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This paper presents a model of college choice that suggests that students' choice of college can be related to perceived "capital conversion" benefits. The model was tested on an evenly distributed sample (n=22,109) of students; one group attending elite colleges (with average freshman Scholastic Assessment Test scores of 1200 or higher) and the other attending less-selective colleges. Data for the 40 variables explored in the study were drawn from the Cooperative Institutional Research Program (CIRP) 1994 Freshman Survey. Descriptive analyses provided a profile of elite college students, and regression analyses identified the variables most strongly associated with attendance at highly selective institutions. The study findings support a pattern suggesting that students attending elite schools base future expectations on cultural capital, while those at non-elite schools base expectations on economic capital. Table 1 lists student descriptive statistics, and Table 2 provides standardized regression coefficients for the four selective college choice models. Appendices list elite (non-military) colleges in the CIRP database and provide an outline of the Cultural Capital College Choice Multivariate Model used in the study. (Contains approximately 50 references.) (CH)

This report presents the results of a study of how emerging technologies can help educators deliver standards-based education to K-12 students. The first section of the report provides background on the new technology offerings and defines smart desktop systems. The second section lists critical questions for decisionmakers related to general policy, implementation issues, and vendor selection. The third section describes the components of a smart desktop system, including tools for standards, pedagogy/learning activities, resources, assessment and evaluation of student learning, professional development, classroom management, home-school connection, productivity, teacher education, local and global community, and grant writing. The fourth section describes vendor offerings in three categories: education portals/content providers; instruction/curriculum frameworks; and software manufacturers. The fifth section summarizes findings of an online survey of chief state school officers and organizations that provide smart desktop products/services related to audience, curriculum and teaching standards, instructional support, assessment of students, assessment of educators, professional development focus, professional development approach, access and reporting levels, data analysis, performance comparisons, World Wide Web-posted progress reports, Web-based delivery, implementation challenges, implementation-technical support, implementation challenges, teacher productivity tools, pricing models, hardware, and online tools. Tables of survey data, a copy of the questionnaire, a list of surveyed vendors, and scenarios of smart desktop applications are included. (MES)

Our schools are environments of race and class and these school environments structure opportunity based on race and class. This paper explores how students' lives and their access to postsecondary education are framed and structured by the influences of race and class. The college choice decision process of three female Black students from a range of socioeconomic backgrounds in three distinct high school environments are examined. One of the most important ways that schools foster the investment of various forms of capital in the course of students' educational careers is in the transition from high school to college. The data for this ethnographic study was collected over a nine-month period at three urban California high schools. At the private school, intensive support was provided for college admissions and students applied to selective colleges nationally. At the two public schools much less support was provided and applications were generally limited to within the state or to historically Black colleges. Analysis suggests that Black students from private schools are accruing higher social status and opportunities while the future status of Black public school students is lowered by their more limited college choices, regardless of their academic qualifications. (Contains 32 references.) (JLS)

The Cooperative Institutional Research Program (CIRP) database based on the American Freshmen Survey provides data for use in making marketing and management decisions in colleges and universities. This paper describes an operational cooperative model for managing and exploiting the data that CIRP makes available. The paper also offers an example of the substantive insights that can be derived from such cooperation. Additional sections: (1) provide a description of a project for sharing CIRP data among the members of an existing consortium, the institutions that are involved in the effort, and the student data in the resulting database; (2) discuss the scales used in the study constructed from the CIRP measures of social and political values and the creation of a general index of liberalism; (3) examine the differences among and within institutions on this index; (4) explore the characteristics of institutions that appear to contribute to differences in the social/political orientations of their freshmen classes; and (5) provide summary observations and suggestions for further research. Analysis suggested that various institutional characteristics and student academic orientations (i.e., intended major) are associated with measurable differences on an index of social/political liberalism. (GLR)

A dynamic model of decisions to work, invest in human capital, and commit crime was developed and examined. By making all three activities endogenous, the model explains why older, more intelligent, and more educated workers tend to commit fewer property crimes of some types than others. The model includes the following predictions: (1) policies providing education, training, and work subsidies can reduce criminal activity; however, short-term wage subsidies only temporarily reduce crime at the expense of future crime rates; (2) a rise in youth crime should accompany the recent rise in returns to skill, whereas most adult crime rates may rise or fall; and (3) law enforcement policies increase education, training, and labor supply while reducing criminal activity. When the model's testable implications were studied by analyzing data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY), Current Population Survey (CPS), and Uniform Crime Reports (UCR), both ability and high school graduation were found to significantly reduce criminal participation among young men in the NLSY. Evidence from the UCR and CPS indicated that states with higher high school graduation rates and more severe punishment policies have lower index property crime rates. (Fourteen tables/figures are included. The bibliography lists 42 references.) (MN)

