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Active and passive microwave characteristics of diurnal soil freeze-thaw transitions and their relationships are crucial for developing retrieval algorithms of the soil liquid water content (θliq) and freeze/thaw state, which, however, have been less explored. This study investigates these microwave characteristics and relationships via analysis of ground-based measurements of brightness temperature (TB) and backscattering coefficients (σ⁰) in combination with simulations performed with the Tor Vergata discrete radiative transfer model. Both an L-band (1.4 GHz) radiometer ELBARA-III and a wide-band (1-10 GHz) scatterometer are installed in a seasonally frozen Tibetan meadow ecosystem to measure diurnal variations of TB and copolarized σ⁰ at both hh (σhh⁰) and vv (σ vv⁰) polarizations. Analysis of measurements collected between December 2017 and March 2018 shows that 1) diurnal cycles are observed in both TB and σ ⁰ due to the change in surface θliq caused by diurnal soil freeze-thaw transitions; 2) a negatively linear relationship is found between e and σ⁰ regardless of frequency, polarization combinations, and observation angles; 3) slopes (β ) of linearly fit equations between eH and σhh⁰ decrease with increasing observation angles of ELBARA-III, while the ones between eV and σvv⁰ increase with increasing observation angles; and 4) correlations between e and σ⁰ increase with decreasing microwave frequency of σ⁰ measurements and ELBARA-III observation angles, and magnitudes of diurnal σ⁰ cycles also increase with decreasing microwave frequency. Moreover, the calibrated Tor Vergata model shows capability to reproduce both diurnal e and σ⁰ variations as well as to quantify their relationships at different frequencies and observation angles.

The Chang E’-1 and E’-2 (CE-1 and CE-2) orbital sounders provided high resolution global maps of lunar microwave brightness temperatures (TB) at wavelengths of 0.8, 1.55, 3.85, and 10 cm covering approximately two years of data over the 2007-2010 time frame. The four channel microwave radiometers (MRMs) effectively sampled the upper ~2 meters of the lunar regolith and are diagnostic of thermal and electrical properties including mineralogy, rock abundance and, potentially, interior heat flow. Early comparisons of co-located data between the two instruments revealed ~10-20 K offsets between the CE-1 and CE-2 measurements that required in-flight recalibration efforts. These have included comparisons with model predictions at Apollo sites as well as adjustments of the cold sky horn reference temperatures to include contamination from lunar surface emissions. This paper proposes an in-flight recalibration methodology that focuses on correction of the pre-flight transfer coefficients that determine the relative importance of component losses along the radiometer hardware paths connecting the antennas to the detectors. It is shown that for each channel a single parameter, representing the ratio of the cold sky and main antenna transfer coefficients, can be constrained by knowledge of the stable regolith physical temperatures below the diurnal-varying layer, and is sufficient to establish values for the complete set of hardware transfer coefficients. The in-flight comparisons proposed for recalibration are based on backside highland models of regolith thermal properties. Potential remaining offsets of the recalibrated MRM data are evaluated in terms of parameter uncertainties of our chosen nominal thermal model.

The Microwave Radiation Imager (MWRI) sensors aboard on the Chinese FengYun-3 (FY-3) series satellites have a great potential for long-term study of sea ice distribution. This study corrected the newly released FY-3D MWRI brightness temperature (TB) data with the Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer 2 (AMSR2) TB data and used an Arctic Radiation and Turbulence Interaction Study Sea Ice (ASI) dynamic tie points algorithm to derive the sea ice concentration (SIC) from these corrected MWRI TB data. We assessed the accuracy of our MWRI-ASI SIC product by comparing with the published SIC products at different spatial resolution and by validating with the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) and Sentinel-1 data. We find that MWRI-ASI SIC has the smallest difference with AMSR2-ASI SIC with the mean absolute difference (MAD) of 6.8%, and the differences mainly occur at the marginal ice zone regions. The MWRI-ASI displays the highest difference with Sea Ice Index and OSI-430-b at 25 km with the mean MAD of 11.8%. MADs between MWRI-ASI SIC and SIC products from other sensors are below 10% except for late June to early October, when those are higher. Compared with the MODIS SIC, MWRI-ASI SIC outperforms other SIC products at the same resolution, with the mean bias of -2.1% and mean RMSD of 13.5%. Although MWRI-ASI tends to under-estimate high SIC, it can capture details of large leads, ice edge, and fragmented ice area. Our MWRI-ASI SIC product at 12.5 km is promising to integrate into long-term sea ice records.

Estimating total precipitable water vapour (TPWV) from advanced microwave scanning radiometer 2 (AMSR2) measurements with reasonable accuracy is challenging. Therefore, this study aims to improve t...

An active–passive microwave retrieval algorithm for simultaneous determination of soil surface roughness parameters [vertical root-mean-square (RMS) height ( ${s}$ ) and horizontal correlation length ( ${l}$ )] is presented for bare soils. The algorithm is based on active–passive microwave covariation, including the improved Integral Equation Method (I2EM), and is tested with global soil moisture active passive (SMAP) observations. The estimated retrieval results for ${s}$ and ${l}$ are overall consistent with values in the literature, indicating the validity of the proposed algorithm. Sensitivity analyses showed that the developed roughness retrieval algorithm is independent of permittivity for ${\varepsilon }_{s} > 10$ [-]. Furthermore, the physical model basis of this approach (I2EM) allows the application of different autocorrelation functions (ACF), such as Gaussian and exponential ACFs. Global roughness retrieval results confirm bare areas in deserts such as Sahara or Gobi. However, the type of ACF used within roughness parameter estimation is important. Retrieval results for the Gaussian ACF describe a rougher surface than retrieval results for the exponential ACF. No correlations were found between roughness results and the amount of precipitation or the soil texture, which could be due to the coarse spatial resolution of the SMAP data. The extension of this approach to vegetated soils is planned as an add-on study.

