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We frequently experience and successfully process anomalous utterances. Here we examine whether people do this by “correcting” syntactic anomalies to yield well-formed representations. In two structural priming experiments, participants’ syntactic choices in picture description were influenced as strongly by previously comprehended anomalous (missing-verb) prime sentences as by well-formed prime sentences. Our results suggest that comprehenders can reconstruct the constituent structure of anomalous utterances – even when such utterances lack a major structural component such as the verb. These results also imply that structural alignment in dialogue is unaffected if one interlocutor produces anomalous utterances. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Purpose:Measurements play a vital role in providing devices that meet the individual needs of users. There is increasing evidence of devices being abandoned. The reasons for this are complex but one key factor that plays a role in non-use of equipment is the lack of fit between the device, environment and person. In addition, the abandonment of devices can be seen as a waste of public money. The aim of this paper is to examine the type, the readability, and the content of existing guidance in relation to measuring home furniture. Method:An online national survey involving health and social care trusts in the UK. We conducted a synthesis of leaflets associated with measurement of furniture to identify existing guidance. The content and readability of this guidance was then evaluated. Results:From the 325 responses received, 64 therapists reported using guidance. From the 13 leaflets that were analysed, 8 leaflets were found to meet Level 3 Adult Literacy Standards (age 9–11). There were differences in the way in which the measurement of furniture items occurred within the leaflets with no measurement guidance reported for baths. Conclusion:There is a need to standardize guidance to ensure that measurements are reliable.Implications for RehabilitationOur research has highlighted the need to confirm and agree measurement techniques for home furniture in the provision of assistive devices.Inaccurate guidance can lead to abandonment of devices.Inaccurate guidance could prevent service users from not participating within the self-assessment process for devices. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Objectives: This study sought to evaluate the potential of using spoken language and signing together (simultaneous communication, SimCom, sign-supported speech) as a means of improving speech recognition, comprehension, and learning by cochlear implant (CI) users in noisy contexts.Methods: Forty eight college students who were active CI users, watched videos of three short presentations, the text versions of which were standardized at the 8th-grade reading level. One passage was presented in spoken language only, one was presented in spoken language with multi-talker babble background noise, and one was presented via simultaneous communication with the same background noise. Following each passage, participants responded to 10 (standardized) open-ended questions designed to assess comprehension. Indicators of participants' spoken language and sign language skills were obtained via self-reports and objective assessments.Results: When spoken materials were accompanied by signs, scores were significantly higher than when materials were spoken in noise without signs. Participants' receptive spoken language skills significantly predicted scores in all three conditions; neither their receptive sign skills nor age of implantation predicted performance.Discussion: Students who are CI users typically rely solely on spoken language in the classroom. The present results, however, suggest that there are potential benefits of simultaneous communication for such learners in noisy settings. For those CI users who know sign language, the redundancy of speech and signs potentially can offset the reduced fidelity of spoken language in noise.Conclusion: Accompanying spoken language with signs can benefit learners who are CI users in noisy situations such as classroom settings. Factors associated with such benefits, such as receptive skills in signed and spoken modalities, classroom acoustics, and material difficulty need to be empirically examined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Writing in plain language aims to help users find what they need and ensures that the information is both useful and understandable. This is key for distance students whose primary library interaction may be with the library Website. A mix of user research and readability scores can be used to measure whether content is findable, useful, and understandable. There are several strategies authors can adopt to help them write in plain language, including keeping the users' needs and tasks in mind and structuring the content so that it can be quickly scanned. Converting existing Website content to a plain language format can be a large task; running a content audit can help determine which pages should be prioritized for revision. Once the Website is written in plain language, an ongoing content strategy is necessary to help it stay that way. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Patients are often given patient education documents to take home with them when they leave the hospital. It is important that these documents be at an appropriate grade level since some patients have low health literacy and may be unable to read the materials given to them. Evaluators can use readability tools to assess their patient education materials and make sure they are at a sixth- to eighth-grade reading level. The hospital librarian can play a large role in identifying the grade level of patient education materials. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Purpose: This study developed standardized vignettes that depict a mild traumatic brain injury (TBI) from one of several causes and subjected them to formal expert review. Method: A base vignette was developed using the World Health Organization operational criteria for mild TBI. Eight specific causes (e.g. sport vs assault) were examined. A convenience sample of mild TBI experts with a discipline background of Neuropsychology from North America, Australasia and Europe (n= 21) used an online survey to evaluate the vignettes and rated the role of cause on outcome. Results: The vignette suite was rated as fitting the mild TBI WHO operational diagnostic criteria at least moderately well. When compared to other factors, cause was not rated as significantly contributing to outcome. When evaluated in isolation, approximately half of the sample rated cause as important or very important and at least two of three clinical outcomes were associated with a different cause. Discussion: The vignettes may be useful in experimental mild TBI research. They enable the injury parameters to be controlled so that the effects of cause can be isolated and examined empirically. Such studies should advance understanding of the role of this factor in mild TBI outcome. