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Productivity growth has declined in Australia and other developed countries over the past two decades. It has been argued that reduced dynamism and the failure of competition at an economy‐wide level is to blame, leading to calls for broad competition policy reforms. In this paper we consider the theoretical and empirical evidence to support this "failure of competition" narrative. We find that the evidence, at best, is ambiguous. Competition failures in some areas support the need for reform, but the competition landscape across Australia is complex and there is no simple link between indicators of competition, such as concentration levels; indicators of reduced dynamism, such as falling business investment, and falling productivity growth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Australia is unusual among developed countries both in lacking fleet‐wide vehicle carbon dioxide emission standards and in having a very low takeup of all‐electric vehicles. This paper outlines how fleet‐wide vehicle carbon dioxide emission standards operate and identifies mechanisms by which their absence might lead to a low takeup of electric vehicles in countries such as Australia. Although hard to verify one of those mechanisms in Australia (higher prices charged for all‐electric vehicles), it is easy to verify the unusually low number of models of all‐electric models made available for sale. The paper also outlines Australia's slow 15‐year journey towards standards, pointing to the possible role of political machinations and political caution in delaying their introduction. It identifies one group of employees with much to lose from a rapid uptake of electric vehicles—motor mechanics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: International and migrant students face specific challenges which may impact their mental health, well-being and academic outcomes, and these may be gendered experiences. The purpose of this scoping review was to map the literature on the challenges, coping responses and supportive interventions for international and migrant students in academic nursing programs in major host countries, with a gender lens. Methods: We searched 10 databases to identify literature reporting on the challenges, coping responses and/or supportive interventions for international and migrant nursing students in college or university programs in Canada, the United-States, Australia, New Zealand or a European country. We included peer-reviewed research (any design), discussion papers and literature reviews. English, French and Spanish publications were considered and no time restrictions were applied. Drawing from existing frameworks, we critically assessed each paper and extracted information with a gender lens. Results: One hundred fourteen publications were included. Overall the literature mostly focused on international students, and among migrants, migration history/status and length of time in country were not considered with regards to challenges, coping or interventions. Females and males, respectively, were included in 69 and 59% of studies with student participants, while those students who identify as other genders/sexual orientations were not named or identified in any of the research. Several papers suggest that foreign-born nursing students face challenges associated with different cultural roles, norms and expectations for men and women. Other challenges included perceived discrimination due to wearing a hijab and being a 'foreign-born male nurse', and in general nursing being viewed as a feminine, low-status profession. Only two strategies, accessing support from family and other student mothers, used by women to cope with challenges, were identified. Supportive interventions considering gender were limited; these included matching students with support services' personnel by sex, involving male family members in admission and orientation processes, and using patient simulation as a method to prepare students for care-provision of patients of the opposite-sex. Conclusion: Future work in nursing higher education, especially regarding supportive interventions, needs to address the intersections of gender, gender identity/sexual orientation and foreign-born status, and also consider the complexity of migrant students' contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Rural criminology as a topic of scholarly study, neglected over the past two to three decades, has bounced into the spotlight, with claims now being made that rural criminology is receiving justified attention among the academic fraternity. This paper presents a comparative analysis of the major challenge facing two countries with different levels of development as identified by the United Nations Human Development Index. A predicament for rural criminology is that the world is not equal: rural crimes is researched in developed countries but not in developing countries. This paper compares the types and prevalence of agricultural crimes in Australia (NSW) and South Africa to determine whether significant differences or similarities exist. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: We set out to examine the volume, scope and quality of research related to First Nations peoples' perceptions of, and experiences with, child rearing and/or parenting programs. Methods: We systematically reviewed the literature published between 2000 and 2020. Sixty-eight studies identified through electronic databases and references lists met inclusion criteria. Results: The study found an 8% increase in publications in the field each year (P -value = 0.002), mostly conducted in Australia with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people (n = 29, 41%). Scope included positive and negative experiences relating to: parenting from adult (n = 19 studies) and teenager (n = 4) perspectives; and pregnancy, antenatal and postnatal care from the perspective of adults (n = 23) and teenagers (n = 2). Descriptive studies included qualitative (n = 40; 58%), quantitative (n = 8, 12%) or mixed methods (n = 7, 10%). Thirteen experimental studies reported the development, acceptability and/or effectiveness of programs (19%), of which three met the Cochrane Effective Practice and Organisation of Care design criteria. Conclusions: Despite an overall increase in volume, research efforts do not demonstrate a clear scientific progression. Further methodologically rigorous studies examining child rearing and/or parenting programs developed in collaboration with First Nations populations are needed. What is known about the topic? Examining research output, effectiveness and acceptability of existing existing parenting and child rearing programs for First Nations parents can inform research priorities and service development.. What does this paper add? Rigorous research to inform the development and evaluation of parenting programs is limited. Strengths-based, community-wide approaches should integrate community identities, expertise and resources, encourage ownership and engagement, and build capacity.. What are the implications for practitioners? Continued efforts are necessary to develop programs uniquely informed by, and tailored to, First Nations parents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The nitrogen (N) nutrition of dairy pasture systems in southern Australia has changed from almost total dependence on legumes in the early 1990s through to almost complete reliance on N fertiliser today. Although some tactical N fertiliser is applied to sheep and beef pastures to boost late winter growth, most N fertiliser usage on pastures remains with the dairy industry. Intensification of the farming system, through increased stocking rates and a greater reliance on N fertiliser, has increased N loading, leading to higher potential N losses through volatilisation, leaching and denitrification. With increasing focus on the environmental impact of livestock production, reducing N loading on dairy farms will become increasingly important to the longer-term sustainability of the dairy industry, possibly with the expectation that Australia will join most of the developed countries in regulating N loading in catchments. This paper examines N usage in modern pasture-based dairy systems, the N cycle and loss pathways, and