FengYun-3C (FY-3C) is the second-generation polar-orbiting meteorological satellite in China. As one of the most important microwave payloads deployed onboard FY-3C, microwave radiation imager (MWRI) has been continuously observing radiance originating from land and sea surface and supports numerical weather predictions at regional and global scales. With a long-term monitoring of the cold-end reference, MWRI onboard FY-3C was found suffering from discontinuous observations due to its temporary power-OFF/power-ON in the years of 2015 and 2018, resulting in anomalous brightness temperature (TB) jump up to 2–3 K in magnitude at some channels. Analysis of the operating status of FY-3C MWRI indicated that deviation of the receiver system from its optimal operating status affects the nonlinearity characteristics significantly. A correction algorithm, which relates nonlinearity to the autogain control (AGC) operating voltage of the sensor, is thus proposed on the basis of on-ground thermal/vacuum (T/V) test results in the prelaunch phase in order to mitigate the calibration anomalies of FY-3C MWRI. Nonlinearity correction of FY-3C MWRI is further corroborated by comparisons of simultaneously overlapping observations of global precipitation measurement (GPM) microwave imager (GMI). The results demonstrated that after nonlinearity correction the performance of FY-3C MWRI has been improved at all channels except for the 36-V channel where technical failures have been detected since October 2016.

Across spatial and temporal scales, sea-ice motion has implications on ship navigation, the sea-ice thickness distribution, sea ice export to lower latitudes and re-circulation in the polar seas, among others. Satellite remote sensing is an effective way to monitor sea-ice drift globally and daily, especially using the wide swaths of passive microwave missions. Since the late 1990s, many algorithms and products have been developed for this task. Here, we investigate how processing sea-ice drift vectors from the intersection of individual swaths of the Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer 2 (AMSR2) mission compares to today's status-quo (processing from daily averaged maps of brightness temperature). We document that the swath-to-swath (S2S) approach results in many more (two orders of magnitude) sea-ice drift vectors than the daily-maps (DM) approach. These S2S vectors also validate better when compared to trajectories of on-ice drifters. For example, the RMSE of the 24 hour Arctic sea-ice drift is 0.9 km for S2S vectors, and 1.3 km for DM vectors from the 36.5 GHz imagery of AMSR2. Through a series of experiments with actual AMSR2 data and simulated Copernicus Imaging Microwave Radiometer (CIMR) data, we study the impact that geo-location uncertainty and imaging resolution have on the accuracy of the sea-ice drift vectors. We conclude by recommending that a swath-to-swath approach is adopted for the future operational Level-2 sea-ice drift product of the CIMR mission. We outline some potential next steps towards further improving the algorithms, and making the user community ready to fully take advantage of such a product.

Objectives: To predict meteorological phenomena such as rain events from sky status during rainy and non-rainy periods. Methods: The method used here is based on brightness temperature ratio measurement at two different frequencies, namely 23.8 GHz and 30 GHz respectively, using ground based dual frequency radiometric data. The ratios of brightness temperature readings obtained by the dual-frequency radiometer at the two above mentioned frequencies are calculated for each simultaneously-taken pair of measurements. Data obtained by the authors for the year 2009 at Cachoeira Paulista in Brazil has been used for analysis. Findings: The major results obtained from the analysis of data collected over a continuous period of seven months are used to construct corresponding histograms and cumulative count graphs of brightness temperature ratios. The histograms and graphs clearly show three peak values that could be interpreted as thresholds between clear sky, cloudy sky and rainy sky conditions respectively. Novelty: The study implements detection of rain events from sky status during rainy and non-rainy periods using peak brightness temperature values obtained from graphs generated using the observation data. The outlined technique can therefore be used to clearly determine sky conditions and accurately predict rain phenomena. The ratio of brightness temperatures at the two frequencies is a unique parameter which is critical to the successful estimation of rain from sky status. The results agree well with multi-channel radiometric data obtained by other researchers at lower frequencies. Keywords: sky status; microwave; millimeter wave; dual frequency radiometer; brightness temperature; rainfall

An algorithm for ice/water detection of ice less than 30 cm in thickness (thin ice) using dual-polarized synthetic aperture radar (SAR) and passive microwave data has been developed based on insights from previous work. The frequency chosen from those available was in the C-band. For the radiometer layer ice concentrations, land contaminated pixels were removed. For the SAR layers, a novel approach to their use in ice detection was developed using the coefficient of variation (COV), defined as the ratio of the standard deviation of the normalized radar cross section, $\sigma _{0}$ , to the mean $\sigma _{0}$ . The COV reduced the complicated signatures of breaking waves and thin ice to bright ice pixels on a dark water background. The co-pol and cross-pol COV layers and the radiometer layer were merged according to physics-based rules, except in regions adjacent to land or the ice edge where only the SAR layers were valid. The detection algorithm was applied to 233 Sentinel 1a and 1b dual-polarization images of the freeze-up from 2015, 2016, 2018, and 2019 in the Beaufort and Chukchi Seas. The synergistic ice retrievals showed improved agreement with manual operational analyses in the marginal ice zone over other automated operational products.

Retrievals of sea ice thickness from passive microwave measurements have been limited to thin ice because microwaves penetrate at most the upper 50 cm of sea ice. To overcome such a limitation, a method of retrieving Arctic basin-scale ice thickness is developed. The physical background of this method is that the scattering optical thickness at microwave frequencies within the freeboard layer is linearly proportional to the physical thickness of the ice freeboard. In this study, we relate the optical thickness estimated from the Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer 2 (AMSR2) with ice freeboard estimated from the CryoSat-2 (CS2) by employing a piecewise linear fit. The results show a strong linear relationship between the AMSR2-estimated and CS2-measured ice freeboards with a correlation coefficient of 0.85 and bias and RMSE of 0.0001 and 0.04 m, respectively; this evidence suggests that the method can provide Arctic basin-scale ice freeboard with a comparable accuracy level of CS2. The method is also applied to estimate ice freeboard for the periods of the Scanning Multichannel Microwave Radiometer (SMMR) (1978–1987) and AMSR-E (2002–2011). It is shown that the area-averaged ice freeboard has decreased significantly with the linear trends of 1.5 cm/decade. In addition, there seems to be a change of ice freeboard distributions over the Arctic. Furthermore, the algorithm is extended to the ice thickness retrieval by using the hydrostatic balance equation, showing that operational basin-scale ice thickness retrieval will be possible from satellite passive microwave measurements if a realistic snow depth on sea ice is employed.

