Lack of community support to migrants is the major barrier in accessing the health services. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The nature, extent and quality of mathematics learning among young children in India cannot be adequately understood without looking at the larger context of education and the social background of the children. Society, including schools, characterized by large inequalities impacts mathematics learning. Beginning with a brief overview of (mathematics) education in India, in historical and sociological perspectives, an appraisal is presented of the need and nature of mathematics learning revealed by field studies in two communities in a deprived rural setting and a low-income urban setting, respectively. While the latter was economically active, the former was much poorer in work and education opportunities, though had richer cultural practices that involved engagement with mathematical riddles, puzzles, folklores and mnemonic tables. The paper discusses the enabling potential of the knowledge resources, including work-context knowledge, which exist in both the communities despite the prevalent deprivations due to disadvantaged conditions. Yet in both situations mathematics learning remains disconnected from formal school mathematics. Factors within SES that possibly have strong bearings on mathematics learning are highlighted which can scaffold stronger integration with curricular and pedagogic practices. Both the groups presented potentially rich contexts for drawing upon everyday mathematical knowledge that can inform effective mathematics learning, which has been inadequately explored in curriculum and instructional design thus far. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper seeks to draw attention to two important, but less researched, areas regarding low fee private school provision in India. Firstly, the paper evaluates the impact of fees on household debt burden and decision-making, and secondly highlights the dynamic interplay between the private and government sub-sectors and the potential consequences this may have for educational delivery. The paper attempts to provide an overview of the historic growth, extent and performance of low fee private schools and private tutoring. Consistent with others, the paper finds that private provision is not currently accessible to the poorest and thus potentially deleterious to equity both within schools and within families. While drawing on existing research and particularly the longitudinal Young Lives data sets in Andhra Pradesh – findings are largely exploratory. The paper concludes that there is a need for further research on both household and school effects related to increasing privatisation in education. In particular there is a focus on how emerging inequalities emanating from school choice and private tuitions can be addressed. This is urgently needed to inform policy and investment decisions that maximise the contribution of both sectors and mitigate against inequality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports on aspects of a recent project carried out for the International Labour Organization (ILO) and the World Bank, which was designed to feed into the process of updating and expanding India's apprenticeship system. The apprenticeship system in India is extremely small for the country's population, even taking into account the high proportion of jobs that are in the informal economy, and is subject to very rigid regulation. Expansion of the system has been seen as vital in order to improve the supply of skills to the rapidly expanding economy, and also to address issues of disparity in labour market participation and equity for certain groups in Indian society. The paper firstly explains how findings about apprenticeship systems from ten other countries, together with analysis of the Indian situation, were used to present options for consideration by the Indian government. It then analyses these options for their social justice and equity implications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper we examine the factors contributing to gender inequality in secondary schooling in India by critically reviewing the government’s secondary education policy. Drawing on the findings of a study in rural Gujarat, we couple this analysis with an examination of the gendered dynamics that restrict girls’ ability to fully benefit from the education infrastructure and initiatives that do exist, using Connell’s Gender and Power framework. We propose that an extension of the government's current approach to educational reform, focused primarily on expanding infrastructure may aggravate the gender, class and caste asymmetries at secondary level. Fostering an environment that enables vulnerable adolescent girls to benefit from enhanced educational provisions is essential to realizing their rights and the achievement of an equitable system. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The development in the country's health status has not kept pace with its economic development. Although India along with most countries of the world was a signatory to the Alma Ata Declaration of 1978, its performance particularly on health equity and quality issues, so far, has been far from satisfactory. There are vast variations in health-care status by states, by ethnic groups, gender, and urban-rural difference. Till recently, government policies and people's perceptions also seemed to be on the wrong track. Our priorities seemed to be all wrong - we seemed to prefer setting up of high-cost tertiary health institutions at the expense of the primary health centers. The recently launched Swachh Bharat and Ayushman Bharat schemes offer hope of addressing these asymmetries. This paper briefly dwells on these issues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This paper provides an overview of recent trends in basic education provision in India: charting an impressive expansion of enrolment in public schools but a growing concern with the quality of learning. Concerns around quality are seen as a driving factor in the migration of students from the public sector to low fee private schools. While there is evidence of improved learning amongst some low fee private schools there are also significant concerns around equity. The paper proposes that for the sake of future generations it is necessary to move beyond a polemical focus on state or non-state provision but rather to focus on six core questions about education provision: Is it sound pedagogically? Does it deliver meaningful learning? Is it equitable? Is it scalable? Is it financially viable and Is it sustainable? These questions are explored through a review of ‘Gyan Shala’, an innovative low cost education programme operating in the slums of Gujarat and Bihar. The paper concludes that a better understanding of the dynamic between the sectors is needed to ensure effective education planning which will deliver meaningful learning to all. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The main concern of this paper is to examine the nature of the relationship between wellbeing levels, access to basic amenities and the mode of transport used by urban residents. Based on a stratified random sample survey in Delhi, the findings are indicative of gross inequality in many areas. A large percentage of the sample households is located in the bottom two size classes of the Wellbeing Index constructed on the basis of a number of indicators. At the same time, several of them do not have access to public transport: they either walk or use cycles to commute to their destination on a daily basis. Though public transport is usually said to be inexpensive, meagre earnings compel many low-income households to reside near the workplace, causing increased constraint in certain pockets. Besides, as women's participation in the labour market is in addition to their household jobs, they reveal a strong preference for working in their neighbourhood, indicating a stronger nexus between workplace and the place of residence. Such convergences have serious repercussions on the urban ecosystem and also on the health of the individuals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This paper responds to the call for culturally-relevant intervention research by introducing a methodology for identifying community norms and resources in order to more effectively implement sustainable interventions strategies. Results of an analysis of community norms, specifically attitudes toward gender equity, are presented from an HIV/STI research and intervention project in a low-income community in Mumbai, India (2008–2012). Community gender norms were explored because of their relevance to sexual risk in settings characterized by high levels of gender inequity. This paper recommends approaches that interventionists and social scientists can take to incorporate cultural insights into formative assessments and project implementation These approaches include how to (1) examine modal beliefs and norms and any patterned variation within the community; (2) identify and assess variation in cultural beliefs and norms among community members (including leaders, social workers, members of civil society and the religious sector); and (3) identify differential needs among sectors of the community and key types of individuals best suited to help formulate and disseminate culturally-relevant intervention messages. Using a multi-method approach that includes the progressive translation of qualitative interviews into a quantitative survey of cultural norms, along with an analysis of community consensus, we outline a means for measuring variation in cultural expectations and beliefs about gender relations in an urban community in Mumbai. Results illustrate how intervention strategies and implementation can benefit from an organic (versus a priori and/or stereotypical) approach to cultural characteristics and analysis of community resources and vulnerabilities. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

In this paper we show that local redistribution of educational resources via teacher transfers between neighboring public schools can improve equity in access to teachers. Transfers from teacher surplus schools to deficit schools within a 10 km radius in Haryana, a state of India for which we have geo-coded location of schools in 2013, enables 19 percent of deficit schools to meet the minimum requirement. We use the mandated norms in the Right to Education Act in India, to define deficit and surplus schools. In the process we also provide a characterization of schools that are in deficit and those in surplus. We find that connectedness, the social composition of the enrolled students, the income of the neighborhood are important determinants of a school being in deficit. Surplus schools mirror the results on deficit, but not always so: they are far