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Background: Triatoma garciabesi and T. guasayana are considered secondary vectors of Trypanosoma cruzi and frequently invade rural houses in central Argentina. Wing and head structures determine the ability of triatomines to disperse. Environmental changes exert selective pressures on populations of both species, promoting changes in these structures that could have consequences for flight dispersal. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between a gradient of anthropization and phenotypic plasticity in flight-related traits., Methods: The research was carried out in Cruz del Eje and Ischilín departments (Córdoba, Argentina) and included 423 individuals of the two species of triatomines. To measure the degree of anthropization, a thematic map was constructed using supervised classification, from which seven landscapes were selected, and nine landscape metrics were extracted and used in a hierarchical analysis. To determine the flight capacity and the invasion of dwellings at different levels of anthropization for both species, entomological indices were calculated. Digital images of the body, head and wings were used to measure linear and geometric morphometric variables related to flight dispersion. One-way ANOVA and canonical variate analysis (CVA) were used to analyze differences in size and shape between levels of anthropization. Procrustes variance of shape was calculated to analyze differences in phenotypic variation in heads and wings., Results: Hierarchical analysis was used to classify the landscapes into three levels of anthropization: high, intermediate and low. The dispersal index for both species yielded similar results across the anthropization gradient. However, in less anthropized landscapes, the density index was higher for T. garciabesi. Additionally, in highly anthropized landscapes, females and males of both species exhibited reduced numbers. Regarding phenotypic changes, the size of body, head and wings of T. garciabesi captured in the most anthropized landscapes was greater than for those captured in less anthropized landscapes. No differences in body size were observed in T. guasayana collected in the different landscapes. However, males from highly anthropized landscapes had smaller heads and wings than those captured in less anthropized landscapes. Both wing and head shapes varied between less and more anthropogenic environments in both species., Conclusions: Results of the study indicate that the flight-dispersal characteristics of T. garciabesi and T. guasayana changed in response to varying degrees of anthropization., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

The multiplicity of epidemiological scenarios shown by Chagas Disease, derived from multiple transmission routes of the aetiological agent, occurring on multiple geo-ecobiosocial settings determines the complexity of the disease and reveal the difficulties for its control. From the first description of the link between the parasite, the vector and its domestic habitat and the disease that Carlos Chagas made in 1909, the epidemiological scenarios of the American Trypanosomiasis has shown a dynamic increasing complexity. These scenarios changed with time and geography because of new understandings of the disease from multiple studies, because of policies change at the national and international levels and because human movements brought the parasite and vectors to new geographies. Paradigms that seemed solid at a time were broken down, and we learnt about the global dispersion of Trypanosoma cruzi infection, the multiplicity of transmission routes, that the infection can be cured, and that triatomines are not only a health threat in Latin America. We consider the multiple epidemiological scenarios through the different T. cruzi transmission routes, with or without the participation of a Triatominae vector. We then consider the scenario of regions with vectors without the parasite, to finish with the consideration of future prospects.

The epidemiological scenario in central Argentinian Chaco region shows persistence of Triatoma infestans domestic populations in endemic areas, with control interventions historically affected by the economic instability of the region. Considering this situation, we aimed to (i) update the information regarding to the diversity of triatomines present in domestic, peridomestic and sylvatic environments in departments historically endemic of the Chaco region, (ii) to report the occurrence of secondary vectors of Chagas disease invading domestic environments and (iii) to discuss the possible sources of dispersal of these sylvatic species towards anthropic habitats. Between November 2017 and March 2020, we visited fourteen rural communities of northwest Córdoba province (central Argentina). Entomological data were collected through community vector surveillance in domiciles, active search in peridomiciles and the use of light and yeast traps in sylvatic environments. Seven Triatominae species were captured invading domiciles (T. guasayana, T. garciabesi, T. platensis, T. delpontei, T. breyeri, Panstrongylus guentheri and T. infestans). T. guasayana and T. garciabesi were the species with the highest number of captures. The 32% of the peridomiciles registered infestation with T. infestans (n ​= 355), mostly in chicken coops and goat pens. In sylvatic environments, T. garciabesi, T. guasayana, T. infestans and P. guentheri were collected. Only one adult specimen of T. infestans was positive for the presence of Trypanosoma cruzi. Our results suggest that the persistence of T. infestans populations in peridomiciles continues to be a serious challenge for control programs, whereas the finding of secondary vectors of Chagas disease actively invading domiciles emphasizes the need to implement new strategies for entomological