A study assessed how to improve individual informed decision making by various actors in the arena of skills formation in Great Britain on the basis of existing research knowledge. Since individual decisions are situated in a complex institutional arena, two of the most important contextual relationships--schools and employers--were analyzed prior to assessing the determinants of individual decision making. These two areas of complexity in analysis of individuals' decision making were identified: large number of different types of actors and different geographical contexts for typical skill formation. Different actors had differing perceptions and different goals. Main areas of employers' interests in skill formation were reproduction of the work force, expansion of skills, and changing skills. Schools had at least these two sets of contradictory goals: to develop student competence to the best and highest level and to produce people who enter the world of work with the right attributes for employment. Outcomes involved an interaction between this broad institutional environment and various cognitive filters that operate upon individuals' decision making. Individuals' cognitive maps of training, learning, and skills formation were determined by a range of social factors, gender, social class, and ethnicity. Arenas for future action were the school system, improved career information, and social exclusion, gender, social class, and ethnicity. (Contains 116 references.) (YLB)

An evaluation of the extent to which research influences decision making in vocational education and training (VET) at the policy level necessitates consideration of these three areas: (1) decision making; (2) research; and (3) linkages. First, the impact of research on decision making incorporates these two elements: (1) use; and (2) influence. The study of policy-making should concentrate on analysis of the policy process, distribution of power among key stakeholders, and assumptive worlds of key individuals and organizations. Second, research should be addressed in its diversity. Its outputs are: (1) a provision of new knowledge and an application of existing knowledge in new ways; (2) research skills and attitudes; and (3) appropriately educated people. Research can be classified by type: (1) basic; (2) strategic; or (3) applied research and experimental development. Third, the impact of research on policy making is affected by linkages between research and decision making. Stressing the multiple pathways through which VET research can influence policy and practice emphasizes the importance of multiple areas of collaboration between researchers, users, and others. Conclusions are: (1) research does have an impact on decision making in VET; (2) the extent of the influence can not be evaluated quantitatively; and (3) actions of stakeholders can enhance the extent to which research is used and has influence on decision making. (Contains 20 references.) (YLB)

In the late 1990s, many employers were facing short-term and longer-term human resource challenges. Those challenges have prompted many employers to pursue new strategies for finding and retaining qualified employers. Intermediary organizations have emerged as a valuable resource for helping employers find and keep qualified workers. Whatever their institutional form and whether they are in the private, public, or nonprofit sector, employer intermediaries perform one of or more of the following general functions: (1) organizing and representing employers (they can bring employers together to aggregate and represent their interests in work force developing planning and policy); (2) brokering (they can serve as a broker between employers and local players in work force development, including educational institutions, social service agencies, and community-based organizations); and (3) delivering services (they can deliver services directly to employers and their work force, often serving a particular target population). Nine employer intermediaries performing one or more of these functions have been identified and profiled. The following are among the six challenges and opportunities that emerged from the profiles: targeting priority clients among segments of the employer community; conducting effective outreach to other employer and community institutions; matching organizational capacity to proposed activities; and gearing funding strategies to the long haul. (MN)

The hypothesis that making judgments is the basis for workplace learning was examined by studying work in a range of occupations with a view to identifying and analyzing the main judgments involved in individuals' work performance. To test the hypothesis, six practicing professionals (three men and three women) were interviewed. Two of interviewees were public servants with division-level responsibilities. The occupations of the other four were as follows: psychiatrist; private school principal; nurse turned ambulance officer; and corporate consultant. During the interviews, the professionals were asked to reflect on the judgments they make in critical work situations. The interviews were recorded, transcribed, and analyzed in the context of theories regarding workplace learning and logic of action. It was concluded that growth in capacity to make judgments is evident in the following abilities and actions: (1) an ability to separate the stage of presentation of the initial need to make a judgment from the stage of the contiguous actualization of that judgment; (2) an ability to "read" the conative, emotive, and ethical considerations in the light of that separability; and (3) the decentering of the practitioner's sense of identity at one of these stages, but not in both of them. (Contains 34 references.) (MN)

