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Precipitation plays a crucial role in the global energy and water cycle and has important implications for food, water, and energy security. To enhance our understanding of the water cycle, it is invaluable to have a comprehensive historical record of precipitation. However, obtaining such records, especially for the period before the Industrial Revolution, can be challenging. During the Joseon Dynasty, Korea established a network for measuring rainfall and recorded this information in historical documents known as Seungjeongwon Ilgi and Ilseongnok. Recently, these documents have been digitized, providing us with daily precipitation data for Seoul spanning 130 years, from 1778 to 1907. By combining and analyzing these two documents, we were able to address inconsistencies found in previous studies and improve the quality of the data. Notably, this dataset is free of any missing values, making it the longest daily precipitation record in the world before the Industrial Revolution. Its availability to the public holds great potential for climate research in East Asia during the late Little Ice Age. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the fifteenth century, the government of Chosŏn, Korea, influenced by the new religious understandings from early Ming China, strived to reform state and personal rites by eliminating elements of spiritual efficacy to align with contemporary religious perspectives. This series of ritual reforms mirrored various Ming policies that, despite being appealing theoretically, struggled with implementation due to a mismatch with local and personal realities. This suggests that Chosŏn's government-led reforms, diverging from traditional beliefs, faced similar challenges in Korea, leading to various problems. This study delves into the ritual transformations prompted by the reforms in the early Chosŏn era. It highlights the government's partial success in reforming state rites by removing elements of spiritual efficacy despite potential hindrances and deviations from traditional practices. However, this study also notes the failure of reforms concerning personal rites, which did not yield significant results. It reflects on the complexities and implications of these reforms, considering the socio-religious context of the time and the influence of contemporary Ming China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates the anthropometric history of pre-modern Korea drawing from military rosters of the Chosŏn Dynasty (1392–1910). We use height collected from up to 4,256 male recruits measured from the sixteenth to early eighteenth century. As previous research did not address the conversion of recorded height measured in local Korean units (ch’ŏk) into common centimeters in a convincing fashion, this paper pays special attention to this problem by providing evidence that one specific local measure, called chuch’ŏk, was used throughout the entire period. Using our new conversion method and focusing on 2,596 men who reached their terminal height, we show that during the observed period, mean final height of premodern Koreans was about 166 cm, which indicates that they enjoyed the same biological living standards as Europeans at that time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper provides a historical overview of Korean archival practice and introduces historical changes in archival traditions over the course of Korean history. This will identify the unique characteristics of Korean archival practice, which are based on the ideological and political changes that have happened in Korean history, in terms of Confucianism, Modernization, Colonization, and Westernization. The different historical eras shaped archival traditions in Korea in different ways, according to their own ideologies. By identifying archival practices in history and connecting them with social and political ideologies, the paper concludes that archival practice actively interacts with ideological and social needs within its historical context. For this, the paper presents: (1) an overview of traditional compilation between the fifteenth and nineteenth centuries; (2) a discussion of the modernization efforts in the Joseon administrations of the nineteenth century; (3) some observations on the introduction of colonial archival practice under Japanese occupation in the early twentieth century; and (4) a review of post-colonial archival practice in the Republic of Korea. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines how the seventeenth-century discourses between the West and the Orient regarding Hamel and Joseon illustrate an antinomy whereby what is regarded as ‘true’ in one society can be defined as ‘false’ in another. Hamel who assumed that the West was superior to Joseon, encountered the antinomy in which their superior self-identity was not supported in Joseon society. However, in their Western discourse, Hamel disparaged Joseon’s people and casted them in the image of the Other who is inferior. On the other hand, Joseon considered itself as a culturally superior ‘little China’ and formed a dichotomous hierarchy with Hamel. This superior stature of Joseon was however shattered when dealing with Great Qing and Japan. In sum, the seventeenth-century discourses between the West and the Orient fall into an antinomy in which the same incident can be either true or false depending on who takes the position of the subject in the discourses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cotton manufacturing in Korea is known to have started with Mun Ik-jeom (1329-1398), who brought cottonseeds from China during the last days of the Goryeo dynasty. Despite the great achievement of Mun's introduction of cottonseeds, by focusing exclusively on Mun or a few historic figures, we tend to disregard the more crucial agencies to have made this great social transformation possible. To complement existing scholarship, the paper address the agency of Hoseung Hongwon 胡僧弘願 in social transformation of medieval Korea. Starting with the introduction contextualizing the spread of cotton in a wider perspective, it consists of three main sections: firstly, which identifies the presence and role of the foreign monk in the official narratives of Goryeo and Joseon; secondly, which examines the actual significance of his contribution--ginning and carding (also known as bucking or batting)--to the distribution of cotton cloth making; and lastly to suggest his presumed Tibetan or Inner Asian origin in connection to its long cotton culture tradition and to Buddhist trade network on the Silk Road and to scrutinize the trajectory of how his story was treated and forgotten over the course of the time. The research shows that the Korean cotton manufacturing process was not an isolated event made by a heroic effort of a single person, but an outcome of the connected world of the period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the bridge memorial stones of Chosŏn, considering the intersection between public literature and exile literature. Bridge memorial stones are erected to commemorate stone bridge construction in a community. The entire community—from the local administration to the people—contributed to the bridge construction and the compositon of the epigraphs on bridge memorial stones. The genre developed into a type of public literature, forming a practical style without personal narratives. This paper categorizes the contents of bridge memorial stones into three parts: prose, verse, and name lists, and analyzes the general characteristics and literary style of each part. Furthermore, this paper introduces "The Epigraph of Kwangnigyo" by the exile Sim Yŏlchi (1707–1759?) and compares it with conventional epigraphs of bridge memorial stones in Chosŏn. Although written by an outsider to the Kijang (Gijang) community, it captured the local identity by adopting folklore of the dragon king Kwangniwang and affirmed the leading power of the local people. In addition, the author included an image of himself as marginalized from the community in a fictional story. This unique manuscript presents a new perspective on exile literature as a result of active participation in a community. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper focuses on the iconography of "the Listener" in Buddhist prints that was adopted in Joseon dynasty Sakyamuni Preaching paintings. Regarding change in the Listener iconography from bodhisattva form to monk form, diverse research has been conducted on the Listener's identity and origin. However, existing studies are limited as they fail to consider the circumstances of the time this iconography was first adopted and trends in Joseon Buddhism. As the first Joseon print where the Listener in bodhisattva form appeared was based on a print from the Chinese Ming dynasty, and considering trends in publication of Buddhist prints in China where pictures of the Buddha preaching were used repeatedly in sutras regardless of the contents, this paper argues that the Listener should not be identified with any particular figure and examines the current state and characteristics of Joseon Buddhist paintings where the Listener appears. It also explores the possibility that the Listener's change from bodhisattva form to monk form was driven by monk artists such as Myeongok, who were exposed to diverse iconography as they participated in creating both Buddhist paintings and prints in a situation where monks who had received systematic education gained a new awareness of iconography. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the Joseon period, the maritime ban policy gradually became a means of controlling the people when a reorganization of the military defense system and the preparation of countermeasures against the appearance of unidentified vessels were required. In the process, a maritime boundary consciousness was formed, and a defense system centered on the inner sea was established. As a result, islands located in the West and South Seas were transformed into garrison areas, receiving increased attention from the central government. By contrast, the change in the island policy toward Ulleungdo was relatively uncomplicated. In the early Joseon period, the governance of evacuating residents of Ulleungdo and the so-called island vacancy policy were carried out as a way of preventing damage from Japanese pirates. And the sutoje of Ulleungdo was formalized when the territorial dispute over Ulleungdo with Japan began in earnest at the end of the 17th century. The character of Ulleungdo was the same as that of the islands located on the West and South Seas in that it revealed the government's determination to properly control domestic territory. The development of the sutoje of Ulleungdo was also related to changes in maritime territorial consciousness and island policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study explores the ways in which a ban on ancestral rites influenced Korean Christianity. Ancestral rites are religious ceremonies that form the most critical social basis of Joseon, a Confucian society. First, the Korean Catholic Church was the first to oppose ancestral rites. Catholics created a new social and ethical resonance in Joseon society but had to endure tremendous persecution. Second, Protestantism was introduced when Joseon society was the most confused. Protestant missionaries banned ancestral rites, and Korean Protestants accepted them. Gradually, they interpreted it and embodied it in their faith. The ban on ancestral rites contributed to the formation of Korean Christianity. This laid the foundation for Christian social ethics and Hyo (孝, Xiao (Chinese pronunciation), filiality) theology. It has expanded into various fields, such as systematic theology, biblical studies, practical theology, and liturgical practice. Thus, this study examines how the ban on ancestral rites in Korea had a profound impact on the contextualization of Korean Christianity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper addresses an extremely favorable portrayal by an envoy of Joseon Korea, Jeong Du-won, of the Portuguese Jesuit Joao Rodrigues, whom Jeong met in the course of his tributary mission to Ming China in 1630-1631. In his subsequent report to the Joseon king, Jeong portrayed Rodrigues as a benign gift-giver, while portraying himself as a passive recipient of Western gifts. Jeongs characterization of the Jesuit and his gifts has provided modern historians with an important case to illustrate their Eurocentric account of Western Learning in Korea, an account in which the Koreans played simply the passive role of recipient of European culture. While questioning this Eurocentric account, I shall situate Jeongs portrayal of the Jesuit in its political contexts-- Jeong's China mission and the bureaucratic politics of the Joseon dynasty. The image of Rodrigues as the benign gift-giver was created by Jeong, the Joseon envoy who served as the transmitter of higher culture from China to Korea. In his self-serving rhetorical efforts to legitimize the "barbarian" informant from the West, he managed to legitimize his own achievements within the China mission. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many scholars have stressed that regional dynamics led to the outbreak of the Musin Rebellion, the largest rebellion in eighteenth-century Korea. Scholars have examined the economic and political situation leading up to the violence and concluded that political marginalization caused Kyŏngsang Province elites (from the Southerner faction) to launch the rebellion. This paper analyses evidence from official sources about rebel motivations, rebel geographical associations and the court view of the causes. Although post-rebellion government statements acknowledge tensions between the court and many Kyŏngsang Province elites, rebel testimony showed no evidence of any anger about discrimination against elites from a single region. There is also inconsistent evidence of regional concerns in the membership of the rebel organization, which was drawn from three southern provinces and mainly concentrated around the capital. My findings challenge the conclusions of regionalist scholars and place the Musin Rebellion in a trajectory of late Chosŏn rebellion that was attempting to redress factional political discrimination and was not caused by regional concerns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper attempts to analyze the process by which early Catholicism in Joseon was repressed and persecuted through a primarily legal perspective. In doing so, I will