summarises a series of recent modelling studies and component research, investigating options for improving N use efficiency (NUE) and reducing whole-farm N balance. These studies demonstrate that the application of revised practices has the potential to improve NUE, with increasing sophistication of precision technologies playing an important role. This paper discusses the challenge of sustainably intensifying grazing systems with regard to N loading and what approaches exist now or have the potential to decouple the link between production, fertiliser use and environmental impact. Over the past 30 years there has been a significant increase in the use of nitrogen fertiliser on Australian dairy farms. This review evaluates what approaches exist now or have the potential to decouple the link between production, fertiliser use and environmental impact. The review concludes that improved timing of fertiliser decisions, variable and appropriate rates and the effective adoption of developing technologies will assist in reducing nitrogen losses to the environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper compares a number of ethical management practices of firms in two different economies. The recent behaviour of firms, described in terms of industry, size, international involvement and ownership, in a developed, western economy (Australia) are contrasted with the behaviour of similar firms in an emerging, eastern economy (Sri Lanka). This paper extends an earlier empirical study by Batten, Hettihewa and Mellor (1997) on the relationship between key firm-specific variables and firm ethical management practices in Australia by drawing on similar survey data from Sri Lanka to facilitate an international comparison. The importance of this study is that it provides a valuable insight into the impact the level of economic development may have on ethical management behaviour and practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Third-party arrangements where a university offers its degrees in collaboration with another institution are not a new phenomenon, particularly when the third-party arrangements occur in the form of a cross-border education (or widely known as transnational education). Drawing on a critical review of the literature available on quality assurance of domestic third-party arrangements and through the use of interviews with the sessional teaching staff, the paper offers theoretical as well as practical views on the domestic third-party arrangement and seeks to inform key stakeholders in the academic management of such collaboration. Design/methodology/approach: The study was undertaken with 40 sessional academics who are involved in teaching postgraduate courses at several third-party education providers and universities with metropolitan campuses in Australia. Focus group interviews were conducted with 8–10 participants in each group. The qualitative study included seven open-ended questions. Each focus group interview was between 45–60 minutes. Findings: The study found 11 universities in Australia offering courses in third-party arrangement with a focus on international students. Online third-party arrangement is also gaining momentum. The study found the following areas that require attention: induction and professional development, quality assurance arrangements, maintenance of standards, adequacy of resources and infrastructure and risk related to academic quality. Research limitations/implications: Limited study has been conducted on third-party arrangements where a university, usually located far from the city vicinity, works in a collaborative mode with another institution, primarily a private institution, to offer degrees at metropolitan city areas in the same country. Further research is needed with a large number of participants. Originality/value: The study is undertaken for the first time in Australia. No research has been undertaken on the growth and quality assurance of a third-party arrangement in Australia and other developed countries. The study involves the engagement of the sessional academic staff. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The aim of this paper is to report on the experience of racial discrimination by black sub-Saharan overseas qualified nurses working in rural Australia. Background: The arrival of black African people as skilled professional migrants is relatively new in rural Australia. The presence of black sub-Saharan African nurses in Australian healthcare facilities is changing the face of the Australian nurse. Australia, like other developed countries, has been receiving migrant nurses from the African continent in a bid to reverse its critical nurse shortage. Literature has shown that globally, overseas qualified nurses of colour have encountered work challenges that have included racial discrimination. Study design and methods: A qualitative hermeneutical phenomenological approach was used. Eighteen nurses were purposively selected using personal invite and a snowballing technique. Data collection involved individual face to face interviews and a focus group discussion. Results: The exploration of experiences revealed issues of race and colour among colleagues and between patients and overseas qualified nurses. Overseas qualified nurses experienced incidents of Objective: The aim of this paper is to report on the experience of racial discrimination by black sub-Saharan overseas qualified nurses working in rural Australia. Background: The arrival of black African people as skilled professional migrants is relatively new in rural Australia. The presence of black sub-Saharan African nurses in Australian healthcare facilities is changing the face of the Australian nurse. Australia, like other developed countries, has been receiving migrant nurses from the African continent in a bid to reverse its critical nurse shortage. Literature has shown that globally, overseas qualified nurses of colour have encountered work challenges that have included racial discrimination. Study design and methods: A qualitative hermeneutical phenomenological approach was used. Eighteen nurses were purposively selected using personal invite and a snowballing technique. Data collection involved individual face to face interviews and a focus group discussion. Results: The exploration of experiences revealed issues of race and colour among colleagues and between patients and overseas qualified nurses. Overseas qualified nurses experienced incidents of Nurse managers need to be more vigilant in monitoring staff interactions in their Units. Understanding and support for diversity at the workplace by all nurses will improve patient and staff safety. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Financial products are an essential part of living in developed countries such as Australia, facilitating financial transactions and asset ownership. However, for Muslims, the Islamic prohibition of interest potentially rules out the consumption of conventional (non-Islamic) financial products. Instead, Muslims are encouraged to participate in Islamic financial products that share profits, vis-à-vis interest. Existing literature suggests that while some Muslim consumers may consume non-Islamic financial products despite religious imperatives, others may simply abstain, leading to financial and possibly social exclusion. Aiming to enhance understanding of how Muslims in Australia fulfil financial needs, this paper presents a preliminary conceptual model that identifies social and psychological factors that drive Muslims' intention and behavior towards Islamic and non-Islamic financial products. The study seeks to contribute intelligence on the need for distinct marketing strategies when targeting Muslims' consumption of non-Islamic and Islamic financial products in Australia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using regional level panel data of three developed countries, comprising Australia, Canada, and New Zealand, the study investigates the response of consumption smoothing to housing capital gains. The consumption smoothing model first revisits the theory of perfect risk sharing. After rejecting a full consumption smoothing hypothesis, the results strongly indicate that the appreciation of house values smooths consumption further. For the sake of comparison, analysing three developed economies reveals the diversification in the response of consumption to long-run output shocks. Canadian residents appear to be more sensitive to permanent domestic output shocks while Australian's consumption pattern remains unchanged. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: The concept of disaster related internal displacement is typically seen as something that occurs in low-income countries and is rarely considered in the setting of high-income countries. This leads to a paucity of data to support contextually appropriate best practices to address displacement. This research, funded by the Australian government, explores the lived experiences of those faced with forced displacement from disasters in high-income countries and aims to improve outcomes for this vulnerable cohort. Method: The first phase of the research, guided by a broad-based Steering Group, included a rapid literature review and thematic analysis of peer-reviewed literature of disaster related, internal displacement in high-income countries, including Australia. Results: The peer reviewed literature review identified only 12 papers that met the inclusion criteria. The literature from Australia and other developed countries indicated that internal displacement is a prominent feature of disaster impacts and that needs are complex, dynamic and diverse. Common themes of need were revealed: the need for the development of an evolving displacement policy framework to support human rights; the co-creation, coordination and provision of timely and flexible support services, and on-going data collection and sharing. No displacement, specific frameworks, measurable thresholds, or central data registries exist at federal or state government levels in Australia to support these needs. Conclusion: Inclusive policies, practices, and resources are required in Australia to support assets of displaced people and address their unmet needs in disasters, which also remain largely unmet in other high-income countries. Australia can learn from all countries faced with the challenges of managing displacement and also share its own experiences. Furthermore, it is recommended that WADEM consider extending its current Position Statement relating to Refugees and Internally Displaced Persons to include high-income countries based on the findings of our study and other sources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study employs the bibliometric analysis approach to examine research on ethical decision‐making (EDM) of accountants from 1987 to 2022. The study specifically examines the developments in EDM research and evaluates the intellectual structure of the research field. Employing citation, co‐authorship, co‐occurrence and bibliographic coupling analyses, bibliometric data on 908 publications from the Scopus database was analysed. The results indicate that there has been a significant increase in the rate of publication on EDM of accountants following the spate of ethical breaches in the early 2000s. Further, we find that a large proportion of EDM in accounting research originates from developed countries like USA, Australia and UK. Our cluster analysis suggests that two main research streams have evolved over the period. Prior to 2012, researchers in this field mainly focused on individual level issues, particularly, on the determinants of the EDM process of individuals. Research, post 2012, however, has focused on firm‐level EDM issues including organisational ethics, culture, and corporate governance. The study further discusses the themes in detail andproposes a future research agenda. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the absence of bi-lateral taxation treaties the domestic law of most developed countries contains unilateral provisions aimed at preventing international juridical double taxation. The presence of these measures begs the question of why countries have entered into extensive bi-lateral taxation treaty networks. Once a country has decided to enter into taxation treaties, a related question, is what factors influence the particular provisions that it includes in its treaties. This paper seeks to assist in answering these questions by examining archival evidence relevant to Australian taxation treaties in the period from 1946 to 1976. The paper traces the influence of eight specified factors on Australian taxation treaty practice in the period reviewed. The factors examined are: (a) economic considerations relating to the current and expected trade and investment flows between Australia and the treaty partner; (b) cultural and political considerations; (c) Australian domestic law considerations (including tax avoidance considerations); (d) Australian revenue considerations and jurisdictional claims; (e) the treaty practice and domestic law considerations of and model treaties developed by the other party in the treaty negotiations; (f) the treaty practice of third countries in their prior treaties with the prospective Australian treaty partner; (g) model treaties developed by international organisations such as the League of Nations, the OECD, and the United Nations; and (h) the development of an Australian model treaty reflecting prior Australian treaty practice. The paper finds that, while over the period some factors became more important at the expense of others. For most of the period Australian entry into taxation treaties was linked to an expectation of encouraging greater foreign investment in Australia while maintaining a relatively high level of source country taxing rights and obtaining bi-lateral measures of use in combating international tax avoidance. For most of the period Australian domestic law considerations and prior Australian treaty practice were major factors affecting the technical content of Australian treaties. While gradually moving closer to the OECD model, Australian treaties in this period differ from the model in their structural and certain technical features. Towards the end of the period the relatively insignificant revenue impact of new treaties and Australia's membership of the OECD influence Australia in entering into new treaties as a normal link between civilised and friendly countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper discusses the regressive nature of tax exemptions for children compared to child allowances and estimates the decline in child poverty in several developed countries due to child allowances. The paper then estimates the decline in child poverty in the United States due to tax exemptions for children and simulates the impact of various possible child allowance programs on child poverty in the United States. It finds that a $3000 to $4000 child allowance would reduce child poverty in the United States to the level of other developed nations and, due to the costs associated with child poverty, be a cost effective policy change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: This paper describes the incidence and outcomes of childhood renal malignancies in Australia using national population-based data from the Australian Childhood Cancer Registry.Methods: De-identified data for children (0-14 years) diagnosed with renal malignancies from 1983 to 2015 inclusive were extracted. Cause-specific (CSS) and event-free survival up to 20 years from diagnosis were estimated using the cohort method. Adjusted excess mortality hazard ratios were calculated using a multivariable flexible parametric survival model. Details relating to second primary malignancies (SPMs) were also examined.Results: There were 1046 children diagnosed with renal malignancies in Australia between 1983 and 2015 (91% nephroblastoma), generating an annual age-standardised incidence rate of 8 per million children, which remained constant over the study period. CSS was 89% (95% confidence interval = 87-91%) and 88% (86-90%) at 5 and 20 years, respectively, and 5-year event-free survival was 82% (80-84%). Five-year CSS did not change over the study period and was highest for nephroblastoma (91%). Of the 94% of patients achieving remission, 15% relapsed and subsequent 5-year CSS was 49% (40%-58%). Eleven children were diagnosed with SPM (standardised incidence ratio = 2.9, 95% confidence interval = 1.6-5.3, P < 0.001), and five of them (45%) died within 5 years of the second diagnosis.Conclusions: Children treated for renal malignancies in Australia have excellent long-term survival, which is unchanged since 1983. SPMs are uncommon following treatment for childhood renal cancer but carry a poor prognosis. Relapse carries a similarly poor prognosis to SPM but is more common. These data are comparable to registry outcomes in similarly developed nations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An environmental health professional performs numerous job functions that have an impact on everyone's health and lifestyle. Their work is to prevent death and illness from environmentally related disease and injury. Moreover, the quality and safety of their air, food, water, and the infrastructure that supports vital environmental health services are one of the indicators separated many developed countries from undeveloped countries. This paper, environmental health professional in developed countries including the United State of America, United Kingdom, Canada, and Australia were discussed. It was revealed that the Registration of Environmental Health Specialist/Sanitarians is a process that certifies the applicant has been found by the certifying body of each state/country to meet the qualifications to protect environmental health. The result of these reviews indicates that competencies of Environmental Health Officers (EHOs) of all selected developed countries are focused on facility and system inspections and compliance and enforcement of environmental health laws. Moreover, risk assessment and management, investigation, monitor and control, and promoting environmental and public health awareness are appeared in some countries. Thus, the experiences in selected developed countries for certification of Environmental Health Specialist or sanitarian could be used as a guideline for environmental health professional development in other countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Harris--Todaro model of labour migration was developed almost four decades ago, and since has become a classic method of migration analysis in less developed countries. This paper explores the applicability of the Harris--Todaro (HT) framework outside its traditional use, by modelling frontier--metropolis migration in Canada. If appropriate, the framework can potentially be used in other countries with similar regional dichotomies, such as Russia and Australia. The paper argues that the HT model is generally applicable in the context of migration from the resource frontier to large metropolitan areas of the Canadian south, although it requires several modifications. The classic HT model is extended to account for northern labour-force heterogeneity (Aboriginal and Non-Aboriginal), the possibility of having or losing jobs in the declining and undiversified frontier economy, and living cost differentials. Further analysis is focused on Aboriginal migration from isolated northern communities. The plausibility of the modified HT model is demonstrated using an empirical test, in which the model is used to assess migration probabilities of Aboriginal labour migrants. These new insights into the mechanisms of frontier--metropolis migration could provide a better basis for developing planning strategies, aimed to sustain human capital in the Canadian North, and for optimizing welfare policies both in the North and in the South. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As the most visible element of the marketing communications mix, advertising has had its critics and, given the choice, developed countries usually select a self-regulatory approach to deal with unacceptable advertising. The recent breakdown of one of the world's longest established advertising self-regulatory programs in Australia has reopened the debate that has taken place in the leading academic and business journals concerned with enhancing understanding of such regulatory systems. This paper focuses on the role of public awareness in assisting the industry and regulators concerned with advertising self-regulation to eliminate undesirable features of such systems in the future. The empirical work succeeds in making both a practical and theoretical contribution to this important area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Stimulating economic and population growth in northern Australia has been a long-term pursuit for the Australian Government, where the north has historically been the focus for centrally derived regional development policies. Most refer to untapping the purportedly vast opportunities of the resources and tourism sectors, and growth in the Asian middle-class in Australia's proximate north. In 2015 the Australian government detailed an ambitious policy for 'developing the north' during the period 2015-60. This includes targets to dramatically grow the population and a list of five industries with 'bright growth prospects'. However, regional develpment literature underscores there have been many impediments to generating sustained growth in northern regions of developed countries. This study is the first to evaluate baseline conditions and progress towards the aims and targets in the Australian regional growth policy. We develop key analytical indicators and provide analysis by 11 subregions within Northern Australia to ascertain the extent and implications of indicator diversity. The results highlight challenges for the policy's aims as well as regional differences in the compositions of economies and populations. In demonstrating the incorrect and implied assertion of regional homogeneity, and by demonstrating that some targets were destined to fail from inception, we underscore the importance of knowledge about localized demographic and economic conditions in policy formulation. This brings into play the important question of whether high-growth policies for northern regions is desired by the longer term resident population, and most particularly the relatively large population of Indigenous northern residents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Midlife, beginning at 40 years and extending to 65 years, a range that encompasses the late reproductive to late menopausal stages, is a unique time in women's lives, when hormonal and physical changes are often accompanied by psychological and social evolution. Access to sexual health and sexual well-being (SHSW) services, which include the prevention and management of sexually transmitted infections, contraception and the support of sexual function, pleasure and safety, is important for the health of midlife women, their relationships and community cohesion. The objective was to use the socio-ecological model to synthesise the barriers and enablers to SHSW services for midlife women in high-income countries. A systematic review of the enablers and barriers to women (including trans-gender and non-binary people) aged 40–65 years accessing SHSW services in high-income countries was undertaken. Four databases (PubMed, PsycINFO, Web of Science and Google Scholar) were searched for peer-reviewed publications. Findings were thematically extracted and reported in a narrative synthesis. Eighty-one studies were included; a minority specifically set out to study SHSW care for midlife women. The key barriers that emerged were the intersecting disadvantage of under-served groups, poor knowledge, about SHSW, and SHSW services, among women and their healthcare professionals (HCPs), and the over-arching effect of stigma, social connections and psychological factors on access to care. Enablers included intergenerational learning, interdisciplinary and one-stop women-only services, integration of SHSW into other services, peer support programmes, representation of minoritised midlife women working in SHSW, local and free facilities and financial incentives to access services for under-served groups. Efforts are needed to enhance education about SHSW and related services among midlife women and their healthcare providers. This increased education should be leveraged to improve research, public health messaging, interventions, policy development and access to comprehensive services, especially for midlife women from underserved groups. Plain language summary: Sexual health and sexual wellbeing services for midlife women in high income countries Midlife, beginning at 40 years and extending to 65 