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Older adults have been observed to use more nonnormative, or atypical, words than younger adults in connected speech. We examined whether aging-related losses in word-finding abilities or gains in language expertise underlie these age differences. Sixty younger and 60 older adults described two neutral photographs. These descriptions were processed into word types, and textual analysis was used to identify interrupted speech (e.g., pauses), reflecting word-finding difficulty. Word types were assessed for normativeness, with nonnormative word types defined as those used by six (5%) or fewer participants to describe a particular picture. Accuracy and precision ratings were provided by another sample of 48 high-vocabulary younger and older adults. Older adults produced more interrupted and, as predicted, nonnormative words than younger adults. Older adults were more likely than younger adults to use nonnormative language via interrupted speech, suggesting a compensatory process. However, older adults’ nonnormative words were more precise and trended for having higher accuracy, reflecting expertise. In tasks offering response flexibility, like connected speech, older adults may be able to offset instances of aging-related deficits by maximizing their expertise in other instances. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

As more individuals turn to the Internet for health-related information and technology increases the availability and use of implantable medical devices (IMDs), the websites marketing these devices will increase. Healthy People 2020 mandates increased understandability and usability of health-related websites. This project used social cognitive theory (SCT) and health literacy constructs from the Institute of Medicine and National Institutes of Health to analyze eight IMD websites. Despite current recommendations, none of the websites considered for this study offered content of an appropriate reading level in conjunction with the United States average of eighth grade, and 75% of the sites failed to satisfy more than one health literacy construct. Most of the websites lacked many of the SCT constructs. More attention is needed to improve the usability of these and future IMD websites to simultaneously meet the goal of marketing IMDs and the Healthy People 2020 goals to educate patients and promote public health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Internet continues to be an important supplemental health information resource for an increasing number of U.S. adults, especially for those with a new or existing chronic condition. Here we examine how people use the Internet to learn about Type 2 diabetes and how health literacy (HL) influences this information-seeking behavior. We analyzed the searches of approximately 2 million people who queried for diabetes-related information on Microsoft’s Bing search engine. The HL of searchers was imputed through a community-based HL score. Topics searched were categorized and subsequent websites were assessed for readability. Overall, diabetes information–seeking strategies via the Internet are similar among adults with limited and adequate HL skills. However, people with limited HL take a longer time to read pages that are quickly read by people with adequate HL and vice versa. Information seeking among the former is terminated prematurely, as is evident from a Hidden Markov Model of the search process. Our findings indicate that the reading level required to understand the majority of diabetes-related information is high. Especially on government websites, more than 80% of information requires a reading level corresponding to 7th grade or higher. Our results indicate that individuals with lower HL may disproportionately struggle with Internet searches and fail to get an equivalent benefit from this information resource compared to users with greater HL. Future interventions should target the quality and ease of navigation of health care websites and find ways to leverage other relevant professionals to encourage and promote successful information access on the Web. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The American Psychological Association’s Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct places ethical obligations upon psychologists based on another’s “age, gender, gender identity, race, ethnicity, culture, national origin, religion, sexual orientation, disability, language or socioeconomic status.” This article explores 18 major problems with ethical prescriptions contained in the Ethical Code involving this phrase, including problems in clarity, inconsistency, comprehensiveness, its epistemic assumptions, and its impossibility for adherence, among others. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Few comprehensive spelling tests are available in Swedish, and none have been validated in adults with reading and writing disorders. The recently developed STAVUX test includes word and pseudoword spelling subtests with high internal consistency and adult norms stratified by education. This study evaluated the convergent and diagnostic validity of STAVUX in adults with dyslexia. Forty-six adults, 23 with dyslexia and 23 controls, took STAVUX together with a standard word-decoding test and a self-rated measure of spelling skills. STAVUX subtest scores showed moderate to strong correlations with word-decoding scores and predicted self-rated spelling skills. Word and pseudoword subtest scores both predicted dyslexia status. Receiver-operating characteristic (ROC) analysis showed excellent diagnostic discriminability. Sensitivity was 91% and specificity 96%. In conclusion, the results of this study support the convergent and diagnostic validity of STAVUX. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hispanics who speak Spanish are at risk for low health literacy. We evaluated Spanish language hypertension (HTN) and diabetes mellitus (DM) patient education materials from U.S. federal agency public sector sources using the Suitability of Assessment (SAM) instrument. Mean readability for HTN materials was grade 7.9 and for DM materials was grade 6.6. Mean SAM score for HTN materials was 43.9 and for DM materials was 63.2. SAM scores were significantly better for DM than for HTN materials in overall score, content, graphics, layout, stimulation/motivation, and cultural appropriateness (p < .05). Clinicians should evaluate suitability of Spanish language HTN and DM materials that they use in patient teaching. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Psychophysical research on text legibility has historically investigated factors such as size, colour and contrast, but there has been relatively little direct empirical evaluation of typographic design itself, particularly in the emerging context of glance reading. In the present study, participants performed a lexical decision task controlled by an adaptive staircase method. Two typefaces, a ‘humanist’ and ‘square grotesque’ style, were tested. Study I examined positive and negative polarities, while Study II examined two text sizes. Stimulus duration thresholds were sensitive to differences between typefaces, polarities and sizes. Typeface also interacted significantly with age, particularly for conditions with higher legibility thresholds. These results are consistent with previous research assessing the impact of the same typefaces on interface demand in a simulated driving environment. This simplified methodology of assessing legibility differences can be adapted to investigate a wide array of questions relevant to typographic and interface designs. Practitioner Summary:A method is described for rapidly investigating relative legibility of different typographical features. Results indicate that during glance-like reading induced by the psychophysical technique and under the lighting conditions considered, humanist-style type is significantly more legible than a square grotesque style, and that black-on-white text is significantly more legible than white-on-black. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The impact of individualized summarization is high, because a summary would be difficult to understand by all if summarized in a generic manner. When sentences are important as well as readable to the learner with reading difficulties, the summary might be useful for better comprehension of the text. In this article, we propose an Interactive Genetic Algorithm-based individualized summarization to maximize the readability of selected important sentences. The individualized summarization applies to the educational domain using readability-based features to extract readable important sentences. Inclusion of features representing reading difficulty should not dilute the informative score of the summary, moreover it aids the learner who has reading difficulties to comprehend the complete text better, using the summary as supplementary to the complete text and not as a substitute for it. The experimental results derived from intrinsic evaluation shows that individual summary extraction performs better than a GA-based approach and a baseline approach. Moreover, user -based direct evaluation also supports individualized summarization for improving the readability by the target audience. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Seafood consumption is a main source of human exposure to certain environmental contaminants. Therefore, it is valuable to assess the online health risk messages focused on this topic, as people in the US are increasingly accessing the Internet for health-related information. Previous research indicates that online health information tends to be written at a reading level that is more advanced than ability of the general population. The purpose of this research was to examine the content and readability of Internet resources targeted toward consumers in the US regarding the health risks from consumption of contaminated seafood. Sources for analysis were gathered through a targeted search of state and national government websites, as well as through a Google search. The overall mean readability level was Grade 9.21, which is slightly above the average reading level of US adults. Future research should evaluate the accuracy of the health risk messages, as well as consumer perceptions of risk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Toddlers learn object names in sensory rich contexts. Many argue that this multisensory experience facilitates learning. Here, we examine how toddlers’ multisensory experience is linked to another aspect of their experience associated with better learning: the temporally extended nature of verbal discourse. We observed parent–toddler dyads as they played with, and as parents talked about, a set of objects. Analyses revealed links between the multisensory and extended nature of speech, highlighting inter-connections and redundancies in the environment. We discuss the implications of these results for our understanding of early discourse, multisensory communication, and how the learning environment shapes language development. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Background: There is scope for additional research into the specific linguistic and sequential structures used in speech and language therapist (SLT)-led therapeutic conversations with people with aphasia (PWA). Whilst there is some evidence that SLTs use different conversational strategies than the partners of PWA, research to date has focussed mainly on measuring the effects of conversation-based therapies—not on analysing therapeutic conversations taking place between SLTs and PWA. Aims: This paper presents an analysis of the use ofoh-prefacing by some PWA during therapeutic supported conversations with SLTs. Methods & Procedures: Normally occurring therapeutic conversations between SLTs and PWA after stroke were qualitatively analysed using Conversation Analysis. Interactions with five PWA were video-recorded, involving three different specialist stroke SLTs. Outcomes & Results: The analysis revealed a difference in the way some PWA use turns that display understanding (e.g.,oh right) versus those that continue the conversation, merely claiming understanding (e.g.,right). This use ofoh-prefacing is similar to that described in the literature on typical conversations. In our data, SLTs are shown to treatoh-prefaced turns differently from non-oh-prefaced turns, by pursuing the topic in the latter, and progressing on to a new topic in the former. Conclusions: At least some PWA useoh-prefacing in the same way as non-language-impaired adults to display understanding of information versus merely claiming to understand. The SLTs in our data are shown to treat non-oh-prefaced turns as mere claims of understanding by providing the PWA with additional information, using supported conversation techniques, and pursuing additional same-topic talk, whereasoh-prefaced turns are treated as displays of understanding by being confirmed, and leading to changes of topic. This study is a first step in providing SLTs with a clearer understanding of the ways in which they are assessing the understanding of PWA, which may in turn help them better support non-therapy staff. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In television broadcasting, there are no general rules about the implementation of various short inscriptions that accompany video image and provide additional information for the viewer. Therefore, we wanted to study what combination of typeface, letter case and position should be used for an on-screen presentation when fast recognition of a text is required. The present study investigated the minimum time required for recognising three-letter words presented in bold style on the screen in different experimental conditions. The typeface Georgia showed better legibility than Verdana, Calibri, Trebuchet and Swiss 721. Upper case letters were recognised faster compared to sentence and lower case letters. The recognition times were shorter for upper on-screen positions compared to the lower ones. The resulting combinations of text properties that are processed faster thus seem more appropriate for the on-screen use (especially for television broadcasts). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We have seen a patient with a profound, isolated, and quite selective deficit in proverb interpretation—aproverbia. The patient presented to us after an anoxic brain injury with aproverbia. Interestingly, the aproverbia appeared to be premorbid to the presenting event. Furthermore, the patient had no brain lesion that has been associated or even proposed as a cause of deficit in proverb or metaphor interpretation. The patient did have acute bilateral hippocampi lesions and associated severe anterograde amnesia, but he retained good retrograde memory with which he is able to give good, logical but concrete explanations for proverbs. This case highlights the need, importance, and interest in further neuropsychologic, imaging and functional studies of proverb and interpretation in patients and normal subjects populations. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Sexual communication is a principal means of transmitting sexual values, expectations, and knowledge from parents to their children and adolescents. Many parents seek information and guidance to support talking with their children about sex and sexuality. Parent education materials can deliver this guidance but must use appropriate readability levels to facilitate comprehension and motivation. This study appraised the readability of educational materials to support parent sexual communication with their children. Fifty brochures, pamphlets, and booklets were analyzed using the Flesch-Kincaid, Gunning Fog, and Simple Measure of Gobbledygook (SMOG) index methods. Mean readability grade-level scores were 8.3 (range = 4.5–12.8), 9.7 (range = 5.5–14.9), and 10.1 (range = 6.7–13.9), respectively. Informed by National Institutes of Health–recommended 6th to 7th grade levels and American Medical Association–recommended 5th to 6th grade levels, percentages falling at or below the 7.0 grade level were calculated as 38%, 12%, and 2% and those falling at or below the 6.0 grade level were calculated as 12%, 2%, and 0% based on the Flesch-Kincaid, Gunning Fog, and SMOG methods, respectively. These analyses indicate that the majority of educational materials available online to support parents’ communication with their children about sex and sexuality do not meet the needs of many or most parents. Efforts to improve the accessibility of these materials are warranted. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Adults with mild to moderate acquired brain injury (ABI) often pursue post-secondary or professional education after their injuries in order to enter or re-enter the job market. An increasing number of these adults report problems with reading-to-learn. The problem is particularly concerning given the growing population of adult survivors of ABI. Despite the rising need, empirical evaluation of reading comprehension interventions for adults with ABI is scarce. This study used a within-subject design to evaluate whether adult college students with ABI with no more than moderate cognitive impairments benefited from using reading comprehension strategies to improve comprehension of expository text. Integrating empirical support from the cognitive rehabilitation and special education literature, the researchers designed a multi-component reading comprehension strategy package. Participants read chapters from an introductory-level college anthropology textbook in two different conditions: strategy and no-strategy. The results indicated that reading comprehension strategy use was associated with recall of more correct information units in immediate and delayed free recall tasks; more efficient recall in the delayed free recall task; and increased accuracy recognising statements from a sentence verification task designed to reflect the local and global coherence of the text. The findings support further research into using reading comprehension strategies as an intervention approach for the adult ABI population. Future research needs include identifying how to match particular reading comprehension strategies to individuals, examining whether reading comprehension performance improves further through the incorporation of systematic training, and evaluating texts from a range of disciplines and genres. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This study examined possible ways to ensure that participants provide fully informed consent for online surveys. Participants were randomly assigned to read either a traditional informed consent or one of three modified versions: enhanced (e.g., images, bullet points), consent for each key element, or a combination of these two. Those who read the combination version scored higher on a comprehension quiz, guessed at fewer questions, and were more likely to read all of the informed consent than those who received the traditional version. These findings suggest that comprehension can be improved by adopting alternatives to the traditional informed consent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Health Information Center at the University of Tennessee Medical Center developed a consumer level print collection for patients, family members, and community visitors. Librarians utilized MLA Collection Development and Consumer and Patient Health Information Sections lists, vendor and consumer recommended lists, andLibrary Journaland other review sources. With input from key administrators for the six Centers of Excellence at the Medical Center, physicians, nurses, and pharmacists, 200 titles were selected and reviewed for appropriateness. The print collection is used in-house and regularly checked out by patients, family members, and the hospital community. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The article discusses a study on the use and accessibility of portable document format (PDF) for exchanging electronic documents. Topics include the emergence of the World Wide Web (WWW), the definition and effectiveness of usability, and the origin of the Civil Rights Movement in the U.S. Also mentioned are the Code of Hammurabi and the Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI).