The Commonwealth Digital Education Leadership Training in Action (C-DELTA) is a long-term programme of the Commonwealth of Learning (COL) to promote a digital education environment in Commonwealth Member Nations. This concept paper proposes a holistic approach to conceptualising digital education leadership. The C-DELTA programme will provide a framework for fostering digital learning, and will develop skilled citizens for lifelong learning. Two appendices are included: (1) Literature Review; and (2) Exemplar of a Curriculum Framework for Digital Education Leadership. [This report was written in collaboration with the C-DELTA Centre for Innovation in Learning and Teaching (CILT) Advisory Group, University of Cape Town (Helen Beetham, Ibrar Bhatt, Elizabeth Childs, Catherine Cronin, Lesley Gourlay, Sandhya Gunness, Rozhan Idrus, Shironica Karunanayaka, Catherine Kell, Punya Mishra, Paul Prinsloo and Yasira Waqar.)]

This paper presents a model for obtaining and organizing managment information for decision making in university planning, developed by the Bureau for Management Information of the University of South Africa. The model identifies the fundamental entities of the university as environment, finance, physical facilities, assets, personnel, and students. The model proposes a computerized decision support system which analyzes the mathematical relationships between different components of the system. The support system's data flow plan is presented as a plan that can be constructed independently within each entity, that generates output that can be used by another model as input, and that enables the measurement of variables in one submodel compared to another. The model emphasizes integrated scenario construction, in which a single run can potentially produce outputs of enrollment projections and projections of the needs for personnel, physical facilities, and finances. The paper describes the hardware and software requirements; the structure of files in the system; and the application of the model to enrollment, personnel planning, physical planning, long-term physical planning, and subsidy planning. A final section treats the establishment and use of efficiency measurements. Included are 15 figures and 6 references. (JB)

This study examined characteristics of the student bodies of highly selective and less-selective colleges and universities specifically those related to race and socioeconomic status (SES) and the possible effects of replacing race and ethnicity with SES as a method for ensuring student diversity. The study used data from the Cooperative Institutional Research Program (CIRP), specifically data from freshmen (n=4,408) entering college in 1986. Independent variables included socioeconomic factors (income, parents' educational levels and occupations), race, and background factors (Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) scores, high school grades, gender, and high school rank). Institutional selectivity was the dependent variable. Analysis confirmed the hypothesis that academically and socioeconomically advantaged students are more likely to attend highly selective institutions than other students, and six of the nine independent variables were found to be significant predictors of attendance at a selective institution. Although SAT scores and high school grades were the strongest predictors of institutional selectivity, family income, parents' education, and gender also contributed significantly. Also, twice as many white and Asian students attend highly selective institutions as compared to other racial groups. Results suggest that replacing race with socioeconomic status in affirmative action policies for college admissions would assist in diversifying student bodies. (Contains 30 references.) (DB)

This study sought to determine which sources of information were most often used by the West Virginia public higher education governing board, and to assess the sources' usefulness in examining major higher education policy issues. Data were based on a mailed survey that asked members of the Board of Directors of the West Virginia state college system to identify which of 25 external and internal sources of information they found most useful. Sources included campus catalogs, institutional audits and reports, a statewide higher education report card, state higher education publications, Southern Regional Education Board publications, and the World Wide Web. Of 12 voting board members, nine returned surveys. Analysis indicated that, on average, board members used 10.89 sources, with six, including the statewide higher education report card and special reports prepared by central staff, judged as the most useful internal sources. All board members also obtained information from external sources such as local newspapers and state legislators. Respondents were also asked to rank important policy issues. Of the 18 issues listed, presidential activities and evaluations, legal issues, and enrollment ranked as the most important. Five data tables are included. (CH)

This study examined the allocation of government research grants to universities in the United Kingdom in the context of the current funding system which distributes such grants based on universities' performance in the marketplace. Marketplace performance indicators include academic staff and postgraduate student counts, grants from Research Councils, income from contracts with industry, donations, and research ratings. Research grant data were analyzed to determine if the allocation of research grants reflected the performance indicators outlined in the funding methodology. A multiple regression analysis was used to determine the relationship between indicators and allocation of grants in the academic years 1990-91, 1991-92, and 1992-93. The results showed that the funding formula was used to allocate research grants to the 50 long-established United Kingdom universities with a large coefficient of multiple determination in the three years examined. A large proportion of grants were explained by the performance indicators: 73.1 percent in 1990-91, 80.9 percent in 1991-92, and 86.2 percent in 1992-93. (Contains 45 references.) (JLS)