Temporal Experiment for Storms and Tropical Systems—Demonstration (TEMPEST-D) is a 6U CubeSat satellite with a cross-track scanning millimeter-wave radiometer measuring at five frequencies from 87 to 181 GHz. It employs a direct-detection architecture with InP HEMT monolithic microwave integrated circuit (MMIC) low-noise amplifiers and related new technologies. An end-to-end two-point external calibration is performed every 2-s rotation of the scanning mirror, based on observations of the cosmic microwave background and an internal blackbody calibration target, with three thermistors to monitor the target physical temperature. Corrections for antenna pattern effects and cross-scan biases based on prelaunch measured values were updated using data from an on-orbit calibration pitch maneuver. Validation of the observed brightness temperatures ( $T_{\text {B}}$ ) is performed by comparing to coincident nonprecipitating ocean observations from five well-calibrated on-orbit instruments, including Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) mission Microwave Imager (GMI) and four Microwave Humidity Sounder (MHS) sensors on board NOAA-19, MetOp-A, MetOp-B, and MetOp-C satellites. Absolute calibration accuracy is within 1 K for all channels, well within the 4-K requirement. Calibration precision, or stability over time, is within 0.6 K for all channels, also well within the 2-K requirement. The intrinsic noise of TEMPEST-D is lower than MHS, resulting in similar on-orbit noise equivalent differential temperatures (NEDTs), even though TEMPEST-D has a much shorter integration time of 5 ms as compared to 18 ms for MHS. As a result, although the TEMPEST-D radiometer is substantially smaller, lower power, and lower cost than similar current operational radiometers, it has comparable or better performance in terms of instrument noise, calibration accuracy, and calibration stability or precision.

Microwave technology is very sensitive to Radio Frequency Interferences (RFI). Works previously done within this Master by Marc Jou [1] showed the impossibility to retrieve measurements using L-band radiometers on-board drones. After detecting such issue, Balamis first tried to solve it by hardware: a new antenna design and the extensive use of shielding on the drone were tried without success. Balamis started the development of its first digital radiometer based on the use of Software Defined Radio architecture on 2017, partially funded with the support of CDTI. The resulting minimum viable digital radiometer was ready by June 2019, but it did not include any RFI mitigation capability. Developments done my Master student Ahmad Daoud [2] demonstrated the identification of RFI using Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) over RAW data but could not provide any efficient implementation of its mitigation on-board the L-band radiometer. The proposed solution is the implementation of the FFT and the RFI filters using Field Programmable Gate of Array (FPGA) for the input signals, and its concurrent performance. Filtering an analog signal by introducing in-system FFT of ZYNQ7000 FPGA is implemented in this project. Additionally, the power consumption of FPGA, and the need to dissipate it, forces the development of a temperature control system with cooling capabilities. It is done to improve the previous heating-only thermal control of Balamis radiometer. Such more advanced thermal control will be also used for the Interferometric Ground-based Synthetic Aperture Radar that Balamis is developing. Solving these two goals are therefore the purpose of this Master Thesis.

With a growing number of different satellite sensors, data fusion offers great potential in many applications. In this work, a convolutional neural network (CNN) architecture is presented for fusing Sentinel-1 synthetic aperture radar (SAR) imagery and the Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer 2 (AMSR2) data. The CNN is applied to the prediction of Arctic sea ice for marine navigation and as input to sea ice forecast models. This generic model is specifically well suited for fusing data sources where the ground resolutions of the sensors differ with orders of magnitude, here 35 km $\times62$ km (for AMSR2, 6.9 GHz) compared with the 93 m $\times87$ m (for sentinel-1 IW mode). In this work, two optimization approaches are compared using the categorical cross-entropy error function in the specific application of CNN training on sea ice charts. In the first approach, concentrations are thresholded to be encoded in a standard binary fashion, and in the second approach, concentrations are used as the target probability directly. The second method leads to a significant improvement in $R^{2}$ measured on the prediction of ice concentrations evaluated over the test set. The performance improves both in terms of robustness to noise and alignment with mean concentrations from ice analysts in the validation data, and an $R^{2}$ value of 0.89 is achieved over the independent test set. It can be concluded that CNNs are suitable for multisensor fusion even with sensors that differ in resolutions by large factors, such as in the case of Sentinel-1 SAR and AMSR2.

Based on the spatiotemporally weighted two-step method (STW-TSM), the spatiotemporal characteristics of the residual microwave brightness temperature (MBT) with the Mw7.9 Wenchuan earthquake on May 12, 2008 are revealed by satellite data from the Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer - Earth Observing System (AMSR-E) sensor. Two significant MBT positive anomalies are found to be exactly in spatial accordance with two geological Quaternary zones, and the detailed geometric information of the MBT positive anomaly is found to be correlated with the microwave frequencies. After eliminating other possible influential factors, including surface temperature, vegetation index, land-surface roughness, and surface soil moisture under the conditions of space, time, and magnitude, and according to the microwave radiative transfer model, the dielectric variation in the ground surface is suggested to be the primary contributor of the MBT positive anomaly. The positive-hole (P-hole) theory is applied to interpret the geological preference of the MBT positive anomalies through a chain process: crustal stress enhancing—P-hole producing and flowing down stress gradients—surface P-hole accumulating—dielectric constant decreasing—and microwave radiation increasing. The stress-resulting effect of the dielectric decrease on MBT the increase provides a novel mechanism for microwave remote-sensing monitoring of crustal stress field alteration, earthquake preparation, and upcoming shocks. This research has a particular significance for searching potential georelations between the tectonic earthquake preparation and the abnormal satellite MBT.