more heterogenous, leading to possibilities that they may in fact be no different than some low shortage deficit schools. Keeping in the background this heterogeneity in surplus schools, we design local transfers between schools and evaluate them on how well they match characteristics of the donor and recipient schools. The chosen algorithm is compared to another transfer rule that reduces the variance of shortages across schools and is found to be better in matching characteristics, that is, the donor and recipient schools are, on an average, matched in characteristics: in terms of the development of the region, its rural/urban location, connectivity and school characteristics. A comparison of transfers that follow our redistribution rule to transfers resulting from an actual transfer policy shows that while our rule removes deficits in rural areas, the actual transfers favored more developed regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The task of translating normative water laws and principles into an objective and operational framework for equitable apportionment of water is indeed challenging. In this study, a multi-criterion based cooperative approach is used, which seeks to address the notion of 'fairness' through proportional entitlements. The paper presents an application of this approach in order to derive a 'fair allocation' of water for three competing co-basin states of the Cauvery River Basin (Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu) in South Peninsular India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research investigation aims to evaluate the performance of the Right Main Canal (RMC) of the Bhimsagar medium irrigation scheme in Rajasthan, India, employing water delivery and water use indicators, such as adequacy, equity, dependability, relative water supply, and relative irrigation supply. The three minors chosen were Ratanpura at the head, Chaplada at the middle, and Maraita II at the tail reach on RMC. The volume of water diverted into the selected minors from the right main canal was measured during crop season, and crop water demand in the command area of each minor was computed using the CROPWAT 8.0 software. Overall, RMC adequacy was adequate at the head, and middle reach minors but inadequate for the tail reach minor. The water distribution system was determined to be unreliable regarding water supply concerning time, with a dependability value of 0.49. Overall equity was determined to be good to fair for the head and middle reach minors but poor for tail reach minor due to disparity in water distribution. In 2013–14, RWS and RIS showed insufficiency in the command system. The average values of RWS and RIS were found to be 1.00 and 1.43, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Secondary education is considered as a critical stage of the formal education system, which has a pivotal role in human development. In view of this, education at this stage is free in some countries and attendance is mandatory for all children of eligible age group. India also had low GER and NER in earlier decades but now the country is experiencing an increase in the demand for secondary education which is a crucial link between basic and higher education as well as the world of work. In view of the importance of secondary education in human development as well as overall development of India, the 11th five-year plan has proposed a road map to achieve Universal Secondary Education and targeted to increase GER from 52 in 2004-05 to 75 by 2011-12. As part of 11th FYP the Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA) was initiated to achieve USE. Further, the 12th five year plan proposes to achieve near universal-enrolment in secondary education with the GER exceeding 90 per cent by 2017. Because of increased attention, a considerable improvement has been recorded for both elementary and secondary enrolment which can be attributed to the implementation of RTE Act, 2009 and also the implementation of Sarva Siksha Abhiyan and Rashtriya Madhyamik Siksha Abhiyan. However, despite such initiatives by the government, India has achieved nearly universal elementary education but the GER stands at 80 for secondary and 56 for higher secondary in 2015-16. The NER is still much lower and stands at 51.26 for secondary and 32.3 for Higher Secondary in 2015-16. It is necessary to pay serious attention to the expansion of secondary educational facilities and also to improve its quality as around 54 per cent of India's population is below 25 years of age and without developing their education and skill, India won't be able to reap this demographic dividend. Based on secondary data and various reports, the paper focuses not only on access situation of secondary education but also on equity and quality issues pertaining to secondary education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Countries around the world established immunization programs over 40 years ago to reach all infants. The maturity of these preventive health programs offers some useful learning on the importance of, and components needed for, population-based services to reach all communities. A public health success, ensuring equity in immunization, requires a multi-faceted approach that includes sustained government and partner commitment and human, financial, and program operational resources. Evidence from India's Universal Immunization Program (UIP) across stabilizing vaccine supply