This study examined the association between financial difficulties of institutions of higher education and their organizational effectiveness with 334 colleges and universities. An investigation of this relationship was made using three variables: a decline in required financial resources, degree of organizational effectiveness, and a set of 12 dysfunctional organizational attributes associated with downsizing. Surveys were distributed to trustees, institutional administrators, and academic department heads at 334 four-year colleges and universities with responses from 927 trustees, 1321 administrators, and 1158 department heads. The nine dimensions of organizational effectiveness identified by Cameron (1978) were measured and colleges and universities were then categorized as high, medium, or low performance organizations, based on their composite scores on these dimensions. The presence of the dysfunctional attributes was also assessed for each institution. The results indicated that institutions facing downsizing and financial decline can remain effective if negative organizational attributed are not allowed to emerge. If, however, these do emerge, then organizational effectiveness is reduced. Five tables and figures are appended. (Contains 50 references.) (JLS)

This paper investigates the role of the budget as an instrument for realizing strategic change and as an influencing factor on the behavior of university faculty within the decentralized educational environment of the Netherlands. It distinguishes between a base component (lump sum allocation) and a special-purpose component (earmarked allocation) in budgeting. It also analyses several approaches to budget development in relation to the implementation of change. Major conclusions are: (1) that in Dutch higher education the budget is a limited instrument for the implementation of strategic change with some use in strengthening developments already initiated within a faculty but ineffective to implement change in a top-down manner; and (2) that change at the faculty level is more effectively stimulated by control devices than by detailed planning instruments. Section 1 of this paper provides a brief introduction to the Dutch higher education system. Section 2 describes some relevant aspects of university organization. Section 3 makes some general remarks about university budgeting and distinguishes a number of budgeting systems. Sections 4 and 5 analyze these budgeting systems as management tools for the implementation of strategic change, using experiences at the University of Utrecht as background. Section 6 presents some general conclusions. Contains 31 references. (GLR)

This study examined, over a 3-year period, the ability of financial assistance for minority students to bridge the gap between generic higher education and the high-prestige, high-cost institutions that are associated with long-term economic benefits to graduates. Applying a variation of the status attainment model to data for the 1989-1990 National Postsecondary Student Aid Survey and its 1992-1993 successor, equity of school choice was examined among various ethnic groups. Over the three year period, average family incomes for Blacks and Hispanics declined while White and Asian family incomes increased. All groups averaged higher amounts of student financial aid with the largest gains for Asians, then Blacks, Hispanics, and Whites. The existence of grants appeared to be encouraging particularly for Blacks and Hispanics, who "buy-up" in the college-price hierarchy. Loans had a lesser influence on college selection by price. Although, educational goals were the most important variable for all groups of the decision to attend a four-year versus two-year institution, financial aid made some difference in choice of institution Financial aid made more impact in 1993 than 1990, enabling all four groups to spend more on tuition. The analysis shows the importance of financial aid in widening a student's choice regarding both tuition spending and institutional level. (Contains 39 references.) (JLS)

Using data from the Cooperative Institutional Research Program of students who were college freshmen in 1986 and responded to a follow-up survey in 1990, this study examined differences in degree aspirations and attainment between intercollegiate football or basketball players (N=158) and other intercollegiate athletes (N=801). Although there were significant differences in most background characteristics between the two groups, there was no difference in their mean degree aspiration at the start of their first year of college. Four years later, however, football and basketball players had significantly lower degree attainment and degree aspirations than their counterparts who played other intercollegiate sports. More importantly, even when background characteristics and initial degree aspirations were statistically controlled for in multiple regression analysis, the degree aspirations of football and basketball players significantly dropped while the degree aspirations of those playing other sports did not change. Outcomes were differentially negative not only for male but also for female athletes in the football and basketball group compared to those in other sports. Time devoted to athletics was not significantly different between the two groups of athletes. Peer group effects and role engulfment were suggested as possible explanations for the findings, and limitations to interpretability are discussed. (Contains 14 references.) (Author/JLS)