Accurate, physically based precipitation retrieval over global land surfaces is an important goal of the NASA/JAXA Global Precipitation Measurement Mission (GPM). This is a difficult problem for the passive microwave constellation, as the signal over radiometrically warm land surfaces in the microwave frequencies means that the measurements used are indirect and typically require inferring some type of relationship between an observed scattering signal and precipitation at the surface. GPM, with collocated radiometer and dual-frequency radar, is an excellent tool for tackling this problem and improving global retrievals. In the years following the launch of the GPM Core Observatory satellite, physically based passive microwave retrieval of precipitation over land continues to be challenging. Validation efforts suggest that the operational GPM passive microwave algorithm, the Goddard profiling algorithm (GPROF), tends to overestimate precipitation at the low (−1) end of the distribution over land. In this work, retrieval sensitivities to dynamic surface conditions are explored through enhancement of the algorithm with dynamic, retrieved information from a GPM-derived optimal estimation scheme. The retrieved parameters describing surface and background characteristics replace current static or ancillary GPROF information including emissivity, water vapor, and snow cover. Results show that adding this information decreases probability of false detection by 50% and, most importantly, the enhancements with retrieved parameters move the retrieval away from dependence on ancillary datasets and lead to improved physical consistency.

This paper reviews the data quality and impact of observations from the FY-3 satellite series used operationally in the ECMWF system. This includes data from the passive microwave radiometers MWHS-1, MWHS-2 and MWRI, as well as observations from the radio occultation receiver GNOS. Evaluations against background equivalents show that the quality of the observations is broadly comparable to that of similar instruments on other polar-orbiting satellites, even though biases for the passive microwave observations can be somewhat larger and more complex for some channels. An observing system experiment shows that the FY-3 instruments jointly contribute significantly to the forecast skill in the ECMWF system. Positive impact of up to 2% is seen for most variables out to the day-2 forecasts over hemispheric scales, with significant benefits for total column water vapor or for temperature and wind in the stratosphere out to day 4.

In this contribution, we present a comparison of three digital real-time spectrometers used in passive remote sensing of ozone and other trace gases in the middle atmosphere. During a period of six months, we connected the spectrometers to the same radiometric front-end to perform parallel observations of the ozone emission line at 110.836 GHz. This allowed us to better characterize a bias previously observed on the integrated spectra of the Acqiris AC240, a widely used digital spectrometer which has been used for more than a decade in many operational microwave radiometers. We investigated the bias under different atmospheric conditions and found that it is caused by multiple sources. Nonlinearities in the calibration are responsible for part of the bias, but a larger contribution stems from a second effect in the AC240. Although this error source is still partly unexplained, we found that a simple correction scheme simulating a spectral leakage can be applied to the integrated spectra of the AC240 and worked well on our range of observations. We also show that by applying our bias correction to the spectra, we can correct the bias in the ozone retrievals. There is still a need for further measurements to validate this approximate correction, but it could help to correct the numerous time series of ozone and other atmospheric constituents recorded by the AC240.

This study presents a correction algorithm to remove the backlobe intrusion from the hot-load reflector of microwave radiation imager (MWRI) on-board China FengYun-3C (FY-3C) meteorological satellite. Discontinuities in the radiometric gain of MWRI, due to inaccurate backlobe spillover of the hot-load reflector, have been diagnosed. A physical correction method, relating the radiometric gain difference between two distinct backlobe scenes to the spillover of the hot-load reflector, is thus established to estimate the in-orbit spillover factor of the MWRI hot-load reflector. Meanwhile, it is found that brightness temperature (TB) at each 1° × 1° grid could not address the backlobe pattern appropriately, leading to abrupt changes in the radiometric gain occurring near the coastlines. To better represent the backlobe spillover, the effective backlobe TB is now averaged over a 4° × 4° area from advanced microwave scanning radiometer-observed TBs, which is now in a finer resolution of 0.25° × 0.25°. With the adjusted spillover for the hot-load reflector, anomalous behaviors of the radiometric gain are mitigated effectively and the improvement at the coastlines is pronounced, inducing TB variation up to 2 K in magnitude at the 10.65 GHz channel. Although the algorithm presented in this study is only restricted to channel frequencies up to 23.8 GHz due to its accuracy limitation, it could tackle similar issues for those microwave radiometers not capable of in-orbit backlobe maneuvers and receiving the radiances inevitably from the outer edge of the hot-load or cold-sky reflectors.

Sea surface salinity (SSS) in coastal zones with high temporal and spatial resolutions is also needed for scientific research and marine economy. However, one of the limitations of airborne L -band real-aperture microwave radiometers and synthesis aperture interferometric radiometers is high mass and volume or the high complexity of the system. To overcome the limitations, an L -band phased array radiometer is proposed as an alternative solution to monitor SSS in coastal zones from a small unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). The L -band phased array radiometer is introduced, which only comprises a phased array and a single receiver. In addition, the calibration methods of the L -band phased array, radiometer that the external calibration method and the internal calibration method, are also introduced. A series of experiments was performed to assess the performance of the L -band phased array radiometer. The results indicate that the L -band phased array radiometer show a good performance in low pointing angles and low scanning angles. As a conclusion, the L -band phased array radiometer can be an alternative solution to monitor SSS in coastal zones with high temporal and spatial resolutions from a small UAV.