years, a range that encompasses the late reproductive to late menopausal stages, is a unique time in women's lives. Access to Sexual Health and Sexual Wellbeing (SHSW) services, which include the prevention and management of sexually transmitted infections, contraception and the support of sexual function, pleasure and safety, is important for the health of midlife women, their relationships and community cohesion. The objective of this systematic review was to use the socio-ecological model to synthesise the barriers and enablers to SHSW services for midlife women in high income countries. Eighty-one studies were included; a minority specifically set out to study SHSW care for midlife women. The key barriers that emerged were the intersecting disadvantage of under-served groups, poor knowledge, about SHSW, and SHSW services, among women and their HealthCare Professionals (HCPs), and the over-arching effect of stigma, social connections, and psychological factors on access to care. Enablers included intergenerational learning, interdisciplinary and one-stop women-only services, integration of SHSW into other services, peer support programmes, representation of minoritised midlife women working in SHSW, local and free facilities, and financial incentives for under-served groups to access services. The appetite for education about SHSW and SHSW services among midlife women and their HCPs should be capitalised upon, and utilised to improve research, public health messaging, interventions and access to holistic services, particularly for midlife women from under-served groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Australian income support system is often characterised as one of the most selective in the Western industrialised world. This paper examines the sense in which the Australian system is selective, and discusses the distinction between selectivity and targeting in income support pro-visions. Developments in social security outlays and recipient numbers over the last two decades are compared with those occurring since 1983, in order that the nature and impact of recent policies introduced to increase targeting can be identified. The analysis indicates that increases in recipient numbers have been the dominant factor underlying the past growth in social security expenditure. The distinction between selectivity and targeting of income support provisions is then explained with reference to the concepts of eligibility and entitlement. A framework is developed to illustrate how recent policies have restrained the growth in social security recipient numbers by policies which have increased income support targeting. These moves have not always produced a consistently more selective system of income support, an issue which is explored with the use of an index of the degree of selectivity of social security expenditures developed specifically for this purpose. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In most developed countries, competent patients have the legal right to refuse any medical treatment; Advance Care Planning mechanisms extend this right to non-competent patients. However, some groups, including lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and intersex (LGBTI) people, risk their wishes not being respected if they lose capacity, more than others. Little is known about medical practitioners' knowledge of, or attitudes to, the law in this area, especially in relation to LGBTI people, or how the law influences their decision-making. An Australian postal survey explored knowledge and attitudes of medical specialists to legal issues relating to withdrawing/ withholding life-sustaining treatment from adults without capacity. One scenario (the focus of this paper) asked which of four plausible substitute decision-makers, including a same-sex partner, had the legal authority to make such decisions. The overall response rate was 32% (867/2702). Less than one-third of respondents correctly identified the same-sex partner as the legally authorised decision-maker. LGBTI people face multiple obstacles to having their end-of-life wishes respected. Where healthcare providers are also ignorant of the partner's legal right to make such decisions, the problem is compounded. Improved legal education for clinicians and promotion of educational resources for members of the LGBTI community is needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of on-site soil absorption systems (OSASs) to dispose of domestic wastewater is common in rural and semi-rural areas in Australia as well as in many other developed and developing countries. A need exists for an improved method of evaluating OSAS performance and predicting potential impacts of OSASs on public health and environmental quality. This paper focuses on the hydrological prediction of saturated and unsaturated moisture flow patterns of wastewater dispersed into soil adjacent to OSAS disposal trenches. It presents field and laboratory measurements obtained during an extensive investigation conducted at eight OSAS sites on predominantly silty soil in Victoria, Australia. A numerical moisture flow model was also employed to predict how the hydrological performance of OSAS might be affected by a variety of site specific conditions including soil properties, climatic data, and hydraulic loading rates. The model was fine-tuned using both published data and data from the eight study sites. The predictions show that over 50%, and in some instances over 80%, of water received by an OSAS is lost by way of evapotranspiration. This highlights the importance of evapotranspiration in determining soil absorption capacity and moisture flow patterns around an OSAS, something that is not accounted for in existing OSAS design guidelines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the construction of avian influenza in Australian media and federal government policy, with a focus placed on discourses of contagion, preparedness and risk. The threat of an infectious disease outbreak, such as avian influenza, on social life is surrounded by a range of collective narratives which attempt to make it explicable. These narratives socially define the disease and provide explanations for its existence. The paper demonstrates that central to these narratives are depictions of the source of the outbreak and suggestions of appropriate responses to the threat. Methodologically, a narrative analysis of print media and government documents was conducted. This showed that conceptually both government and media discourses could be understood in terms of risk, contagion and blame. Furthermore, it was found that narratives linking the risk of avian influenza with globalised interconnectedness and contagion by the developing world underpin discourses of causation and frame the reactions to and preparation for a potential outbreak. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, the experiences of young mothers are examined in the contemporary context of a heightened emphasis on individuated personhood and suggestions of a vastly changed modern femininity. Sociological preoccupation with the features of post-industrial society has emphasized the declining influence of preordained and institutionalized structures. The declining influence of such structures in turn ushers in new requirements for personal agency and decision-making. Under the influence of such posited de-traditionalization, the family is widely conceived to be constituted less through obligation and more through negotiation. Understandings of the regulatory dimensions of neo-liberalism and the post-feminist sensibility are drawn on to consider how young women are implicated in this landscape of de-traditionalization and individualism. This paper reports on Australian empirical research with young women who are mothers that reveals the continuation of supposedly outmoded but evidently enduring features of traditional motherhood. Significantly, though, these supposedly superseded gendered features of family life are now encountered amidst the requirements of reflexive modernity, and it is argued that they are responded to in ways that reflect transformations in the experience of the personal; particularly the construction of individualized biographies of reinvention through motherhood. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The recognition of prior learning (RPL) is a cornerstone of the lifelong learning policies of most developed nations. Yet the scholarly view in Australia has been that, unlike other post-compulsory education sectors, universities have erected barriers to limit the development of RPL. This paper re-examines the current policy environment and finds evidence that universities are now more active in developing and promoting RPL, as evidenced by the rich detail of information contained in recent policies, as well as the accessibility of this information on the web. Recognition of prior learning policies are examined in detail to shed light further on the state of play of RPL in the Australian higher education sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Obesity is a significant problem for most industrialised nations and an emerging one for developing nations (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 2005). Childhood obesity is of particular concern. This paper, using systematic review procedures, has analysed the intervention strategies used to fight the obesity battle over the past twenty years. For a number of reasons the effectiveness of many intervention strategies was found wanting whilst a minority of cases studied were sound. These cases were analysed and a set of principles developed that could deliver improved processes and outcomes to the problems encountered by planners in the complex obesogenic environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: People who have limited access to dental care may present to non-dental health practitioners for dental treatment and advice. This review synthesised the available evidence regarding the use of non-dental health practitioners for oral health problems and the services provided by non-dental health practitioners to manage such presentations., Methods: PubMed and CINAHL databases were searched using key search terms to identify all relevant quantitative and qualitative English-language studies published between 1990 and March 2014. Snowballing techniques were then applied whereby the reference lists of retrieved articles were searched for other relevant citations. Grey literature was searched via Google using the same search terms to identify unpublished work and government reports., Results: Of the 43 papers which met the review criteria, 25 papers reported on the use of non-dental health practitioners for oral health problems and 18 on dental care education and training for non-dental health practitioners. Four reports were located from the grey literature on the involvement of non-dental health practitioners in the management of oral health care., Conclusions: The review of literature showed that both children and adults utilise non-dental health practitioners for oral health problems. Despite this, Emergency Department medical staff, medical practitioners and pharmacists generally lacked training and knowledge in the maragement of oral health. Services from non-dental health practitioners mainly focussed on children. The literature on education and training for non-dental health practitioners was limited.

Background: Drowning is a significant public health issue, with females accounting for one third of global drowning deaths. The rate of female drowning has not decreased within high-income countries and presentations to hospital have increased. This scoping review aimed to explore adult female unintentional drowning, including risk factors, clinical treatment and outcomes of females hospitalised for drowning.Methods: A systematic search of the literature following the PRISMA-ScR framework was undertaken. The databases OVID MEDLINE, Embase, CINAHL, OVID Emcare, Web of Science, Informit and Scopus were accessed. Study locations of focus were Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Studies from January 2003 to April 2019 were included. The quality of evidence of included studies was assessed using GRADE guidelines.Results: The final search results included 14 studies from Australia (n = 4), Canada (n = 1), New Zealand (n = 1), United States (n = 6), United Kingdom (n = 1), and one study reporting data from both Australia and United States. Nine studies reported risk factors for female drowning including age, with the proportion of female drowning incidence increasing with age. Although females are now engaging in risk-taking behaviours associated with drowning that are similar to males, such as consuming alcohol and swimming in unsafe locations, their exposure to risky situations and ways they assess risk, differ. Females are more likely to drown from accidental entry into water, such as in a vehicle during a flood or fall into water. This review found no evidence on the clinical treatment provided to females in hospital after a drowning incident, and only a small number of studies reported the clinical outcomes of females, with inconsistent results (some studies reported better and some no difference in clinical outcomes among females).Conclusion: Adult females are a group vulnerable to drowning, that have lacked attention. There was no single study found which focused solely on female drowning. There is a need for further research to explore female risk factors, the clinical treatment and outcomes of females hospitalised for drowning. This will not only save the lives of females, but also contribute to an overall reduction in drowning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Racism in the healthcare system has become a burgeoning focus in health policy-making and research. Existing research has shown both interpersonal and structural forms of racism limiting access to quality healthcare for racialised healthcare users. Nevertheless, little is known about the specifics of racism in the inpatient sector, specifically hospitals and rehabilitation facilities. The aim of this scoping review is therefore to map the evidence on racial discrimination experienced by people receiving treatment in inpatient settings (hospitals and rehabilitation facilities) or their caregivers in high-income countries, focusing specifically on whether intersectional axes of discrimination have been taken into account when describing these experiences. Methods: Based on the conceptual framework developed by Arksey and O'Malley, this scoping review surveyed existing research on racism and racial discrimination in inpatient care in high-income countries published between 2013 and 2023. The software Rayyan was used to support the screening process while MAXQDA was used for thematic coding. Results: Forty-seven articles were included in this review. Specifics of the inpatient sector included different hospitalisation, admission and referral rates within and across hospitals; the threat of racial discrimination from other healthcare users; and the spatial segregation of healthcare users according to ethnic, religious or racialised criteria. While most articles described some interactions between race and other social categories in the sample composition, the framework of intersectionality was rarely considered explicitly during analysis. Discussion: While the USA continue to predominate in discussions, other high-income countries including Canada, Australia and the UK also examine racism in their own healthcare systems. Absent from the literature are studies from a wider range of European countries as well as of racialised and disadvantaged groups other than refugees or recent immigrants. Research in this area would also benefit from an engagement with approaches to intersectionality in public health to produce a more nuanced understanding of the interactions of racism with other axes of discrimination. As inpatient care exhibits a range of specific structures, future research and policy-making ought to consider these specifics to develop targeted interventions, including training for non-clinical staff and robust, transparent and accessible complaint procedures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The demand for palliative care has increased in high income countries as mortality in older adults has decreased and life expectancy increased. In this context, the priorities of palliative and end of life care (EoLC) have shifted in Australia, reflected in policy frameworks, national guidelines, service systems and funding models. However, aligning service