A study explored faculty views about curriculum planning in academic programs. Fifty-nine faculty members at two very different university campuses (one a small private college with a recent history of faculty-administrative strife, the other a large regional public university with a recently-mandated statewide curriculum review and anticipated assessment mandates) were interviewed concerning their assumptions about curriculum planning and the influences on them as they worked with colleagues in planning program curricula. Questions asked explored faculty beliefs about disciplines, students, and learning that influence faculty perspectives about course sequences, what constitutes a "coherent" academic plan for the program, how the curriculum rationale is communicated to students, steps taken and decisions made in adjusting curriculum, degree of change undertaken in recent years, and provisions made for assessing curriculum effectiveness. Results indicated that in comparison with course planning, program planning is irregular, typically responds to a specific catalyst, and is more dependent on supportive institutional climate and leadership. Ways in which institutional researchers can help provide a supportive climate for responsive and regular planning that links planning and assessment more closely are discussed. (Contains 44 references.) (Author/MSE)

The nature of percentile ranks scores is explored using concrete heuristic examples. It is explained why arithmetic operations require measurement on equal-interval scales, and that percentile ranks are not measured on equal-interval scales and therefore may not be added or averaged. The consequences of inappropriately adding percentile ranks are explored from the perspectives of various textbook authors. The discussion is couched in the context of the legal requirements for high-stakes testing. The information presented herein is not new or previously unknown, rather, the distinguishing characteristics of the position paper hopefully include clarity and concreteness of presentation. (Five figures and two tables illustrate the discussion, and an appendix provides additional commentary. Contains 31 references.) (Author)

In preparation for the next National Household Education Survey (NHES), the conceptual frameworks of participatory behavior and methods used by other researchers to study factors promoting or inhibiting participation were examined. The following items were reviewed: the adult education (AE) barriers questions included on the 1991 and 1995 editions of the NHES; 33 empirical studies of participation/nonparticipation in AE and activities other than AE; and examples of conceptual frameworks from selected areas (economics, social psychology, leisure studies, health research, AE, theories of change, dropout and attrition studies, the time allocation literature, and studies of consumer choice behavior). The option of drawing upon multiple models when developing the AE component of the next NHES was deemed superior to the single-framework option. The following key variables were recommended for consideration for possible inclusion in the NHES: demographic/background characteristics; life events and transitions; past participation in AE; other participatory behavior; co-participants; physical and mental health; intentions; perceptions of barriers; perceptions of benefits; motivations; reference group opinions; attitudes/opinions toward education; and role of technology and availability of other options to formal AE courses. (Thirty-eight tables/figures/exhibits are included. The report contains 98 references. Appended are abstracts of all 33 empirical studies reviewed; each contains the following: citation, objective/purpose/goal, type of activity, research method, subjects, structural/technical issues, and conclusions/implications.) (MN)

The topic of repeated judgments of interest in vocational education was examined in a study in which 10 female full-time technical and further education (TAFE) students (aged 15-60 years) were handed 120 randomly selected real profiles of TAFE students who had completed subject interest surveys in a previous study. The 10 TAFE students judged how interested they would be in studying subjects described by the profile writers. After the students had made a total of 120 judgments, they were retested. The students' responses were analyzed in terms of a lens model in which judgment is considered a function of task properties, cognitive control, and knowledge. The question of whether cognitive feedforward alters students' perceptions was examined by considering students' responses to seven cues: quality of teaching, importance of the subject, ability, difficulty of the subject, whether the course was liked, study time, and homework time. No significant differences in the levels of lens model indices from pre- to post-information judgments were found. It was concluded that students overcompensated in their efforts to maximize judgment accuracy and that they were unable to make full use of the entire range of cues. (13 references) (MN)