A novel Bayesian Monte Carlo integration (BMCI) technique was developed to retrieve geophysical variables from satellite microwave radiometer data in the presence of tropical cyclones. The BMCI technique includes three steps: generating a stochastic database, simulating satellite brightness temperatures using a radiative transfer model, and retrieving geophysical variables such as profiles of temperature, relative humidity, and cloud liquid and ice water content from real observations. The technique also provides uncertainty estimates for each retrieval and can output the error covariance matrix of selected parameters. The measurements from the Advanced Technology Microwave Sounder (ATMS) on board Suomi National Polar-Orbiting Partnership (Suomi NPP) and the Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) Microwave Imager (GMI) were used as input. A new technique was developed to correct the ATMS and GMI observations for the beam-filling effect, which is due to small-scale variability of precipitation and clouds when compared with the instrument footprint and also the nonlinear relation between the brightness temperature and precipitation. In addition, the assimilation of the BMCI retrievals into the NASA GEOS model is discussed for Hurricane Maria. The results show that assimilating the BMCI retrievals can influence the dynamical features of the cyclone, including a stronger warm core, a symmetric eye, and vertically aligned wind columns. Two possible factors that may limit the impact of the BMCI retrievals include 1) the resolution of the model (about 25 km), which was too coarse to show the potential of the BMCI data in improving the representation of tropical storms in the model forecast, and 2) the data assimilation system not being able to consider vertically correlated observation errors.

Microwave remote sensing can be used to monitor the time evolution of some key parameters over land, such as land surface temperature or surface water extent. Observations are made with instruments, such as the Scanning Microwave Multichannel Radiometer (SMMR) before 1987, the Special Sensor Microwave/Imager (SSM/I) and the subsequent Special Sensor Microwave Imager/Sounder (SSMIS) from 1987 and still operating, and the more recent Global Precipitation Measurement Microwave Imager (GMI). As these instruments differ on some of their characteristics and use different calibration schemes, they need to be inter-calibrated before long-time-series products can be derived from the observations. Here an inter-calibration method is designed to remove major inconsistencies between the SMMR and other microwave radiometers for the 18 and 37 GHz channels over continental surfaces. Because of a small overlap in observations and a ∼6 h difference in overpassing times between SMMR and SSM/I, GMI was chosen as a reference despite the lack of a common observing period. The diurnal cycles from 3 years of GMI brightness temperatures are first calculated and then used to evaluate SMMR differences. Based on a statistical analysis of the differences, a simple linear correction is implemented to calibrate SMMR on GMI. This correction is shown to also reduce the biases between SMMR and SSM/I, and can then be applied to SMMR observations to make them more coherent with existing data records of microwave brightness temperatures over continental surfaces.

Forward models are a key tool to generate synthetic observations given knowledge of the atmospheric state. In this way, they are an integral part of inversion algorithms that aim to retrieve geophysical variables from observations or in data assimilation. Their application for the exploitation of the full information content of remote sensing observations becomes increasingly important when these are used to evaluate the performance of cloud-resolving models (CRMs). Herein, CRM profiles or fields provide the input to the forward model whose simulation results are subsequently compared to the observations. This paper introduces the freely available comprehensive microwave forward model PAMTRA (Passive and Active Microwave TRAnsfer), demonstrates its capabilities to simulate passive and active measurements across the microwave spectral region for upward- and downward-looking geometries, and illustrates how the forward simulations can be used to evaluate CRMs and to interpret measurements to improve our understanding of cloud processes. PAMTRA is unique as it treats passive and active radiative transfer (RT) in a consistent way with the passive forward model providing upwelling and downwelling polarized brightness temperatures and radiances for arbitrary observation angles. The active part is capable of simulating the full radar Doppler spectrum and its moments. PAMTRA is designed to be flexible with respect to instrument specifications and interfaces to many different formats of input and output, especially CRMs, spanning the range from bin-resolved microphysical output to one- and two-moment schemes, and to in situ measured hydrometeor properties. A specific highlight is the incorporation of the self-similar Rayleigh–Gans approximation (SSRGA) for both active and passive applications, which becomes especially important for the investigation of frozen hydrometeors.

In a traditional spaceborne microwave radiometer system with a scanning antenna there is often a conflict between spatial and radiometric resolution. Integration over many beams per frequency might be necessary to improve radiometric resolution. Many beams may be generated using many classical feed horns or by a Focal Plane Array (FPA) system. At C-band horns are bulky and replacing several such horns with a FPA is an interesting option. The FPA concept uses many small antenna elements, many receivers, and powerful on-line digital processing. A focal plane array system that can replace 4 horns is evaluated, especially concerning power consumption.

The relative phase and amplitude calibration between individual receiving elements are one of the key challenges in interferometric microwave radiometry. For monolithic interferometers, for example the Microwave Imaging Radiometer with Aperture Synthesis (MIRAS) on board the Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity (SMOS) mission, the calibration of these two parameters is accomplished by correlated noise injection, where a noise signal from a central noise source is distributed to multiple elements in phase, and any measured phase and amplitude differences can be measured and compensated. As new multisatellite interferometers are being proposed, a new strategy capable of calibrating these errors between the free-flying antennas as well as any antenna position errors is required. In this article, a new calibration scheme is proposed which uses a set of microwave beacons in place of the central noise source, placed at known locations within the interferometer’s field of view. The visibility function produced by these point-sources can be precalculated, and any errors between the calculated and the measured visibility samples can be attributed to the errors to be determined. Since the phase of the measured visibility is a function of phase and antenna position errors, this technique is capable of calibrating these two parameters simultaneously. Calibration equations for far- and near-field beacons are presented. Using these expressions, five interferometric calibration routines are proposed and examined for geostationary formation flight microwave radiometers. Although this technique is ideal for multisatellite interferometers with variable antenna positions, it is also applicable to monolithic interferometers that can undergo substantial array deformation.

Global warming is one of the most serious problems we are facing in the 21st Century. Sea ice has an important role of reflecting the solar radiation back into space. However, once sea ice started to melt, the ice-free water would absorb the solar radiation and amplify global warming in the Arctic region. Thus, importance of sea ice monitoring is increasing. Since longer wavelength microwave can penetrate clouds, passive microwave radiometers on-board satellites are powerful tools for monitoring the global distribution of sea ice on daily basis. The Advanced Passive Microwave Scanning Radiometer AMSR2 which was launched by JAXA in May 2012 on-board GCOM-W satellite provides brightness temperature data that are used to estimate sea ice concentration, the fundamental parameter that is used to monitor the sea ice cover. JAXA is providing AMSR2 sea ice concentration data, derived using ASMR2 Bootstrap Algorithm as a standard product of AMSR2, as a means to communicate how the sea ice cover is changing. This paper describes the advantages of AMSR2 in calculating sea ice concentration and evaluate the accuracy of the sea ice concentration in the Sea of Okhotsk by comparing the result with simultaneously collected MODIS data. The result suggested that under normal winter condition, the RMSE of the AMSR2 sea ice concentration could be less than 10%.