try to lay out exactly how the Joseon government chose to legally handle the problem of Catholicism and seek to show how this legal treatment changed over time and reveal the reasons for this shift in law application. Here I will focus on the period between 1784 and 1801, which spans the time between the first Catholic baptism of a Korean and the major persecution campaign which occurred in 1801. While previous research has partially examined the repression and persecution of early Catholicism from a legal perspective before, this paper seeks to analyze the legal treatment of early Catholicism as a whole and cast light on its historical developments. Importantly, I will refer not only to the specific laws applied against Catholics but also incorporate the royal commands, which could exist separate from the legal code, into my analysis. In doing so, I will try to demonstrate that the importance of the king's judicial agency in treating criminal cases in Joseon was paramount. By the end, I hope to have shown precisely how and why the legal handling of Catholicism grew progressively harsher. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The triennial civil service examination was instituted right after the foundation of the Chosŏn state. However, special examinations (pyŏlsi) were held frequently alongside triennial examinations by royal order. The frequency of special examinations gradually increased as the Chosŏn period progressed and by the late fifteenth century special examinations were held even more often than the regular examinations. In this paper, I will trace the occasions for special examinations in early Chosŏn to examine why they were held so frequently. Special examinations began with the royal examination administered directly by the king while more and more occasions were created to hold special examinations. They were held as exhortations to learning, and on the occasion of state rituals and state celebrations, which led to the emergence of the state celebration special examination. The state celebration examinations, having initially taken the form of the royal visitation examination, were conducted separately later in the dynasty. As state celebration examinations emerged, the admission criteria were relaxed in order to attract the greatest possible number of scholars. The fashioning of the special examination alongside the regular triennial examination can be explained by the fact that it became part of the education policy and state celebrations of Chosŏn. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The intent of this paper is to challenge the notion that Buddhism under the oppressive policies of the Joseon state became isolated and limited mostly to popular religious practices. When we shift our focus away from state polemics and elite ideologies, we can perceive Buddhist cultural activities in which monks were active participants in a larger burgeoning literary culture, if not part of the cultural elite of Joseon society. In the literary realm of the scholar-officials, what we notice are active exchanges between Confucian scholar-officials and Buddhist "poet-monks." This portrays a picture of cultural solidarity wherein Confucian-Buddhist exchanges seem more important than the inter-traditional conflict or separateness. Similarly, Buddhist temples were in fact cultural centers of literary activities that were intimately connected to the lives of the literary elites, including the scholar-officials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Korean historical documents have abundant records of river works. Extensive related records during the Joseon Dynasty (CE 1392–1910) were investigated and analyzed. The evolution of man-made urban stream, Cheonggyecheon the center of old downtown Seoul, Korea was reviewed. In 1410, after a big flood, 52,800 soldiers were mobilized from whole country to improve waterway in the capital. King Sejong continued to enhance the river maintenance. The dredging and expansion for main stream including tributaries was conducted to reduce flood risk. It was a landmark river engineering project for the improvement of the capital's infrastructure. King Yeongjo planned and initiated the massive river work project. 200,000 people were recruited from five local provinces to widen the stream and to build up the stone embankments, and the waterways were straightened up to present conditions. After the project, the Juncheonsail , a construction report was published and adopted as a practical guideline for river management. As a result, floods in downtown of the capital had been somewhat controlled though, since then every King of the Joseon Dynasty had deep consideration on river maintenance including dredging and embankment against flood and sedimentation. This paper aims to introduce a brief history of the systematic urban river management in ancient Korea. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article will explain the Zhonghua community strategy and its impact on the formation of the self-identity of Joseon's political elites, and the resulting change in the Ming court's attitude toward the Joseon dynasty. The architect of the institutions of the early Joseon dynasty, Jeong Dojeon, insisted the Joseon dynasty should internalize Confucian moral values and become the model tributary in this world order. His plan was materialized by kings of the early Joseon dynasty. Among various policies, the establishment of new rituals was the key project of the Zhonghua community strategy. The political elites of the early Joseon dynasty prided themselves on representing the country of courtesy. In the mid-Ming period, the Ming court accepted Joseon's claim, and began treating it as a civilized country distinctive from other barbarian nations. Far from being a purely anachronistic policy of a distant period, this "Zhonghua community strategy" of the early Joseon dynasty can be taken as a reference point for understanding the policy-making of modern Korea. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research study examines Park Se-dang's Sinju Dodeokgyeong, which was the first complete exegesis of the Daodejing (DDJ) in Korea. This study investigates the theoretical strategies that Park used to interpret the DDJ from a Neo-Confucian perspective and also examines the logical missteps that Park took to force a unity between Neo-Confucianism and Daoism. The core method for interpreting the DDJ that Park utilized in his attempt to assert the compatibility of Neo-Confucianism and Daoism can be summarized as "interpreting Daoism through Neo-Confucian theory". This research study breaks down Park's strategy for reinterpreting the DDJ, dividing Park's argumentation into four parts: (1.) clarifying the historical hereticalization of the DDJ; (2.) identifying the ethics and treasured virtues of Confucianism and Daoism; (3.) the study of the cosmologies of Confucianism and Daoism; and (4.) interpreting Daoist moral ethics through Neo-Confucian cosmological theory. Park Se-dang's strategy for forcing unity between Neo-Confucianism and Daoism had its limits. Among other things, Park attempted but failed to narrow the gap between Confucian and Daoist ethics and cosmology by converting the concept of "heaven" in the DDJ into a humanized heaven. Eventually, even though Park's strategy failed, his work inspired other Silhak scholars of Joseon up to the 19th century and had a clear impact on the many subsequent reinterpretations of the DDJ. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The "Riben dao ge" is a well-known poem in the history of East Asian literary exchanges. The poem was written by Sima Guang during his appointment at the Palace Library, expressing his cultural expectations as well as some satirical remarks about Qian Gongfu. The earliest proponent of the theory that the "Riben dao ge" was written by Sima Guang was the Japanese Meiji-era scholar Kusaka Hiroshi, who influenced Yang Shoujing. From the standpoint of cultural history, the "Riben dao ge" is intimately connected to the Edo-era concept of lost and surviving books; Chosŏn's goodwill missions, moreover, played a vital role in the dissemination of the poem in Japan. The "Riben dao ge's" many influences across Japan and Chosŏn demonstrated an interest in the Chinese cultural issue of "searching for lost rituals among the people." [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Jongmyo, Seoul, the oldest Confucian imperial shrine preserved, is dedicated to the forefathers of the Joseon dynasty (1392-1910). Ritual ceremonies called Jongmyo Jerye were held five times a year here to pay tributes to the royal ancestors, and were deemed one of the most important rites for a state to perform. The accompanying Jongmyo Jeryeak music/dance performance was therefore understandably sol- emn and elaborate. During the Sejong's reign (r. 1419-1450), official Pak Yon attempted to reconstruct the ancient Chinese form of Jongmyo Jeryeak, but later on, Sejo (r. 1469-1494) decided to adopt two suites of music/dance, "Botaepyeong" and "Jeongdaeeop," as the new Jongmyo Jeryeak, and the practice lasted through all the succeeding generations. In 1962, Jongmyo Jeryeak became the first designated Important Intangible Cultural Property in the Republic of Korea, and since the 70s, the ceremony has been reinstated and held on the first Sunday of May, an open event that sees thousands of spectators lining the streets and the quiet sanctuary to celebrate. Internationally, Jongymo and the Annuals of Joseon were designated as World Heritage in 1995 and World Memory in 1997 respectively. In 2001, Jongmyo Jerye and Jongmyo Jeryeak were jointly proclaimed as Masterpiece of Human Oral and Intangible Heritage. Intangible cultural heritage refers to the practices, representations, expressions, knowledge and skills that people recognize as part of their cultural heritage. Its safeguarding requires taking community of practitioners and documentation into careful consideration. Thanks to the preservation of Jongmyo and the Annals, the original place and documentation, Jongmyo Jeryeak today can still be performed according to its "original form." The tangible context not only helps the intangible music/dance to be remembered, but to be "remembered correctly." However, we must also point out that, even with the physical framework relatively intact, the meaning of Jongmyo Jeryeak inevitably changes as newer shareholders come into the picture. Will the tangible context "fossilize" the intangible cultural heritage and confine it to the "original form" or "authenticity"? Or will tangible context act as the detailed archive that allows intangible cultural heritage to constantly be recreated without forgetting its earlier form? The aim of this paper is to examine the case of Jongmyo Jeryeak and discuss the role that tangible context plays in the fluidity of culture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper gives an overview of the discourses and historical development of fantasy literature of Joseon-Dynasty, from the late 14th century to the early 19th century, to understand the characteristics of Korean fantasy literature before western influences. The fantasy is a constitutive element of Joseon literature. Especially, in narrative such as novels, 'the fantastic' actively intervenes into space, character, and story of the work. We can easily find examples of the fantastic in various novels' motifs: the romance between human and ghost, the trip to the underworld or the dragon empire beneath the sea, and the character who uses magical power, etc. Jeon-gi novel and Mong-yu novel are the representative genres that mainly deal with such fantastic motifs in the storyline. Also, 'the fantastic' is often found in poems such as Yuseon poetry, which recite the visit to the utopia of Sinseon. Moreover, we can also see that scholars of Joseon clearly have been conscious of the fantastic, throughout their various suggestions on fantasy literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Confucian private academies or söwön of Choson Korea (1392-1910) enjoy an imputed legacy of having been educational institutions of venerable age, serenely situated in rural locales in which Neo-Confucian metaphysics was studied and transmitted by wise masters. The reality was more dynamic and distinctly grittier: the academies were born in an age of growing political despair in the mid-sixteenth century and ended in wholesale violence as the söwön system was largely destroyed between 1868-1871 by the Taewon'gun. This paper examines the unlikely constellation of events that led to the creation of the first söwön in Choson Korea, the Paegun-dong Academy in 1543 in the remote mountainous county of P'unggi, Kyongsang-do and its subsequent royal chartering in 1550 as Sosu Sôwôn. Chu Sebung (1495-1554) and Yi Hwang (1501-1570) were the pivotal figures in these events, as in separate ways they sought to comport their growing fascination with the social and moral implications of Southern Song learning from the twelfth century with their own trajectories of ambition and frustration as local magistrates. From the outset the söwön were less pristine academies dedicated to immersion in philosophy and more local institutions serving a diverse set of worldly interests in their locales. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Jeongjo was the last strong king of the Joseon period and the most successful of the latter half of the dynasty. Jeongjo used his extensive Confucian education to propagate a royalist political philosophy through which to combat the minister-centered thought of the aristocracy. After a brief discussion of royal power in Joseon vis-à-vis contemporary China and tracing the history of the "imperial pivot" (hwanggeuk) concept, this paper draws on conceptual metaphor theory and blending theory to examine how King Jeongjo argued for royal power in his preface to the Hwanggeukpyeon (Book of the Imperial Pivot). It explores four primary metaphors embedded in the complex metaphor of the king as the "imperial pivot" and then looks at the metaphor as a double-scope blend that creates a new space from the source domains of central pivot and king in politics. It argues that Jeongjo draws upon four primary metaphors--particularly that of balance--in order to provoke a visceral desire in his ministers for him to use the power of the throne to eliminate divisive factions. The imperial pivot is a blended space that allows Jeongjo to invoke the visceral desire for equilibrium provided by the pivot metaphor while leaving behind its connotation of passivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Numerous Ming Chinese took refuge in Choson Korea during the early seventeenth century. Despite the supposed sinocentrism of Choso's elites, refugees from China were treated as belonging to the category of submitting-foreigner (hyanghwain), a protected but distinctly humble social status that had been used primarily as a tool for settling Japanese and Jurchen from Choson's frontiers. Beginning in the mid-eighteenth century, however, the Choson court considered it incongruous to include Ming Chinese descendants in that category. Chinese lineages were thus distinguished from other submitting-foreigners and reclassified according to the considerably more prestigious category of imperial subjects. This paper explores this change, seeing it as part of a trend in the Qing Empire and indeed in Eurasia as a whole in which identity and subjecthood became increasingly bureaucratized, and loyalties treated as absolute. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses a debate held between Korean Neo-Confucian philosophers during the reign of the Joseon dynasty, termed the Horak debate, which largely dealt with themes of human nature, animal nature, and morality. The role of Korean philosophers Han Won-jin (or Namdang) and Yi Gan (or Oeam) in instigating the debate is explained. The ways in which both philosophers understood the Chinese philosophical notion of "qi" are explored. The author details how the establishment of the Qing dynasty in China largely influenced this schism in Korean philosophical and political thought.

Gavin Menzies argues that the depiction of Africa in the late fifteenth-century Korean world map, the Ryūkoku Kangnido, provides evidence that Ming China mapped the west coast of Africa and discovered the world in the 1420s. This paper examines his use of the Ryūkoku Kangnido and his use of available writing on this world map. For Asian cartographic history Menzies appears to have read only the homepage of a map lover who summarized historians' research and added his own comments. Menzies' argument about the Ryūkoku Kangnido does not stand in Korean and Chinese histories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this paper is to make sense of Yi Gyu-bo's (1168-1241) seemingly religious and apolitical text, "Munjomul" (Questions to the Creator), as a political text, and to suggest its vision as a possible prelude to the Goiyeo (918-1392)-Joseon (1392-1910) transition. If Neo-Confucianism articulates a political vision for the Joseon dynasty, one can construe that political vision as an answer to the previous dynasty's long-lasting questions about the relation of the self and politics as the dominant political thought loses ground. To the extent that "Munjomul" shows the weakening state of the ideological foundation of Goryeo, it can be interpreted as the embodiment of the problem, the answer to which was statecraft thought and Neo-Confucianism in early Joseon. This paper sees that Yi Gyu-bo disconnected the link between politics and the power of the God, and foregrounded the issues of the self while Neo-Confucianism forged the link between the self and politics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The wealthiest guilds of the Choson Dynasty (1392-1910) capital, Seoul, formed part of the government's provisioning system, providing mainly luxury goods for royal palaces, government offices and tribute gifts to China and Japan. The guild merchants were also expected to provide corvée labour to the government on a regular basis, although by the late nineteenth century much of this labour was commuted to cash payments. Using a collection of surviving documents from the guildhall of the Myonjujon (Guild of Domestic Silk Merchants), this paper looks in detail at the burden of corvée labour, particularly during the politically and economically tumultuous years between 1884 and 1894. It finds that the merchants' corvée reflected the close relationship between guilds and government and also the two-sided nature of this relationship for the merchants. Thus, while they received certain protections and privileges from the government, the guild merchants were also particularly vulnerable to official corruption, which found a damaging outlet in the corvée system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The yellow coloring of the organic and inorganic pigments used in large Buddhist paintings during the late Joseon dynasty (17th–19th centuries) is herein analyzed using Raman spectroscopy and non‐invasive component analysis via p‐XRF. p‐XRF analyses of 194 yellow points on 12 large Buddhist paintings confirmed the use of gold, orpiment, and organic pigments; however, the yellow chromophoric elements of the organic pigments were not detected. The confirmed colors ranged from light yellow (close to white) to bright and dark yellow, but microscopic analysis revealed no particles or crystals. Accurate identification of pigments comprising light elements or organic compounds is challenging, which limits their identification via p‐XRF. In contrast, Raman spectroscopy of the samples presumed to be organic pigments detected gamboge in the samples, either alone, mixed with a white inorganic pigment such as lead white to express yellow, or overlaid upon such a pigment. These results demonstrate the utility of Raman spectroscopy in the analysis of organic pigments and provide a guide for the identification of coloring materials used in cultural heritage artifacts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The tale of Korean Sinology is as dramatic as that of Korea itself, which has moved from being a faithful periphery of the Chinese civilization to a newly rising economic power in the modern world. This article begins with a survey of some distinctive features of premodern Korean scholarly works by the end of the Chosŏn dynasty from the perspective of Sinology. Then it moves on to modern scholarship, focusing mostly on the field of Chinese history, which I think is the most active and innovative among the several different fields in today's Korean Sinology. The history of Korean Sinology is a telling case study that illustrates how humanistic learning is deeply connected to fundamental aspects of a society's politics, economics, and culture at a given moment in time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the early period of the Joseon Dynasty, the government undertook currency reform at both central and local levels to promote currency exchange and restructure market order. Drawing on historical sources and utilizing game theory methodologies, this study examines the challenges of state governance and the dynamics of central-local relations during this era. The findings suggest that the establishment of the Joseon Dynasty's governance system arose from the rulers' deliberate decisions; however, it was also driven by the necessity to reconcile the development of productive forces with the superstructure. The study highlights the impact of the "official" issue on communication efficiency between central and local authorities, which contributed to the currency reform's failure. Consequently, the central government's regulation and control over local regions, as well as its ability to govern the aspirations of grassroots populations, emerged as crucial factors for