systems and practice realities with these policy aspirations has been problematic in Australia and elsewhere. The current study investigates the recent implementation of a unique, community palliative care (CPC) programme called Heidi's Have a Go (HHaG) in regional Australia, which seemed to bridge the problematic divide between policy aspirations and practice implementation. Qualitative research was undertaken to examine the programme design and influence from the perspective of programme staff and volunteers. The data generated compelling stories on staff and patient experiences in its first 2 years, achieving service outcomes aligned with current policy and national frameworks and privileging patient voices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Despite low patient numbers, rural emergency departments have a similar diversity of case presentations as urban tertiary hospitals, with the need to manage high‐acuity cases with limited resources. There are no consistent descriptions of the resources available to rural emergency departments internationally, limiting the capacity to compare clinical protocols and standards of care across similarly resourced units. This review aimed to describe the range of human, physical and specialist resources described in rural emergency departments in developed countries and propose a typology for use internationally. Design and setting: A systematic literature search was performed for journal articles between 2000 and 2019 describing the staffing, access to radiology and laboratory investigations, and hospital inpatient specialists. Results: Considerable diversity in defining rurality and in resource access was found within and between Australia, New Zealand, Canada and USA. Discussion: A typology was developed to account for (a) emergency department staff on‐floor, (b) emergency department staff on‐call, (c) physical resources and (d) access to a specialist surgical service. This provides a valuable tool for relevant stakeholders to effectively communicate rural emergency department resources within a country and internationally. Conclusion: The proposed five‐tiered typology draws together international literature regarding rural emergency department services. Although further research is required to test this tool, the formation of this common language allows a base for effective communication between governments, training providers and policy‐makers who are seeking to improve health systems and health outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores leadership and governance arrangements in seven developed health systems: Australia, England, Germany, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and Switzerland. It presents a cybernetic model of leadership and governance comprising three fundamental functions: priority setting, performance monitoring and accountability arrangements. The paper uses a structured survey to examine critically current arrangements in the seven countries. Approaches to leadership and governance vary substantially, and have to date been developed piecemeal and somewhat arbitrarily. Although there seems to be reasonable consensus on broad goals of the health system there is variation in approaches to setting priorities. Cost-effectiveness analysis is in widespread use as a basis for operational priority setting, but rarely plays a central role. Performance monitoring may be the domain where there is most convergence of thinking, although countries are at different stages of development. The third domain of accountability is where the greatest variation occurs, and where there is greatest uncertainty about the optimal approach. We conclude that a judicious mix of accountability mechanisms is likely to be appropriate in most settings, including market mechanisms, electoral processes, direct financial incentives, and professional oversight and control. The mechanisms should be aligned with the priority setting and monitoring processes., (Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Despite pronounced reductions in child mortality in industrialised countries, variations exist within and between countries. Many child deaths are preventable, and much could he done to further reduce mortality. For the family, their community, and professionals caring for them, every child’s death is a tragedy. Systematic review of all child deaths is grounded in respect for the rights of children and their families, and aimed towards the prevention of future child deaths. In a Series of three papers, we discuss child death in high-income countries in the context of evolving child death review processes. This paper outlines the background to and development of child death review in the USA, England, Australia, and New Zealand. We consider the purpose, process, and outputs of child death review, and discuss how these factors can contribute to a greater understanding of children’s deaths and to knowledge for the prevention of future child deaths. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

International development agencies and charities often have a major focus on highlighting and attempting to alleviate health problems in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). In these objectives, they rely strongly on news media reporting of these problems and their solutions. This paper examines the experiences of communication staff from eight large non-governmental organisations (NGOs) of trying to secure coverage of LMIC health stories in the Australian news media. It reports on how these NGOs perceive current Australian news coverage of LMIC health, how they negotiate its “media logic” and their attempts to work within and beyond it for better coverage of LMIC health news. Their impressions of LMIC health reporting are broadly consistent with existing literature on the coverage of humanitarian and foreign news. In endeavouring to maximise exposure for their work, the agencies also sought to benefit journalists and news outlets by providing content that matched with existing notions of mainstream news. However, these NGOs are also in the process of working out how to move beyond these outlets and create news content on their own terms. Possible new avenues for the creation of such content are explored. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is increasing evidence that the functional state of the immune system at birth is predictive of the kinetics of immune maturation in early infancy. Moreover, this maturation process can have a major impact on early vaccine responses and can be a key determinant of risk for communicable and non-communicable diseases in later life. We hypothesize that environmental and genetic factors that are often typical for poor-resource countries may have an important impact on prenatal immune development and predispose populations in low-income settings to different vaccine responses and disease risks, compared to those living in high-income countries. In this paper we aimed to summarize the major differences between neonatal and adult immune function and describe what is known so far about discrepancies in immune function between newborns in high- and low-income settings. Further, we discuss the need to test the immunological feasibility of accelerated vaccination schedules in high-risk populations and the potential of variation in disease specific and non-specific vaccine effects.

This paper considers whether sex composition of existing children in Australian families is an important factor in parity progression. Using census data from 1981, 1986, 1991, 1996 and 2001, women are linked with their co-resident children, allowing investigation of family sex composition and its changing impact over time on the propensity to have another child. The study finds that parents are much more likely to have a third and fourth birth if existing children are all of the same sex, indicating a strong preference for children of both sexes. This increased propensity has added around three per cent to the fertility of recent cohorts. The paper concludes with a discussion of the potential impact of sex-selection technologies on fertility. The authors argue that future widespread use of reliable sex-selection technologies might act to increase fertility in the short term, but would lead to a long-term reduction in fertility.