The additional microwave radiation from underground rock mass (lithosphere) that is caused by tectonic activity and alternating crustal stress has been shown to be a detectable electromagnetic signal via satellite remote sensing. However, the emission of microwave radiation produced inside the lithosphere will be affected by its overburden matter, such as sand, soil, water, and vegetation, and this effect is unknown. In this article, we use a C-band microwave radiometer to detect the variations in the microwave brightness temperature ( $T_{B}$ ) of rock samples in the process of axial loading. For the rock samples, the surface was bare and covered with dry sand or humid sand. The experimental detection illustrates that the dry sand unexpectedly allows more stress-associated additional radiation ( $\Delta T_{B}$ ) to be received by the radiometer, while humid sand shows significant extinction of $\Delta T_{B}$ . Both the radiative transfer theory and the stress-activated positive hole hypothesis are applied to interpret the mechanisms of the effect of dry and humid sand layers on $\Delta T_{B}$ . The outflow of stress-activated positive holes is from inside the loaded rock, and hence their accumulation beneath the surface of the sand layer is expected to reduce the local dielectric permittivity of sand, thereby making the detected $\Delta T_{B}$ by the microwave radiometer to be larger than that extrapolated theoretically in accordance with radiative transfer theory. This article is valuable for understanding the diverse $T_{B}$ anomalies that have been observed prior to tectonic earthquakes, and it facilitates the evaluation of the potential application of $\Delta T_{B}$ to seismic monitoring and earthquake prediction.

Calibration plays an important role in improving the accuracy of the microwave and millimeter-wave radiometric measurements. Several calibration techniques have been used in radiometers including external calibration targets, vicarious sources, and internal calibrators such as noise diodes or matched reference load. A new calibration technique based on deep learning has recently been developed to calibrate microwave and millimeter-wave radiometers. The deep-learning calibrator has been previously demonstrated on a computer noise-wave modeled Dicke-switching radiometer. This article applies the new deep-learning calibration technique for the calibration of the high-frequency airborne microwave and millimeter-wave radiometer (HAMMR) instrument. A deep-learning neural network model is built to calibrate the 2014 West Coast Flight Campaign antenna temperature measurements of the HAMMR. The deep-learning calibrator antenna temperature estimates are obtained from the radiometric measurements. The deep-learning calibration results are compared with the existing conventional calibration techniques used in HAMMR 2014 field campaign. The results have shown that the deep-learning calibrator is in agreement with the conventional calibration techniques. In this article, it is demonstrated that the deep-learning calibrator can be employed for calibrating the radiometers with high accuracy.

Microwave thermometry provides noninvasive detection of thermal inhomogeneity in biological tissues, early diagnosis of oncological diseases, and correction of treatment based on changes in the parameters of the body’s electromagnetic radiation. We present an analytical review of developments in medical radiometers. Challenges hindering the development of radiometry are identified, as are proposed solutions.

Ground-based microwave radiometers profilers (MWRPs) have been used in numerical weather prediction (NWP) systems and show different impacts on forecasts. Currently, there are around hundreds of ground-based MWPRs used in weather stations over China; however, the application of MWPRs in NWP systems is rather limited. In this work, two MWRP retrieved profiles were assimilated into the Weather Research and Forecasting(WRF) model for a rainstorm event that occurred in Beijing, China. The quality of temperature and humidity profiles retrieved from the MWRP was evaluated against radiosonde observations and showed the reliability of the two MWRP products. Then, comparisons between the measurements of ground-based rain gauges and the corresponding forecasted precipitation in different periods of the rainstorm were investigated. The results showed that assimilating the two MWRPs affected the distribution and intensity of rainfall, especially in the early stage of the rainstorm. With the development of the rainstorm, adding MWRP data showed only a slight influence on the precipitation during the stable and mature period of the rainstorm, since the two MWRP observations were too limited to affect the large area of heavy rainfall.

The rapid development of miniaturized satellite instrument technology has created a new opportunity to deploy constellations of passive microwave (PMW) radiometers to permit retrievals of the same Earth scene with very high temporal resolution to monitor cloud evolution and processes. For such a concept to be feasible, it must be shown that it is possible to distinguish actual changes in the atmospheric state from the variability induced by making observations at different Earth incidence angles (EIAs). To this end, we present a flexible and physical optimal estimation-based algorithm designed to retrieve profiles of atmospheric water vapor, cloud liquid water path, and cloud ice water path from cross-track PMW sounders. The algorithm is able to explicitly account for the dependence of forward model errors on EIA and atmospheric regime. When the algorithm is applied to data from the Temporal Experiment for Storms and Tropical Systems Technology Demonstration (TEMPEST-D) CubeSat mission, its retrieved products are generally in agreement with those obtained from the similar but larger Microwave Humidity Sounder instrument. More importantly, when forward model brightness temperature offsets and assumed error covariances are allowed to change with EIA and sea surface temperature, view-angle-related biases are greatly reduced. This finding is confirmed in two ways: through a comparison with reanalysis data and by making use of brief periods in early 2019 during which the TEMPEST-D spacecraft was rotated such that its scan pattern was along track, allowing dozens of separate observations of any given atmospheric feature along the satellite’s ground track.