successful national governance. This research provides valuable insights into the academic value and significance of historical state governance practices and informs contemporary centrallocal relations and policy development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Widow's heir adoption in Joseon was largely secured by the adoption law in the Great Code of Administration. Widows, especially eldest daughters-in-law, in late Joseon were involved in legal disputes with their husbands' younger brothers or the entire descent group over adoption. On the one hand, widows relied on adoption to protect their positions in their husband's lineage against the encroachment of their brothers-in-law claiming the status of lineage heir. On the other hand, widows actively pursued their choice of an adoptee with strong social background, albeit from a distant relative, against the collective opinion of the husband's descent group. In most cases, the state ruled for the widow's adoption not only by law but also by acknowledging the widow's position as the eldest son's wife. The state believed that the widowed eldest daughters-in-law could secure the lineal succession of a descent group against the collateral line. Widows themselves went on to appropriate such a descent- line principle to their favor, actively claiming their status as a representative of the direct line of descent. Such a close relationship between widows and the lineage principle in late Joseon was something rarely seen in contemporaneous China. Widow's heir adoption may be a useful lens for observing differences in kinship practices between pre-modern Korea and China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Koryŏ, Korea's middle kingdom in that it is lodged between Silla and Chosŏn, is the least studied era of Korea's history. And yet it offers intriguing insights into Korea's long tradition as the Koryŏ state participated actively in international events while at the same time building internal institutions in response to its own unique experiences. The collection of papers that follows introduces both these international and domestic themes, providing a nuanced understanding of both Koryŏ and Korea. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article explores how new modes of writing and reading that developed in epistolary culture brought about intellectual, social, and political changes in Chosŏn society. From the sixteenth century onwards, the diverse uses of letters transformed the lifestyle and the mode of political participation of Confucian intellectuals. Letters became the main reading materials for neo-Confucian studies and self-cultivation as well as a medium for political action, especially for rural scholars, who innovated various epistolary genres to raise their political voices. New epistolary practices facilitated their collective activism, the spread of radical opinions, and the mobilization of new political groups. Toward the end of the dynasty, even nonelites emulated these practices for their activism. In this period, “spiral letters” developed in both vernacular Korean and literary Chinese letters. These new letter forms, used by both male elites and women, reflected and subverted the existing gender dynamics and power relations associated with the norms of reading and writing. The rise and fall of spiral letters demonstrate the mutual influence between the written culture and sociopolitical changes. The versatility and resourcefulness of epistolary practices characterized Chosŏn letter writers' fashionable choice of a radical lifestyle, which geared their social life to yield actual political power. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In-depth studies of the manufacture and composition of late nineteenth century Korean lacquerware from the Joseon dynasty are underrepresented in the English-language literature. This article, the first to offer a comprehensive layer-by-layer analysis of late Joseon dynasty lacquerware, shows that these objects are made using a mixture of traditional lacquerware techniques and materials together with new materials and methods. Through conservation and analysis of four lacquerware objects from the exhibition Mother-of-Pearl Lacquerware from Korea at the Asian Art Museum (29 April–23 October 2016), we identify the materials and techniques used in manufacture and present a new technique to allow conservators to compensate for losses of ray skin inlay. Our discovery that artists used shellac at multiple stages during manufacture calls into question the assumption that shellac was used only as a surface coating. Our findings demonstrate the material and technological complexity of Korean lacquerware from this period and can inform efforts at conservation and analysis of similar objects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Five Great Mantras (Odae chinŏn) is one of the most widely circulated collections of Buddhist dhāraṇīs in premodern Korea, having been published or existing in several variant editions during the Chosŏn period (1392–1910). The title refers to the following dhāraṇīs: (1) "The Forty-Two Mantras of the Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara," (2) Nīlakaṇṭha-dhāraṇī, (3) Mahāpratisarā-dhāraṇī, (4) Buddhoṣṇīṣa-dhāraṇī, and (5) Uṣṇīṣavijaya-dhāraṇī. Another spell, "The Basic Dhāraṇī of the Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara," was also added, so there are a total of six dhāraṇīs contained in the book. Although most scholarship has hitherto understood the Five Great Mantras to date from the late fifteenth century, when editions with transcriptions of the dhāraṇīs in the Korean script appeared in trilingual format along with Siddhaṃ and Sinitic transliterations, due to the patronage of Queen Insu (1437–1508) and the linguistic ability of the monk Hakcho (fl. 1464–1520), some evidence has come to light suggesting that the Five Great Mantras was initially published as early as the mid-fourteenth century in the late Koryŏ period (918–1392). This essay provides a detailed analysis of the components that appear in the Five Great Mantras by analyzing six variant editions of the text dating from the Chosŏn period, including Brief Transcriptions of Efficacious Resonance (Yŏnghŏm yakch'o) in Sinitic and Korean vernacular translation. The Five Great Mantras demonstrates the significance of non-canonical materials in the Korean Buddhist tradition and suggests a fruitful avenue for study of similar woodblock prints and manuscripts in the Sinitic Buddhist tradition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines how historical narratives on Western Learning in the late Chosŏn period emerged and evolved under the influence of nationalist historiography in late twentieth-century Korea. Despite virtual unanimity among historians about the nationalist understanding of Western Learning as a trend paving the way for Korea's modernization, the role historians have attributed to it, especially in relation to the Practical Learning (sirhak 實學) school, known as the intellectual alternative to Neo-Confucianism, varied greatly. Especially important in shaping the narrative on Western Learning was the rise of ideological "internalism" in the 1960s, which prioritized internal dynamism over external stimuli as the main source of modernity in