Telephone interviews concerning special education teacher attrition were conducted with 96 former special education teachers in Florida. Both qualitative and quantitative techniques were used to analyze the interview data. Participants had not returned to their special education teaching positions after the 1992-93 school year. The majority of these leavers indicated that they had taken positions that were education-related. Disgruntled teachers (n=49) made up the largest category of leavers. Nondisgruntled teachers (N=36) made up the second largest category with the remaining 11 being unclear. Disgruntled teachers rarely left because of one factor. Instead, the interaction of factors often resulted in a teacher's decision to leave. Frequently cited reasons included feeling overwhelmed, unsupported, unprepared, and/or disempowered. However, 23 of the disgruntled teachers said they would become a special education teacher again. Nondisgruntled leavers indicated that they enjoyed teaching special education and usually left because of external factors such as other job opportunities, certification requirements, family influences, retirement, position not reoffered, and inadequate pay. Overall, when leavers were asked what could be done to encourage them to return to special education teaching, the largest portion said that no incentives would encourage their return. Others mentioned that more administrative and instructional support would be necessary, or that increased salary and/or a reduced work load would encourage their return. When asked about their future career plans, 54 of the leavers indicated that they wished to remain in education but not in the special education classroom. An attached table details teacher responses. (DB)

This paper provides an introduction to a particular systems-theoretical approach to problem-solving in the management of education usually referred to as soft-systems methodology (SSM), developed by Peter Checkland in the 1970s. SSM should provide a powerful tool for managers in education at any level who have a strategic role because it can be used to address many problems and questions such as whether current courses meet student needs, or how to introduce a college-wide quality improvement system. The paper begins by providing background information on systems theory and then moves on to discuss the educational context and micropolitics and to describe the methodology of SSM, first through an overview and then through a detailed description of its seven stages. A discussion of the use of SSM in strategic planning and quality assurance concludes the paper. Contains eight references. (GLR)

In view of the expanding powers of college governing bodies, it appeared timely to take stock of developments to date; and this paper examines such issues as the roles, responsibilities, and liabilities of individual governors, discussing them in the context of, and as they relate to, the emerging corporate style and strategy of the board. Also examined is the premise that if the responsibilities of individual governors and the strategy of the board are consciously chosen and shared, consideration can be given to how this strategy may best be met and maintained. The paper discusses the powers, duties, and liabilities of governors, the nature of the board's involvement in college life and the internal political life and operation of the board, including its decisions as to what kind of governing body it wants to be. It is stressed that it is through the on-going conduct of their affairs that the governors' wishes will find expression. A number of decisions are discussed which demonstrate the governors' style and strategy in very tangible ways. In offering a range of alternative models for consideration, the paper identifies a number of practical issues which help to form working patterns with which governing boards may identify themselves. An American analysis has defined seven styles of governing body participation, from the "out to lunch" or rubber stamp board to the managerial board. Six types of internal operation are also described, as are the style of the governing body, various procedural matters, and the roles of key offices and advisers in relation to the board. Contains 15 references. (GLR)

This report describes the decision-making process and problems encountered during the 48 months it took to establish a new university, California State University at Monterey Bay, on the site of Fort Ord, a recently closed military base. After an introduction, the report is organized in four sections, one for each phase of the process. The first section, on the opportunity development phase, briefly reviews the decision to close the base. The second section, covering the recognition-of-opportunity phase, reports the genesis of the idea at San Jose State University and the idea's transition from an off-campus center to a full-service university. Details of the selection, modification, and adoption process are covered in the third section. These involved activities such as decision making by Cal State, legislative involvement, a needs assessment, and scheduling. The fourth section covers the implementation and monitoring phase. A conclusion identifies problems associated with the rapid pace of the transition, including pressure on the usual system of orderly checks and balances, failure to plan for facility maintenance, and the unclear role of the new residential campus in the California State University system. An appendix provides a detailed chronology of the conversion. (Contains 61 references.) (DB)

In response to a recommendation that the Office of Educational Research and Development (OERI) adopt consensus panels such as those used by the National Institutes of Health and the Food and Drug Administration, this paper tries to represent the range of consensus panel applications and to identify the major considerations for OERI application. A pyramid of consensus strategies is possible, with a broad base of many systematic decision-making strategies (such as group discussions or syntheses of reviewer comments) and a top point with a few model consensus panel approaches that require extensive participant agreement and rigorous examination of the evidence. It is noted that there is merit in the recommendation to use consensus development processes, but it is recommended that OERI try the consensus panel strategy of the National Academy of Science report only on a trial basis because effective features of consensus panels in health research probably cannot be transferred to educational research and practice. Strengths and weaknesses of consensus strategies in general and of specific strategies are discussed. Seven appendixes consider methodology and various types of consensus approach, and provide supplemental information. Four attachments provide additional details. (Contains 133 references in Appendix 3.) (SLD)