Objective : Near-field microwave radiometry has emerged as a tool for real-time passive monitoring of local brain activation, possibly attributed to local changes in blood flow that correspond to temperature and/or conductivity changes. The aim of this study is to design and evaluate a prototype system based on microwave radiometry intended to detect local changes of temperature and conductivity in depth in brain tissues. A novel radiometric system that comprises a four port total power Dicke-switch sensitive receiver that operates at 1.5 GHz has been developed. Methods and Results : The efficacy of the system was assessed through simulation and experiment on brain tissue mimicking phantoms under different setup conditions, where temperature and conductivity changes were accurately detected. In order to validate the radiometer's capability to sense low power signals occurring spontaneously from regions in the human brain, the somatosensory cortices of one volunteer were measured under pain-inducing psychophysiological conditions. The promising results from the initial in vivo measurements prove the system's potential for more extensive investigative trials. Conclusion and Significance : The significance of this study lies on the development of a compact and sensitive radiometer for totally passive monitoring of local brain activation as a potential complementary tool for contributing to the research effort for investigating brain functionality.

Forest transmissivity is a key parameter for understanding spaceborne and airborne observations of the Earth's land surface because not only does it influences the proportion of subcanopy upwelling microwave emission penetrating through the forest canopy, it also controls the forest thermal emission. In frozen winter conditions, our previous study has indicated that observed microwave transmissivity of trees is also strongly influenced by temperature. This follow-on study uses ground-based radiometer observations, advanced microwave scanning radiometer 2 (AMSR2) observations, and model simulation to evaluate how this temperature-transmissivity relationship affects spaceborne passive microwave (PM) snow observations. A model is developed to simulate the relationship between tree transmissivity and air temperature. The R2 of the model is 0.85 (0.81) with a root mean square error (RMSE) of 0.03 (0.03) at the 18.7 (36.5) GHz channels, respectively. We find that this temperature-transmissivity relationship has a significant influence on the Tb of the tree, which influences both ground-based radiometer and spaceborne AMSR2 observations. The influence of the temperature-transmissivity relationship on upwelling ground emission is frequency dependent, demonstrating that the findings have implications for frequency difference based approaches for PM snow depth and snow water equivalent retrievals which observe snow-covered landscapes, including boreal forests, at air temperatures below freezing. This effect should therefore be accounted for in frequency difference or ratio approaches of snow accumulation retrievals.

This work addresses the intercalibration of the Microwave Radiation Imager (MWRI) on the Chinese second-generation polar-orbiting meteorological satellite Fengyun 3C (FY-3C) against the Microwave Imager (GMI) on the Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) Core Observatory, in which a modified Double Difference (DD) method is developed and the Brightness Temperatures (TBs) in FY-3C MWRI and GMI channels are simulated using the ocean microwave Radiative Transfer Model (RTM) fed with the fifth generation of European Centre for Medium-range Weather Forecast (ECMWF) atmospheric reanalysis (ERA5) data. With the modified DD method, the intercalibration of FY-3C MWRI in 2017 are obtained. The results show that the MWRI observations are underestimated, especially for the low frequency channels. The calibration biases (mean of DDs) in FY-3C MWRI channels are temperature dependent, and decrease with the frequency increment. The in-orbit calibration of the MWRI descending (MWRID) data is 1~2 K worse than that of the MWRI ascending (MWRIA) data. At the TBs of standard scene defined by the Global Space-based Inter-Calibration System (GSICS), the calibration errors (mean of DDs ± standard deviation at the mean) of MWRIA data in January 2017 are -6.7±0.4 K, -8.3±0.8 K, -3.0±0.7 K, -1.9±1.0 K, -2.5±1.1 K, -3.9±0.8 K, -2.1±1.5 K, -1.5±1.0 K and -0.4±2.3 K in the 10V/H, 18V/H, 23V, 36V/H and 89V/H channels, respectively, while the calibration errors of MWRID data in January 2017 are -7.6±0.8 K, -9.1±1.2 K, -4.4±0.8 K, -2.9±1.3 K, -3.6±1.2 K, -5.1±0.8 K, -2.6±1.4 K, -2.5±1.1 K and -1.2±2.5 K in the nine channels, respectively. Although calibration biases exist, the in-orbit calibration of FY-3C MWRI is generally stable in 2017. The results of the modified DD method are consistent with that of the DD method. The modified DD method is promising to be applied to the intercalibration with both target and reference radiometers on polar-orbiting satellites.

The advanced microwave radiometer-climate quality (AMR-C) is a part of the European Sentinel-6A/B series, a collaboration between ESA and NASA, of two Earth-observing satellites, which will be launched in 2020 and 2025. Compared to its predecessor, Jason-3, the two AMR-C radiometer instruments have an external calibration system which enables higher radiometric stability accomplished by moving the secondary mirror between well-defined targets. Sentinel-6 allows continuing the study of the ocean circulation, climate change, and sea-level rise for at least another decade. Besides the external calibration for the AMR heritage radiometer (18.7, 23.8, and 34 GHz channels), the AMR-C contains a high-resolution microwave radiometer (HRMR) with radiometer channels at 90, 130, and 168 GHz. This subsystem allows for a factor of 5× higher spatial resolution at coastal transitions. This article presents a brief description of the instrument and the measured performance of the completed AMR-C-A and AMR-C-B instruments.

Land surface temperature (LST) is a key parameter and plays an important role in hydrology, ecology, environment, and biogeochemistry. It is difficult for the existing satellites to acquire global LST with spatial and temporal consistency. The Moon-based Earth observation platform with a long life, large coverage can observe continuously the Earth, and obtain the global-scale LST. At present, various approaches for retrieving LST from passive microwave remote sensing data have been developed for the satellite remote sensing data with small and constant viewing zenith angle, however, the Moon-based Earth observation platform located outside the Earth's ionosphere has the viewing zenith angle of 0-90°. In this study, a modified physical-based method of LST retrieval from passive microwave data was developed for wide viewing zenith angles, and the LST and emissivity can be simultaneously estimated through the analysis of various atmospheric and ionosphere parameters. Three types of data, including the FengYun-3B satellite microwave radiation imager data, the multichannel Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer data, and Moon-based microwave radiation simulation data with the viewing zenith angles of 52-53°, 55°, and 0-90°, respectively, were used to retrieve LST. Results show that the estimation accuracy of LST decreases with the increase of viewing zenith angle. The 23.8 and 36.5 GHz brightness temperature is optimum for the LST estimation under a large-scale viewing zenith angle, and the root mean square errors of the LST are 5.18, 5.44, and 4.79 K, respectively.

