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This paper investigates the existence of an environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) and its robustness using data from the Union for the Mediterranean (UfM) countries over the 1970–2020 period. Our methodology relies on four recent estimation methods for non-stationary panel data and includes four pollutants. Two main results emerge from our analysis. First, the EKC does not hold for most pollutants, and its validity crucially depends on the estimation techniques considered. Second, the Pooled-Mean Group method is the most favourable one and confirms the existence of an inverted U-shaped relationship for CO2 and SO2. Our results provide beneficial information for decision-makers. They suggest implementing proactive instruments based on both flexible regulations and tax incentives to stimulate ecological transition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The new sustainable development goals (SDGs) call for actions to close the gap between the protection of the environment and the socio-economic development. To shed light on the link among economy, society, and ecology, this study assesses the ability of renewable energy to moderate the effects of CO 2 emissions on human development and economic growth for 31 transitional economies. Our findings substantiate that: (i) CO 2 emissions have unconditional negative effects on human development and economic growth; (ii) the net impacts on human development and economic growth are positive from the interplay between renewable energy and CO 2 emissions, i.e. renewable energy reduces the influences of per capita CO 2 emissions on human development and economic growth; (iii) renewable energy interacts with CO 2 intensity and CO 2 emissions from liquid fuel consumption to negatively influence economic growth and human development. To dampen these net negative effects, corresponding renewable energy thresholds were computed and discussed. Theoretical and empirical contributions, implications to policymakers, and practitioners are also discussed. • Effect of renewable energy (RE) on environment, economic growth, and human development (HD) is examined. • CO 2 emissions (CO) have unconditional negative effects on economic growth and HD. • RE complements CO 2 emissions to enhance economic growth and inclusive human development. • RE interacts with CO from liquid fuel consumption and CO 2 intensity to negatively affect economic growth. • RE interacts with CO from liquid fuel consumption and CO 2 intensity to negatively affect HD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]