Reading scientific papers in portable document format (PDF)-columned formats on computer screens is sometimes daunting and unfriendly. This is mainly due to the fact that PDF-columned texts are often truncated from the top or the bottom of pages so that readers have to scroll up–down repeatedly in the same page to get the whole text read. To make the reading process as smooth as possible, PDF viewers should be designed as responsive tools with responsive layouts that should automatically adapt the amount of readable text to the sizes of the displaying monitors so that readers will not waste time in repetitive vertical and horizontal scrolling movements within the same page. Here, I discuss such a problem-solving proposal that could be implemented in PDF viewers to improve the readability of PDF-columned texts and to make the reading process as flexible and painless as possible. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Although there is growing interest in inflectional morphology in semantic variant primary progressive aphasia (svPPA), derivational morphology has rarely been studied in this population. This study reports the performance of N.G., a 72-year-old-woman with svPPA in a verb production task designed to entail morphological processing (composition, decomposition) and self-appraisal of her productions. N.G. demonstrated an over-reliance on morphological processing and failures in her appraisal of root/affix combinations that resulted in the production of morphological paraphasias and neologisms. Her performance in lexical decision of verbs and pseudo-verbs points to the involvement of semantic impairment in these difficulties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Poor health literacy has been recognized as a limiting factor in the elderly’s ability to comprehend written or verbal medication information and also to successfully adhere to medical regimens. The objective of this study was to validate a set of pictograms depicting medication instructions for use among the elderly to support health literacy. Elderly outpatients were recruited in 3 community pharmacies in Canada. One-on-one structured interviews were conducted to assess comprehension of 76 pictograms from the International Pharmaceutical Federation. Comprehension was assessed using transparency testing and pictogram translucency, or the degree to which the pictogram represents the intended message. A total of 135 participants were enrolled in this study, and 76 pictograms were assessed. A total of 50 pictograms achieved more than 67% comprehension. Pictograms depicting precautions and warnings against certain side effects were generally not well understood. Gender, age, and education level all had a significant impact on the interpretation scores of certain individual pictograms. When all pictograms were included, younger males had a significantly higher comprehension score than older females, and participants with a higher level of education provided significantly higher translucency scores. Even when pictograms reached the comprehension threshold set by the International Organization for Standardization in the general populations, only 50 of these pictograms achieved more than 67% comprehension among the elderly, confirming that validation in this subpopulation should be conducted prior to using specific pictograms. Accompanying pictograms with education about these pictograms and important counseling points remains extremely important. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

A systematic review was conducted to assess the available evidence for the effectiveness of interventions aiming to improve the comprehensibility of health-related documents in older adults (≥50) with different levels of health literacy. Seven databases were searched (2005 forward), and references in relevant reviews were checked. The selection procedure was conducted by 2 independent reviewers. Data extraction and assessment of the quality of the resulting studies were conducted by 1 reviewer and checked for accuracy by a 2nd reviewer. A total of 38 intervention studies had a study population of older adults (n = 35) or made an explicit comparison between age groups, including older adults (n = 3). Inconsistent evidence was found for the importance of design features to enhance the comprehensibility of health-related documents. Only for narratives and multiple-feature revisions (e.g., combining revisions in textual and visual characteristics) did the included studies provide evidence that they may be effective for older adults. Using narrative formats and/or multiple-feature revisions of health-related documents seem to be promising strategies for enhancing the comprehensibility of health-related documents for older adults. The lack of consistent evidence for effective interventions stresses the importance of (a) replication and (b) the use of standardized research methodologies. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

To better understand dimensions of text complexity and their effect on the comprehension of adolescents, 103 high school seniors were randomly assigned to 4 groups. Each group read versions of the same 2 informational passages and answered comprehension test items targeting factual recall and inferences of causal content. Group A passages had a challenging readability level and high cohesion; Group B passages had an easier readability and low cohesion; Group C passages had a challenging readability level and low cohesion; and Group D passages had an easier readability and high cohesion. Students in Group D significantly outperformed students in Group C (g= 0.78). Although the effect sizes of comparisons among all groups ranged fromg= 0.13 to 0.73, no other comparisons were statistically significant. Results indicate that adolescents’ reading comprehension is dually influenced by a text's readability and cohesion. Implications for matching readers