surveillance., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Background: Mepraia gajardoi and Mepraia spinolai are endemic triatomine vector species of Trypanosoma cruzi, a parasite that causes Chagas disease. These vectors inhabit arid, semiarid and Mediterranean areas of Chile. Mepraia gajardoi occurs from 18° to 25°S, and M. spinolai from 26° to 34°S. Even though both species are involved in T. cruzi transmission in the Pacific side of the Southern Cone of South America, no study has modelled their distributions at a regional scale. Therefore, the aim of this study is to estimate the potential geographical distribution of M. spinolai and M. gajardoi under current and future climate scenarios., Methods: We used the Maxent algorithm to model the ecological niche of M. spinolai and M. gajardoi, estimating their potential distributions from current climate information and projecting their distributions to future climatic conditions under representative concentration pathways (RCP) 2.6, 4.5, 6.0 and 8.5 scenarios. Future predictions of suitability were constructed considering both higher and lower public health risk situations., Results: The current potential distributions of both species were broader than their known ranges. For both species, climate change projections for 2070 in RCP 2.6, 4.5, 6.0 and 8.5 scenarios showed different results depending on the methodology used. The higher risk situation showed new suitable areas, but the lower risk situation modelled a net reduction in the future potential distribution areas of M. spinolai and M. gajardoi., Conclusions: The suitable areas for both species may be greater than currently known, generating new challenges in terms of vector control and prevention. Under future climate conditions, these species could modify their potential geographical range. Preventive measures to avoid accidental human vectorial transmission by wild vectors of T. cruzi become critical considering the uncertainty of future suitable areas projected in this study.

Background: Trypanosoma cruzi is a protozoan parasite that is transmitted by triatomine vectors to mammals. It is classified in six discrete typing units (DTUs). In Chile, domestic vectorial transmission has been interrupted; however, the parasite is maintained in non-domestic foci. The aim of this study was to describe T. cruzi infection and DTU composition in mammals and triatomines from several non-domestic populations of North-Central Chile and to evaluate their spatio-temporal variations., Methodology/principal Findings: A total of 710 small mammals and 1140 triatomines captured in six localities during two study periods (summer/winter) of the same year were analyzed by conventional PCR to detect kDNA of T. cruzi. Positive samples were DNA blotted and hybridized with specific probes for detection of DTUs TcI, TcII, TcV, and TcVI. Infection status was modeled, and cluster analysis was performed in each locality. We detected 30.1% of overall infection in small mammals and 34.1% in triatomines, with higher rates in synanthropic mammals and in M. spinolai. We identified infecting DTUs in 45 mammals and 110 triatomines, present more commonly as single infections; the most frequent DTU detected was TcI. Differences in infection rates among species, localities and study periods were detected in small mammals, and between triatomine species; temporally, infection presented opposite patterns between mammals and triatomines. Infection clustering was frequent in vectors, and one locality exhibited half of the 21 clusters found., Conclusions/significance: We determined T. cruzi infection in natural host and vector populations simultaneously in a spatially widespread manner during two study periods. All captured species presented T. cruzi infection, showing spatial and temporal variations. Trypanosoma cruzi distribution can be clustered in space and time. These clusters may represent different spatial and temporal risks of transmission., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Triatoma infestans (Hemiptera: Reduviidae) is a vector of the Trypanosoma cruzi parasite, causative agent of Chagas disease. During the last decade, vector control activities have been systematically carried out in northwestern Argentina, an endemic region for this disease. The general aim of this study to evaluate was spatio-temporal variation of infestation by T. infestans in rural communities of Los Llanos in La Rioja province. We estimated house infestation using two sampling methods: passive and active. Passive collection was conducted with community participation collecting triatomines. Six passive collections were carried out in 397 houses during the warm season between 2014 and 2017. Active collection of T. infestans was thoroughly performed by trained staff for 60 minutes and was carried out once in March 2016. The estimate of intradomestic infestation did not show significant differences between both collection methods (p = 0.39). However, passive collection method had lower sensitivity than active collection method for the estimation of peridomestic infestation and intradomestic colonization (PDI: p< 0.01; ID colonization: p< 0.01). The results obtained with passive collection methods showed that the infestation in the study area was spatially heterogeneous and temporally variable. Intradomiciliary infestation decreased over time (14.4% to 7.9%, p<0.05) although the effect of the chemical treatment application was not associated with the infestation level of T. infestans (p = 0.15) and the Departments had a different response each year (p<0.01). A high infestation cluster was located in the south of our study area during 2016-2017. The vector presence in the houses confirms the importance of to improve entomological surveillance programs. The search for triatomines carried out by the inhabitants might be a useful method to complement the activities of vector control programs in isolated and rural areas., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