A two-dimensional variational retrieval (2D-Var) is presented for a passive microwave imager. The overlapping antenna patterns of all frequencies from the Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer 2 (AMSR2) are explicitly simulated to attempt retrieval of near-surface wind speed and surface skin temperature at finer spatial scales than individual antenna beams. This is achieved, with the effective spatial resolution of retrieved parameters judged by analysis of 2D-Var averaging kernels. Sea surface temperature retrievals achieve about 30 km resolution, with wind speed retrievals at about 10 km resolution. It is argued that multi-dimensional optimal estimation permits greater use of total information content from microwave sensors than other methods, with no compromises on target resolution needed; instead, various targets are retrieved at the highest possible spatial resolution, driven by the channels' sensitivities. All AMSR2 channels can be simulated within near their published noise characteristics for observed clear-sky scenes, though calibration and emissivity model errors are key challenges. This experimental retrieval shows the feasibility of 2D-Var for cloud-free retrievals and opens the possibility of stand-alone 3D-Var retrievals of water vapour and hydrometeor fields from microwave imagers in the future. The results have implications for future satellite missions and sensor design, as spatial oversampling can somewhat mitigate the need for larger antennas in the push for higher spatial resolution.

Microwave synthetic aperture interferometric radiometers (SAIRs) are very powerful instruments for high-resolution remote sensing of the atmosphere and the earth surfaces at microwave frequencies. Microwave SAIR imaging reconstruction from interferometric measurements suffers from hardware non-identities, limited prior information, and noise interference, and consequently often requires expert calibration strategies to reduce imaging error and improve the accuracy of the reconstruction. In this article, we propose a new SAIR imaging approach with a deep convolutional neural network (CNN) learning framework to optimize the reconstruction performance. We interpret interferometric measurements of SAIR as a signal encoding representation and SAIR imaging as the corresponding decoding representation. A deep CNN framework with additional fully connected layers is utilized to autonomously learn the decoding representation from interferometric measurement samples and perform SAIR imaging. The supervised learning forward model with hyperparameters makes that the proposed approach could accurately obtain the SAIR imaging representation involving multiple systematic features for real applications. We demonstrate the performance of the proposed imaging approach through extensive numerical experiments. Compared with conventional handcrafted Fourier transform and sparse regularization reconstruction imaging approaches, the proposed imaging approach based on deep learning is superior in terms of image quality, computing efficiency, and noise suppression.

Chinese FY-4M is a new-generation geosynchronous satellite, which will be launched in the near future. It is equipped with multichannel millimeter wave radiometers, which operate in the range of 50–430 GHz. This satellite will increase revisit time and significantly improve the monitoring and weather variation forecasting capabilities. Calibration is an important issue for the quantitative analysis and application of brightness temperature observations. Calibration is first conducted in a thermal/vacuum chamber prior to the launch. A hot target onboard the satellite is used to provide relative irradiance for onboard calibration, and the cold cosmos is used as a cold target. However, complicated space conditions may result in many uncertainties and instabilities during calibration. A new method is required to evaluate the performance of the instruments during long-term operation. Because of the non-existence of atmospheric and other environmental interferences, the lunar surface maintains its physical and chemical stability. Thus, it is an ideal source for thermal calibration. The earliest ground-based observation of thermal microwave emission of the Moon dates back to the early 1940s. At that time, the temperature profile and dielectric constant of the lunar surface had not been studied in detail. Thus, interpreting the observed microwave brightness temperature was difficult. In recent years, many studies of the lunar surface have been performed owing to the advances in satellite-borne remote sensing programs. The Diviner Lunar Radiometer Experiment onboard the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter investigated the global solar reflectance and mid-IR irradiance. These infrared measurements contribute to the quantitative description of the thermophysical properties of the superficial lunar regolith media. Chinese probes, Chang’e-1 and Chang’e-2, carried four-channel microwave radiometers to observe the microwave thermal emission of the lunar regolith media, which may provide information on superficial dielectric properties of the lunar surface. These advances created a foundation for the millimeter channel observation of the lunar surface. In this study, a real-time model of the sub-solar position and total irradiance of the lunar surface was developed. The altitude of FY-4M is 35800 km. The distance between the Moon and the Earth is between 363400 km (perigee) and 405400 km (apogee). This large distance enables nadir observation from the FY-4M radiometer toward the center region of the lunar equator. The observation beam angle ranges from 0.097° to 0.027°. The diameters of the observation regions at different channels are 750 km (55 GHz), 480 km (89, 118 GHz), 300 km (166, 183 GHz), and 210 km (425 GHz) at apogee. Based on the surface albedo derived from the Clementine data and the constrained thermophysical parameters of the lunar regolith media obtained from the Diviner infrared brightness temperature, the one-dimensional thermal transfer equation is solved to obtain the physical temperature profile of the lunar regolith media. Using the 37-GHz brightness temperature from Chang’e-2 observations, the loss tangent of the regolith media is inverted. Using the fluctuation dissipation theorem, the brightness temperature of the lunar surface in FY-4M millimeter channels is calculated. The thermophysical profile of the regolith can be validated using the Diviner infrared brightness temperature data. The calculated temperature at a depth of 1.3 m is consistent with the measurements obtained in the Apollo heat flow experiment. The surface temperature and millimeter brightness temperature on the lunar equator (0°N, 0°E) during the entire year of 2010 are simulated. The peak value of the brightness temperature is attained after that of the surface physical temperature peak value. In the low frequency channel, the penetration depth increases, its peak value is typically small, and the peak appears later. This study thus presents an effective model for FY-4M calibration and data analysis.