to instructional text are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Recent research has demonstrated that people are especially susceptible to false memory development for suggested misinformation that fills a causal role (i.e., explains some known outcome) (Chrobak & Zaragoza, 2013). However, little is known about how factors associated with the witnessed outcome impact the likelihood of false memory development. In the present study, outcome valence (negative, positive, or neutral) was manipulated. Participants heard several short stories that contained an outcome (e.g., a counselor getting promoted) that lacked a causal explanation. Participants were subsequently exposed to suggested causal misinformation that explained that outcome (e.g., the counselor performed an impressive act the previous day) and then were tested on their memory for the original event. Results indicated that participants incorrectly reported the suggested causal information more when it explained either a positive or negative outcome as opposed to a neutral outcome. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

It is often recommended that health information should be simplified for people with low health literacy. However, little is known about whether messages adapted to low health literacy audiences are also effective for people with high health literacy, or whether simple messages are counterproductive in this group. Using a two (illustrated vs. text-only) by two (nondifficult vs. difficult text) between-subjects design, we test whether older adults with low (n = 279) versus high health literacy (n = 280) respond differently to colorectal cancer screening messages. Results showed that both health literacy groups recalled information best when the text was nondifficult. Reduced text difficulty did not lead to negative attitudes or less intention to have screening among people with high health literacy. Benefits of illustrations, in terms of improved recall and attitudes, were only found in people with low health literacy who were exposed to difficult texts. This was not found for people with high health literacy. In terms of informed decisions, nondifficult and illustrated messages resulted in the best informed decisions in the low health literacy group, whereas the high health literacy group benefited from nondifficult text in general, regardless of illustrations. Our findings imply that materials adapted to lower health literacy groups can also be used for a more general audience, as they do not deter people with high health literacy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The web has unique potential for adolescents seeking comprehensive sexual health information. As such, it is important to understand the nature, scope, and readability of the content and messaging provided by sexuality educational websites. We conducted a content analysis of 14 sexuality education websites for adolescents, based on the 7 essential components (sexual and reproductive health and HIV, relationships, sexual rights and sexual citizenship, pleasure, violence, diversity, and gender) of the International Planned Parenthood Framework for Comprehensive Sexuality Education. A majority of content across all sites focused on sexual and reproductive health and HIV, particularly pregnancy and STI prevention, and other information about STIs and HIV. No other topic comprised more than 10% of content coverage across a majority of sites. The authors found little discussion of gender issues, sexual rights, sexual diversity, or sexual violence. Most sites provided brief references to sexual pleasure, generally moderated with cautionary words. Language used implied a heterosexual female audience. Reading levels for most sites were above the 9th-grade level, with several at the college level. These findings have implications for enhancing online sexuality education and broadening the coverage of essential topics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Patients should have access to high-quality health information websites on which to base their decision-making. There are concerns regarding the accuracy and quality of some health websites. We aimed to objectively measure website quality related to cochlear implantation.Methods: Selected patient-information websites were scored, depending on how highly they ranked on search engines and if they were ranked on more than one of the search engines used. The top 40 websites from three major search engines were analysed. The quality of each website was scored using the DISCERN tool and the readability was scored using the Flesch-Kincaid reading ease and the Gunning-Fog index.Results: The average Flesch-Kincaid score was 49.7, giving an average reading age of a 15-17 years old, and the average Gunning-fog score was 13.1, which equals that of an 18 years old.Conclusion: Internet-based information regarding cochlear implantation is of varied quality and is written above the expected reading level of an average person. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Patient materials are often written above the reading level of most adults. Tool 11 of the Health Literacy Universal Precautions Toolkit (“Design Easy-to-Read Material”) provides guidance on ensuring that written patient materials are easy to understand. As part of a pragmatic demonstration of the Toolkit, we examined how four primary care practices implemented Tool 11 and whether written materials improved as a result. We conducted interviews to learn about practices' implementation activities and assessed the readability, understandability, and actionability of patient education materials collected during pre- and postimplementation site visits. Interview data indicated that practices followed many action steps recommended in Tool 11, including training staff, assessing readability, and developing or revising materials, typically focusing on brief documents such as patient letters and information sheets. Many of the revised and newly developed documents had reading levels appropriate for most patients and—in the case of revised documents—better readability than the original materials. In contrast, the readability, understandability, and actionability of lengthier patient education materials were poor and did not improve over the 6-month implementation period. Findings guided revisions to Tool 11 and highlighted the importance of engaging multiple stakeholders in improving the quality of patient materials. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