We compared age-related seroprevalence of Trypanosoma cruzi infection with history of vector control interventions and social and ecological changes in three historically endemic departments of Cordoba province, Argentina, covering an area of 42,600 km(2) of the Gran Chaco region. Using a cross sectional design, blood samples of 5240 people between 6 months and 40 years of age, living in 192 rural communities were analyzed to detect T. cruzi infection using ELISA tests, and confirmed with indirect immunofluorescent antibody test and indirect haemoagglutination. Overall seroprevalence was 5.4%, 7.9% and 7.5% in the north, northwest and west studied areas (average for all areas 6.95%). Seroprevalence for T cruzi increased with population age, especially in age classes older than 15 years of age. Communities of the north and west areas showed 0.59% seroprevalence for T. cruzi in children below 15 years of age, whereas children of the same age in the northwest region showed a seroprevalence of 3.08%. Comparative analyses indicate that vector control activities and land use changes during the last decades are the most likely causes of the overall reduction of T. cruzi prevalence. Results suggest that the vectorial transmission of T. cruzi has been strongly reduced and probably interrupted in the north and west areas, but it is still active in the northwestern rural settlements of Córdoba province., (Copyright 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Background: Insecticide spraying efficiently controls house infestation by triatomine bugs, the vectors of Trypanosoma cruzi. The strategy, however, is ineffective against sylvatic triatomines, which can transmit Chagas disease by invading (without colonizing) man-made structures. Despite growing awareness of the relevance of these transmission dynamics, the drivers of house invasion by sylvatic triatomines remain poorly understood. Methods/Findings: About 12,000 sylvatic triatomines were caught during routine surveillance in houses of Tocantins state, Brazil, in 2005–2013. Using negative binomial regression, information-theoretic model evaluation/averaging, and external model validation, we investigated the effects of regional (Amazon/Cerrado), landscape (preservation/disturbance), and climate covariates (temperature, rainfall) on the municipality-aggregated numbers of house-invading Rhodnius pictipes, R. robustus, R. neglectus, and Panstrongylus geniculatus. House invasion by R. pictipes and R. robustus was overall more frequent in the Amazon biome, tended to increase in municipalities with more well-preserved land, and decreased in rainier municipalities. Across species, invasion decreased with higher landscape-disturbance levels and in hotter-day municipalities. Invasion by R. neglectus and P. geniculatus increased somewhat with more land at intermediate disturbance and peaked in average-rainfall municipalities. Temperature effects were more pronounced on P. geniculatus than on Rhodnius spp. Conclusions: We report widespread, frequent house invasion by sylvatic triatomines in the Amazon–Cerrado transition. Our analyses indicate that readily available environmental metrics may help predict the risk of contact between sylvatic triatomines and humans at coarse geographic scales, and hint at specific hypotheses about climate and deforestation effects on those vectors–with some taxon-specific responses and some seemingly general trends. Thus, our focal species appear to be quite sensitive to higher temperatures, and might be less common in more heavily-disturbed than in better-preserved environments. This study illustrates, in sum, how entomological routine-surveillance data can be efficiently used for Chagas disease risk prediction and stratification when house-colonizing vectors are absent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Triatoma infestans, one of the main vectors of Trypanosoma cruzi, is strongly associated with rural human ecotopes. Infested peridomestic places could act as a source of house infestation as a result of the movement of vectors among habitats. The quantitative study of phenotypic traits and nutritional variables could be informative about the population structure and the relative mobility of vectors. This is the first approach toward analyzing the phenetic characteristics of T. infestans and the relationship with their potential role to invade and colonize other habitats in the arid Chaco region. This article compares the phenotypic structure of T. infestans populations living in chicken coops and goat corrals, analyzing the geometric morphometry of wings and heads, antennal phenotypes, and the nutritional status of 257 adults and nymphs. The study area remained untreated with insecticides during the 15 years before the present study. The insects collected in peridomestic structures located in two zones 80 km apart exhibited significant differences in their morphotypes, suggesting an environmental effect and/or the absence of individual exchange between zones. The population structure was clear in T. infestans from goat corrals and chicken coops in one zone and less pronounced in the other. These results suggest the existence of a different rate of individual exchange among ecotopes within each zone. Morphometric variables of heads and wings were significantly correlated in insects collected in goat corrals but not in chicken coops, suggesting a habitat effect and supporting the hypothesis of different canalization forces that affect the two organs. The nutritional status of adults indicated a low dispersal probability with zonal differences. This article provides the first combined morphometric analysis of the head of adults and fifth instar nymphs in triatomines and the first combined analysis of head and wing in T. infestans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]