late Chosŏn Practical Learning. This dominant historiographical orientation of the period assigned historians of Western Learning the difficult task of relegating Western Learning, obviously an element external to Chosŏn society, to a secondary but still significant role in preparing for Korea's transition to modernity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Free-living amoebae (FLA) are widely distributed in freshwater, seawater, soil, and extreme environments, and play a critical role as feeders on diverse preys in the ecosystem. Also, some FLA can become opportunistic pathogens in animals including humans. The taxa Amoebozoa and Heterolobosea are important amoeboid groups associated with human pathogens. However, the identification and habitat of amoebae belonging to Amoebozoa and Heterolobosea remain poorly reported in the Republic of Korea. This study highlights the first record for identification and source of four amoebae including putative pathogens in the Republic of Korea. Results: In the present study, four previously reported FLA were isolated from freshwaters in Sangju Gonggeomji Reservoir (strain GO001), one of the largest reservoirs during the Joseon Dynasty period, and along the Nakdong River, the largest river in the Republic of Korea (strains NR5-2, NR12-1, and NR14-1) for the first time. Microscopic observations and 18S rDNA phylogenetic trees revealed the four isolated strains to be Acanthamoeba polyphaga (strains NR5-2 and NR12-1), Tetramitus waccamawensis (strain GO001), and Naegleria australiensis (strain NR14-1). Strains NR5-2 and NR12-1 might be the same species and belonged to the morphological Group 2 and the T4 genotype of Acanthamoeba. Strain GO001 formed a clade with T. waccamawensis in 18S rDNA phylogeny, and showed morphological characteristics similar to previously recorded strains, although the species' flagellate form was not observed. Strain NR14-1 had the typical morphology of Naegleria and formed a strongly supported clade with previously recorded strains of N. australiensis in phylogenetic analysis of 18S rDNA sequences. Conclusions: On the bases of morphological and molecular analyses, four strains of FLA were newly observed and classified in the Republic of Korea. Three strains belonging to the two species (A. polyphaga and N. australiensis) isolated from the Nakdong River have the potential to act as opportunistic pathogens that can cause fatal diseases (i.e. granulomatous amoebic encephalitis, Acanthamoeba Keratitis, and meningoencephalitis) in animals including humans. The Nakdong River in the Republic of Korea may provide a habitat for potentially pathogenic amoebae, but additional research is required to confirm the true pathogenicity of these FLA now known in the Republic of Korea. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the framework of the 'Amorepacific Project for the conservation of Korean pictorial art' (2018–2023) at the British Museum, three traditional Korean paintings have been investigated with the aim of supporting their conservation and obtaining information about the dyes used in the mounting textiles and other mounting elements. The paintings include a rare example of late 18th-century traditional Korean portraiture (accession number 1996,0329,0.1); a late 19th-century two-panel screen silk painting of Pyeongsaeng-do-Scenes of life (accession number 2016,3028.1); and a late 19th-century twelve-panel screen silk painting representing the Five Confucian virtues (accession number 1957,1214,0.1). The mounting textiles were investigated non-invasively by using digital microscopy and fibre optic reflectance spectroscopy (FORS), and the results guided a minimally invasive sampling campaign. Fourteen samples were analysed by using high-pressure liquid chromatography coupled with diode array and tandem mass spectrometry detectors (HPLC-DAD-MS/MS), leading to the identification of the natural dyes indigo, sappanwood (Biancaea sappan, formerly Caesalpinia sappan), amur cork tree (Phellodendron amurense) and safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) in the mounting elements of the 18th-century portrait. These results confirmed some of the non-invasive observations and were in agreement with the production date of the painting. Both natural and synthetic dyes were identified in the mounting textiles of the panel screens. Among the synthetic dyes, fuchsin (C.I. 42510), methyl violet 3B (C.I. 42536), methyl blue (C.I. 42780) and benzopurpurin 4B (C.I. 23500) were identified. These are early synthetic dyes first synthesised between the 1860s and the 1880s, suggesting that the silk textiles are likely to have been dyed in the last part of the 19th century. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many recent studies show that during the early Joseon dynasty, even kings who externally appeared strongly anti-Buddhist defended or condoned royal relatives who sponsored Buddhist works. Extant sutras produced under court sponsorship attest to this fact. An analysis of the production of court Buddhist prints, focusing on the King Sejo era when a particularly large number of Buddhist projects were completed, yields diverse information such as changes in the style of Buddhist prints and their causes, as well as the intentions of the sponsors. This article examines the creation of new iconography and other aspects of Buddhist prints sponsored by the royal family during the early Joseon period, focusing on the print in the Record of the Manifestation of Avalokitesvara, published during the reign of King Sejo. This new iconography was created at a time that, according to the intentions of the sponsor, clearly attests that the independent creation of iconography did occur in Joseon Buddhist prints, which were mostly considered to be reproductions made by copying the woodblocks of existing prints. Moreover, the projection of the ruler onto Buddhist images as a way to strengthen power shows that Joseon shared perceptions with other countries that sought to use Buddhism as a means of rule. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The deaths of Confucian scholars in the Chosŏn period (1392–1910) gave rise to elaborate rituals through which the bereaved reframed their relationships to the deceased as well as among themselves, and which took place most explicitly in the process of producing diverse funerary texts. Created in a specific material format and aesthetic, each funerary text addressed a particular group of people enacting its respective performative functions in the ritual proceedings. While exploring the funerary texts produced for T'oegye Yi Hwang (1501−1570), this article grapples with the indistinguishable narrative styles shown in different funerary texts despite their distinctive material conditions and ritual functions. It demonstrates that the privileged status that books enjoyed in Chosŏn Confucian tradition meant that their addressivity nullified the original tone and style of each text, because funerary texts were eventually compiled and included as part of the deceased's collection of writings in book form. This study argues that textual scholarship needs to account for hierarchies among the different textual materialities, particularly when the same texts travel across diverse media forms. It complements existing historiography that almost always uses Chosŏn funerary texts as narrative sources and takes for granted the cultural practice of writing and including them in books. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article discusses the emergence, transformation, and transmission of an esoteric Buddhist movement that Hoedang (孫珪祥, Kyu-shang Sohn [or Sohn, Gyu-sang], 1902–1963) began in the 1940s and 1950s. Starting in the middle of the eighth century, the history of Korean Esoteric Buddhism indicates that the tradition continued to exist (albeit marginally) until the Joseon dynasty (1392–1897). However, this case study, which focuses on the new religious sect of Jingak, explorers Jingak's reformist characteristics and its efforts toward the renewal of Korean Buddhism in contemporary society. The article argues that the founder was intellectually receptive to other teachings, including the performance of esoteric healing, the prosocial characters of Pragmatic Buddhism, the doctrine of Japanese Shingon, and permitting priests to marry. This article additionally attempts to identify the innovative philosophy (including Simin, 心印, original sinless self) of Korean Esoteric Buddhism, in the combined concepts of Jinho gukga bulsa (鎭護國家佛事, Protecting the nation by the teaching of Buddhism), Iwon Weonri (二元原理, Relative Principle), Simin Bulgyo (心印佛敎, Mind-seal Buddhism), and Silhaengnon (實行論, The Teachings of Hoedang—Practical Theory). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper has focused on Yi Ki-ji's 1720 mission to survey the unique characteristics of his embassy to Beijing. The level of interest that Yi recorded in his yŏnhaengnok in Western painting, astronomy, and calendrical science--including accounts of the nine visits he made to the missionaries at the cathedrals--is difficult to find in other yŏnhaengnok of his time. Given that the scholarly consensus has until now been that it was only in the late eighteenth century that yŏnhaengnok began to display an active, explicit reception of "Northern Learning" (Pukhak),1 we cannot but conclude that Yi's record was ahead of its time. The unique aspects of Yi Ki-ji's yŏnhaengnok reveal the necessity of reconsidering the conventional wisdom regarding these embassies and their records, which holds that it was not until the mid to late eighteenth century that the objective realities of Qing life were recognized among Chosŏn's ambassadors or that the cultural attributes of the Qing were actively sought out and favorably accepted. Yi Ki-ji's embassy to Beijing alerts us to the fact that-though exceptional-the act of asserting Chosŏn's autonomous identity, while at once working earnestly to recognize and accept the realities of Qing China when necessary, was not impossible in the early eighteenth century. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article introduces a writing format, the 'template table' ( suanshi, ) that was designed to guide the process of calendrical astronomical calculations in early modern China. In conjunction with another kind of text, known as 'detailed procedures' ( xicao, ), users could perform calculations easily by operating the 'template table' and extracting data from given numerical tables. This method, that not only normalized the use of numerical tables but also linked instructions with the corresponding tables in computational practices, became widespread from the Ming period (1368-1644) onwards. Wanting to acquire this computational regimen, the Joseon court of Korea (1392-1897) even sent skilled officers to China to learn it secretly. The circulation of the template method beyond China suggests its significance. The article also discusses the advantages and disadvantages of using this method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study of pre-modern Chinese hegemony is crucial for both theorizing hegemony and envisioning a new global order. I argue the pre-modern Chinese hegemony was a reciprocal rule of virtue, or aretocracy, driven by the transnational sociocultural elites shi. In contrast to the prevailing models of Chinese hegemony, the Early Modern East Asia was not dominated by the unilateral normative influence of the Chinese state. The Chinese and non-Chinese shi as non-statist sociocultural elites co-produced, through their shared civilizational heritage, a hegemonic order in which they had to show excellence in civil virtues to wield legitimate authority. In particular, the Ming and Chosŏn shi developed a tradition of envoy poetry exchanges as a medium for co-constructing Chinese hegemony as aretocracy. The remarkable role of excellent ethos for world order making in Early Modern East Asia compels us to re-imagine how we conduct our global governance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To understand the domestication and spread of horses in history, genetic information is essential. However, mitogenetic traits of ancient or medieval horses have yet to be comprehensively revealed, especially for East Asia. This study thus set out to reveal the maternal lineage of skeletal horse remains retrieved from a 15th century archaeological site (Gongpyeongdong) at Old Seoul City in South Korea. Methods: We extracted DNA from the femur of Equus caballus (SNU-A001) from Joseon period Gongpyeongdong site. Mitochondrial (mt) DNA (HRS 15128-16116) of E. caballus was amplified by polymerase chain reaction. Cloning and sequencing were conducted for the mtDNA amplicons. The sequencing results were analyzed by NCBI/BLAST and phylogenetic tool of MEGA7 software. Results: By means of mtDNA cytochrome b and D-loop analysis, we found that the 15th century Korean horse belonged to haplogroup Q representing those horses that have historically been raised widely in East Asia. Conclusion: The horse is unique among domesticated animals for the remarkable impact it has on human civilization in terms of transportation and trade. Utilizing the Joseonperiod horse remains, we can obtain clues to reveal the genetic traits of Korean horse that existed before the introduction of Western horses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study reviewed Korean food recipes and food culture included in English cookbooks issued in the United States from the 1930s to the early 1970s. In the 1930s cookbook, many types of soup were introduced to Korean food under the influence of the Tangban culture in the Joseon dynasty and a brief description of ‘Sinseollo’ culture. The 1940s cookbooks, introduced Korean table settings, food culture, and cooking methods depending on the use of chopsticks. In the 1950s cookbooks, Korean foods were selected to suit a Western table setting, and detailed explanations were included along with ‘cheopsu’ means the number of dishes served in Korean food. More diverse Korean food was introduced within its culture and origins in the 1960s cookbooks. The 1970s cookbooks explained, the characteristics of Korean culinary specialties that differentiated from oriental food. This study of Korean food and culture from Cookbooks issued in the United States from the 1930s to 1970s, where Eastern and Western multiculturalism coexist, can be used as baseline data to understand the identity of modern Korean food culture and the direction of the globalization of Korean food. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]