In this paper, we will be discussing how visualisations can facilitate participatory processes by way of conveying issues of public concern as ‘things’. In the line of Latour’s plea to ‘make things public’, visualisations can be purposefully designed to trigger and encourage public debates concerning a wide range of issues. For this, we explore how a visualisation can be both transparent (i.e. visualising the complex entanglement of backstories of an issue)andreadable. Specifically, we clarify the aspect of designing a readable visualisation of ‘things’. First, drawing from different fields of literature (i.e. Information Visualisation, Science and Technology Studies and Human-Computer-Interaction) we will articulate three main aspects of readability: engaging people to interact with a visualisation of complex issues, supporting sense making and encouraging reflection. Then, based on three empirical case studies, we indicate different design considerations in terms of engaging people to interact with a visualisation: contextualising a visualisation (via its location or medium), staging interaction and allowing people to provide their own perspective on the issue displayed. As a conclusion we propose a scenario that allows the visualisation to gradually become more transparent in support of its readability. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The article offers the author's insights on interdisciplinarity and editing in contemporary theatre performance. Topics he discussed include editing as a form of interdisciplinary, the different theories of interdisciplinary knowledge including the theories by English professor Homi Bhabha, and the role of editing to decide on readability and to judge context and content. He also discusses the interdisciplinarity in the exhibition entitled "Documenta 11," directed by Okwui Enwezor in 2012.

Although e-books date back to the 1970s, the peak of academic adoption was in the early to mid-2000s. At the beginning of the 2012/2013 academic year, the Franklin & Marshall (F&M) College Library had roughly 500,000 print volumes cataloged and only 12 e-books. By the end of that year, the catalog contained approximately 120,000 e-books. In February 2014, the F&M College Library conducted a campus-wide survey about e-books. By comparing these results with F?s usage statistics, the Library found practical suggestions on how to improve current acceptance and usage of e-books. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Guided largely by the Extended Parallel Process Model, the Arizona Attorney General’s Social Networking Safety Promotion and Cyberbullying Prevention presentation attempts to shape, change, and reinforce middle school students’ perceptions, attitudes, and intentions related to these important social issues. This study evaluated the short-term effects of this presentation in a field experiment using a posttest-only control-group design with random assignment to conditions. A total of 425 sixth, seventh, and eighth graders at a public middle school in a large Southwestern city participated in this study. Results reveal several interesting trends across grade levels regarding cyberbullying perpetration and victimization, and concerning access to various communication technologies. The intervention had the hypothesized main effect on eight of the dependent variables under investigation. Examination of condition by grade interaction effects offered further support for an additional four hypotheses (i.e., the intervention positively affected or reversed a negative trend on four dependent variables in at least one grade). Ideas and implications for future social networking safety promotion and cyberbullying prevention interventions are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To formally evaluate the written discharge advice for people with mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI). Methods: Eleven publications met the inclusion criteria: (1) intended for adults; (2) ≤two A4 pages; (3) published in English; (4) freely accessible; and (5) currently used (or suitable for use) in Australian hospital emergency departments or similar settings. Two independent raters evaluated the content and style of each publication against established standards. The readability of the publication, the diagnostic term(s) contained in it and a modified Patient Literature Usefulness Index (mPLUI) were also evaluated. Results: The mean content score was 19.18 ± 8.53 (maximum = 31) and the mean style score was 6.8 ± 1.34 (maximum = 8). The mean Flesch-Kincaid reading ease score was 66.42 ± 4.3. The mean mPLUI score was 65.86 ± 14.97 (maximum = 100). Higher scores on these metrics indicate more desirable properties. Over 80% of the publications used mixed diagnostic terminology. One publication scored optimally on two of the four metrics and highly on the others. Discussion: The content, style, readability and usefulness of written mTBI discharge advice was highly variable. The provision of written information to patients with mTBI is advised, but this variability in materials highlights the need for evaluation before distribution. Areas are identified to guide the improvement of written mTBI discharge advice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background:The recommended readability of patient