Background: It is widely acknowledged that there is a global divide on health care and health research known as the 10/90 divide., Methods: A retrospective survey of articles published in the BMJ, Lancet, NEJM, Annals of Internal Medicine & JAMA in a calendar year to examine the contribution of the developing world to medical literature. We categorized countries into four regions: UK, USA, Other Euro-American countries (OEAC) and (RoW). OEAC were European countries other than the UK but including Australia, New Zealand and Canada. RoW comprised all other countries., Results: The average contribution of the RoW to the research literature in the five journals was 6.5%. In the two British journals 7.6% of the articles were from the RoW; in the three American journals 4.8% of articles were from RoW. The highest proportion of papers from the RoW was in the Lancet (12%). An analysis of the authorship of 151 articles from RoW showed that 104 (68.9%) involved authorship with developed countries in Europe or North America. There were 15 original papers in these journals with data from RoW but without any authors from RoW., Conclusions: There is a marked under-representation of countries in high-impact general medical journals. The ethical implications of this inequity and ways of reducing it are discussed.

Abstract: Despite possessing a very large potential of renewable energy sources, Australia has lagged behind other developed countries in embracing renewable energy. Various programs and policies have been devised and implemented by Australian governments. Nevertheless, the proportion of renewable energy in electricity generation in Australia has not increased significantly. This paper seeks to explain why Australia has difficulties in adopting renewable energy by using the Political Aspect of Innovation (PAI) framework to examine the causes and barriers that have blocked the taking up of renewable energy. The PAI framework is concerned specifically with public innovation policy in Australia and the way it aims to encourage and support investment in new technology development. The paper finally outlines some future suggestions for charting the progression of the Australian energy system toward a transformative sustainable future. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

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Maternal mortality has traditionally been the key element in the monitoring of maternal health and adequacy of obstetric services in Australia and around the world. In developed countries, the ability of maternal mortality to serve this purpose is reduced because of the rarity of maternal mortality, reflected in very low maternal mortality ratios. Internationally, there has been increasing interest in severe maternal morbidity as an indicator to monitor maternal health and maternity services. The aim of this paper is to critically examine the capacity to measure and monitor maternal morbidity in Australia. There is a paucity of reliable maternal morbidity data in Australia; Australia is lagging behind peer countries that are endeavouring to monitor severe maternal morbidity. Dedicated efforts and adequate resources are needed in order to monitor severe maternal morbidity in Australia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The complexity and diversity of populations in contemporary Western societies is becoming a significant public policy issue. The concept of ‘diversity’ has come to represent cultural, ethnic, racial and religious differences between the ‘dominant group’ and immigrant and indigenous populations. ‘Diversity training’ is amongst many strategies being implemented to address social and economic objectives in complex societies. This paper discusses and critically evaluates a professional education programme, ‘Diverse Bodies, Diverse Identities’, that is offered to human service practitioners and social work students in Victoria, Australia. It is concluded that a range of approaches is needed to address ‘diversity’ in contemporary societies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study of recent fertility trends in the West has been dominated by examinations of Europe. A better perspective on twentieth-century fertility movements can be gained by giving an equal emphasis to trends in the 'Offshoots' (USA, Canada, Australia and New Zealand). This paper focuses on the periods of rapid fertility decline and to a greater extent on the intervening periods of near-equilibrium. It is suggested that the 'late twentieth century compromise' is more stable than is suggested by reports on its internal strains, and that only massive government intervention could raise fertility. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this paper is to examine trends in the global healthcare environment, especially the developed countries. The developed countries are examined in detail as they have influenced the changes that have occurred in the delivery of healthcare in Australia. The countries discussed include the United States, Canada, Europe and Australia. The most concerning trend is the increase in healthcare spending. There has been a marked rise in the cost of hospital and other institutionalised care and health insurance. The ageing population and the increased use of sophisticated and expensive equipment have also increased costs. Other issues identified are, the declining number of hospitals beds, the shift from care in the hospitals or institutions to care in the home or community, the increase in continuum of care programs, the establishment of health care networks, focus on service quality, the lack of security about gaining health insurance and the focus on treatment rather than prevention.

Social work programs in the Global North are increasingly engaged in international student exchange with countries in the Indo-Pacific that belong to the Global South. However, there is a paucity of literature exploring the experiences of the institutions that host these exchanges. This article reports on the findings of a qualitative project that sought host institutions' perspectives on the value of student exchanges. The findings indicate a perception that some mutual benefit and reciprocity can be established in international exchange but that disparity in resourcing, absence of opportunities for hosts to travel to Australia, and the privileged status of knowledge produced in the Global North maintains an inequity between exchange partners. These findings highlight the need for steps that can be taken toward reciprocity while demonstrating the impact power imbalance can have on the nature of Global South–North student exchange programs. IMPLICATIONS Research has shown that student exchange programs between the Global North and the Global South are often underpinned and shaped by a significant power imbalance in favour of the Global North. Findings show that Australian (Global North) knowledge is privileged over knowledge that is Indigenous to the host country and that financial constraints prevent host organisations from equal participation in programs. A form of reciprocity can be established whereby organisations in the Global South can access benefits associated with the programs, without sending their own students on exchange. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, the determinants of growth of aggregate health expenditures are investigated. The study departs from previous literature in that it looks at differences across countries in growth (and not levels) of health care expenditures. Estimation is made for 24 OECD countries. Health system characteristics usually believed to influence health expenditures growth, like population ageing, the type of health system (public reimbursement, public contract or integrate) and existence of gatekeepers, are found to be non-significant. Nevertheless, there is evidence that health expenditures experienced a clear slower growth in the last decade. The explanation for this slowdown could not be found in the proposed model and should stimulate further research.