and services, enhancing access, and generating demand for vaccines in the community provides a useful case study. The political leadership in India took advantage of the two decades of learning from polio eradication and focused initiatives, such as the National Health Mission and Intensified Mission Indradhanush, to reach populations with immunization services. With a goal of leaving no one behind, India's UIP and partners are bringing essential rotavirus and pneumococcal vaccines nationwide, upgrading vaccine cold chain and supply systems with technologies, such as the electronic Vaccine Intelligence Network (eVIN), and optimizing funding for local needs through the Program Implementation Plan (PIP) budgetary processes and building health worker capacities through training, awareness, and e-learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is near consensus that early childhood education and care (ECEC) is essential to children's early development. A common corollary is that early learning will be pivotal to helping redress inequities in educational outcomes. We examine whether this is true among rural communities in the Indian states of Assam, Rajasthan, and Telangana. Specifically, we assess whether learning gains for the most disadvantaged are retained in comparison to more advantaged children who had lower initial learning levels. We find that lower-achieving, more advantaged children (as measured by mother's education) soon overtake higher-achieving but less advantaged children. In contrast, higher-achieving girls remain ahead of lower-achieving boys in Assam and Telangana, although they are caught up in Rajasthan. Given the differing patterns across the states, we explore the extent to which these may be shaped by their respective social and policy contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The small finance banks in India play a prominent role as these banks provide services to the financially unincluded population. These banks provide basic services to the small-scale farmers and micro and small-scale industries. These banks will help in boosting the economy of the country as they provide services to major population of the country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Learning is a fundamental human right, the basis of developing human capital and the foundation of human development. Basic skills provide individuals, their families and communities with the foundations needed to participate in society and to achieve better life chances. The shift in focus from mass access to mass learning has drawn attention to the question of who is and is not attaining these skills, and why. Opportunities to learn depend on access to schooling, but also the effectiveness of that schooling. There is considerable evidence of learning inequalities, both across and within countries. However, less is known about whether these patterns of inequality are rooted in variations in school effectiveness. In this paper we use evidence from Young Lives school surveys in Ethiopia, India and Vietnam to consider differences in girls' and boys' learning outcomes and progress and investigate how these patterns relate to school effectiveness. We explore whether girls or boys are 'sorted' into more or less effective schools and whether the same schools are differentially effective for boys and girls. Findings from India are perhaps closest to the 'typical' story that is often heard, in which girls, particularly those in rural areas, have lower attainment and attend less effective schools. In comparison, in Vietnam, girls have higher test scores and attend more effective schools on average, with this pattern driven by the higher performance of girls in rural areas. In Ethiopia, the divide between urban and rural areas is predominant in this context, over and above other areas of inequality including gender. Comparing results from these different areas of analysis and from three very different countries reveals the complexities of understanding how gender relates to educational outcomes. It demonstrates the importance of understanding gendered outcomes and school effectiveness in context. • Educational outcomes depend on access to education and the quality of that education. • Cross-country analysis reveals the complexities of how gender and school effectiveness relate to educational outcomes. • In India, where there is greatest school choice, girls have lower attainment and attend less effective schools than boys. • In Vietnam, the opposite is true - girls perform better and attend more effective schools. • In Ethiopia, the divide between urban and rural areas is predominant, over other axes of inequality including gender. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Competing and coexisting policies (CACPs) may arise from the incompatibility of incentives, standards, and regulatory models between a local state and a federal government, or between two government jurisdictions across which supply networks operate. Traditional studies of supply chain dynamics typically explore the impact of policy regimens as standalone instruments. This study explores how the interplay between CACP regimens can affect the supply dynamics between producers, customers, and their intermediaries. We use a supply network configuration lens to assess implications for supply chain actors and system‐level outcomes. Our work is motivated by the federal‐state dissonance in the current dispute between India's farmers and the federal government regarding new laws that impact agricultural supply chains in India. In this case, alternative and coexisting policy interventions, ostensibly aimed at modernizing and transforming production and distribution, can lead to significant supply chain netting and inventory pooling reconfigurations in terms of material, information, and financial flows among Indian agricultural stakeholders, along with inventory repositioning and market creation options. In addition, of significance is the consequent shift in the balance between state/nation and federal/supranational equity and bargaining power, an increasingly relevant context where supply chains operate across a common but multi‐jurisdictional territory, and implications for system‐level outcomes, in this particular case equity, welfare economics, and food security. We conclude by pointing to the implications of CACP regimens, and their interplay, for the broader field of operations management and supply chain research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Estimation of multi-dimensional welfare measures are gaining popularity. Health is multi-dimensional and efforts to estimate multi-dimensional health inequality are fairly nascent. I estimate inequality in health using a normative index and decompose it into component parts. Inequality increases as health attributes become complementary. Inequalities at the state level as well as by caste and gender, are negatively associated with the level of social and economic development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Kangaroo mother care (KMC) can substantially enhance overall survival of low birthweight babies. In a large randomized controlled trial, we recently showed that supporting mothers to provide community initiated KMC (ciKMC) can reduce mortality among infants up to 180 days of life by 25% (hazard ratio (HR) 0.75). With the current analysis, we aimed to explore if ciKMC promotion leads to increased inequity in survival. Methods: In the trial we randomized 8402 low birthweight babies to a ciKMC (4480 babies) and a control (3922 babies) arm, between 2015 and 2018 in Haryana, India. We estimated the difference in concentration indices, which measure inequality, between babies in the ciKMC and control arms for survival until 180 days of life. Further, we compared the effect of ciKMC promotion across subgroups defined by socioeconomic status, caste, maternal literacy, infant's sex, and religion. Results: Our intervention did not increase survival inequity, as the concentration index in the ciKMC arm of the trial was 0.05 (95% CI -0.07 to 0.17) lower than in the control arm. Survival impact was higher among those belonging to the lower two wealth quintiles, those born to illiterate mothers and those belonging to religions other than Hindu. Conclusions: We found that ciKMC promotion did not increase inequity in survival associated with wealth. The beneficial impact of ciKMC tended to be larger among vulnerable groups. Supporting mothers to provide KMC at home to low birthweight babies will not increase and could indeed reduce inequities in infant survival. Trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT02653534. Registered January 12, 2016—Retrospectively registered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This paper informs debates about the potential role for low-fee private schooling in achieving Education for All goals in India. It reports Young Lives’ longitudinal data for two cohorts (2906 children) in the state of Andhra Pradesh. Eight year olds uptake of private schooling increased from 24 per cent (children born in 1994–5) to 44 per cent (children born in 2001–2). Children from rural areas, lower socioeconomic backgrounds and girls continue to be under represented. While some access gaps decreased, the gender gap seems to be widening. Evidence on risks to equity strengthen the case for an effectively regulated private sector, along with reforms to government sector schools. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Little statistical evidence exists on the effects of forest management regimes and wealth on forest access rates in South Asia. To determine the magnitude and significance of these effects, this paper analyzes a dataset of communities from Himachal Pradesh, India, with a fractional logit model. The investigation considers three specific forest management regimes including a regime under complete state control, traditional community regime and a co-management regime known as Joint Forest Management. Communities with higher incidence of land poverty have lower forest access rates for grazing and fodder extraction, whereas communities with a higher incidence of land-rich households have higher forest access rates for fodder extraction. Forest access rates for fuelwood collection are lower under traditional and co-management regimes. However, the interaction between land-poverty and co-management regime increases forest access rates for fodder collection and livestock grazing. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The concentration index is the most commonly used measure of socio-economic-related health inequality. However, a critical constraint has been that it is just a measure of inequality. Equity is an important goal of health policy but the average level of health also matters. In this paper, we explore evidence of both these crucial dimensions—equity (inequality) and efficiency (average health)—in child health indicators by adopting the recently developed measure of the extended concentration index on the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-3) data from India. An increasing degree of inequality aversion is used to measure health inequalities as well as achievement in the following child health indicators: under-2 child mortality, full immunization coverage, and prevalence of underweight, wasting and stunting among children. State-wise adjusted under-2 child mortality scores reveal an increasing trend with increasing values of inequality aversion, implying that under-2 child deaths have been significantly concentrated among the poor households. The level of adjusted under-2 child mortality scores increases significantly with the increasing value of aversion even in states advanced in the health transition, such as Kerala and Goa. The higher values of adjusted scores for lower values of aversion for child immunization coverage are evidence that richer households benefited most from the rise in full immunization coverage. However, the lack of radical changes in the adjusted scores for underweight among children with increasing degrees of aversion implies that household economic status was not the only determinant of poor nutritional status in India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: This paper looks at the human health impacts from urban air pollution in India. Such pollution is especially harmful to poor people, so the co-benefits from global climate change policies in terms of reduced local air pollution can have positive equity impacts. Health impacts (mortality and morbidity) of PM10 pollution are quantified for different socio-economic groups in Delhi. The spatial PM10 concentration levels are overlaid with spatial socio-economic data. Improvement in air quality would result in bigger health benefits for the poor. Most measures that reduce PM10 pollutants also reduce CO2 emissions while simultaneously imposing more costs on the better-off. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cet article compare deux tentatives de séparer les droits des eaux du droit à la terre qui ont été entreprises dans l'Etat de Maharashtra en Inde occidentale lors des 25 dernières années : le Pani Panchayat qui a commencé pendant les années 1980 d'une part, et la mise en œuvre actuelle de réformes concernant la gestion de l'eau promouvant explicitement le droit à l'eau, de l'autre. La mesure dans laquelle ces initiatives ont facilité le droit à l'eau des pauvres sans terre est liée au différents discours sur le développement sous-jacents associés avec ces deux processus. Ceux-ci expliquent aussi les différences quant au rôle de l'Etat ainsi que la législation promulguée dans les deux cas de figure. L'article se conclut par un appel pour une action politique immédiate prenant avantage de l'espace offert par les processus de formalisation du droit à l'eau afin d'intervenir activement en faveur des pauvres sans terre.European Journal of Development Research (2009) 21, 195-212. doi:10.1057/ejdr.2008.19 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: In spite of growing interest in socioeconomic differentials in health outcomes and access to health services, little has been written about methodologies for assessing the impact of equity-enhancing policies or programs. This paper describes three methodological challenges involved in designing a randomised trial with an equity outcome, and how these were met in a trial of alternative strategies to improving the uptake of benefits of a health insurance scheme among its poorest members. The Vimo SEWA trial is nested within a community-based insurance scheme in rural India. While conducting this trial, three methodological problems were encountered: (i) measuring poverty (or “wealth”, or “socioeconomic status”) (ii) assessing beneficiaries against an appropriate reference standard population and (iii) settling on an appropriate equity measure as an outcome indicator. These problems are likely to arise in any policy or program assessment that has an equity outcome. In the Vimo SEWA trial, the socioeconomic status of beneficiaries (claimants) is assessed relative to that of all scheme members living in same sub-district by applying a rapid assessment questionnaire – which reduces to an integrated index of socioeconomic status – to both a random sample of members in each sub-district, and to all claimants. The results are used to estimate the full distribution of socioeconomic status of members in each sub-district, with each member given a rank score between 0 and 100. Interpolation is used to estimate the rank scores of claimants relative to the membership base. The primary outcome measure for the trial is the mean socioeconomic rank score of claimants. In developing country settings, using an index of socioeconomic status is simpler than assessing household income or the value of household consumption. It is also relatively straightforward to compare the socioeconomic status of health program beneficiaries with a relevant reference population, although two independent surveys are required. Expressing relative wealth on a scale from zero to 100 is conceptually appealing, and the mean value of this rank score provides an equity-specific outcome measure readily integrated into the usual analytic framework for cluster-randomised trials. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]