education materials by the American Medical Association (AMA) and National Institutes of Health (NIH) should be no greater than a sixth-grade reading level. However, online resources may be too complex for some patients to understand, and poor health literacy predicts inferior health–related quality of life outcomes.Aim:This study evaluated whether the American Orthopaedic Society for Sports Medicine (AOSSM) website's patient education materials meet recommended readability guidelines for medical information. We hypothesized that the readability of these online materials would have a Flesch-Kincaid formula grade above the sixth grade.Methods:All 65 patient education entries of the AOSSM website were analyzed for grade level readability using the Flesch-Kincaid formula, a widely used and validated tool to evaluate the text reading level.Results:The average (standard deviation) readability of all 65 articles was grade level 10.03 (1.44); 64 articles had a readability score above the sixth-grade level, which is the maximum level recommended by the AMA and NIH. Mean readability of the articles exceeded this level by 4.03 grade levels (95% CI, 3.7–4.4;P< 0.0001). We found post-hoc that only 7 articles had a readability score ≤ an eighth-grade level, the average reading level of US adults. Mean readability of the articles exceeded this level by 2.03 grade levels (95% CI, 1.7–2.4;P< 0.0001).Conclusion:The readability of online AOSSM patient education materials exceeds the readability level recommended by the AMA and NIH, and is above the average reading level of the majority of US adults. This online information may be of limited utility to most patients due to a lack of comprehension. Our study provides a clear example of the need to improve the readability of specific education material in order to maximize the efficacy of multimedia sources. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Despite the increasing use of online health literacy resources, scholars and practitioners assess Web sites based on readability measures such as sentence length, word choice, and other “print-centric” features to the exclusion of features unique to online media. In this article, we offer an alternative approach that accounts for multiple modes of communication and non-linear arrangement—features that characterize online media. To demonstrate this approach, we detail a recent project to redesign a cancer patient web portal. Included in our discussion of the project is a heuristic tool for designing web navigation as well as detailed examples of reworded content. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The higher the reading grade level of a document, the more difficult the material is for patients to read and understand. This study assessed the readability of patient information material concerning one topic—hip replacement surgery—found on the Web sites of 21 of the top adult orthopedic hospitals (ranked according to theU.S. News & World ReportBest Hospitals, Top-Ranked Hospitals for Orthopedics 2013–2014). The material was assessed using widely available online tools. The assessment showed that the reading grade levels ranged between 5.9 and 17.2. The overall average was a grade level of 11.9. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Motivational climate research has focused more empirical attention on coach-initiated motivational climate than on the parent-initiated climate. In this study of 238 competitive swimmers (ages 9–14 years), we compared the strength of relations between athletes’ late-season perceptions of coach and parent-initiated climates and their self-esteem, performance anxiety, and intrinsic–extrinsic motivation. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that parent-initiated motivational climate was a significant predictor of late-season self-esteem, trait anxiety, and autonomous regulation over and above coach-initiated motivational climate. We discuss when and why the parent-initiated climate is likely to be more influential and imply that more empirical attention to parents is warranted. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

El País in English, the online website of Spain's major daily newspaper, publishes a selection of its articles for a worldwide English-speaking audience, andPressEurop, a recently created news site for mostly European Union affairs, also selects and publishes articles translated into English (and nine other languages). Both websites recently selected the same two human interest stories for translation from Spanish into English. Culture-specific items related to the national and regional education systems (FP superior) and to social welfare systems (ayudas) are analyzed, with a view of determining to what extent their cultural diversity remains visible in the target text. The study reveals that the culture-specific items were either translated inconsistently or generalized to such an extent that their importance dissipated in the target texts, though did not disappear entirely. In the context of news translation, which requires transediting in order to make texts culturally suitable for target audiences, such practices strike a balance between preserving cultural diversity and effectuating easy readability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of the study was to evaluate the difference in legibility between e-books and paper books by using an eye tracker. Eight male and eight female subjects free of eye disease participated in the experiment. The experiment was conducted using a 2 × 3 within-subject design. The book type (e-book, paper book) and font size (8 pt, 10 pt, 12 pt) were independent variables, and fixation duration time, saccade length, blink rate and subjective discomfort were dependent variables. In the results, all dependent variables showed that reading paper books provided a better experience than reading e-books did. These results indicate that the legibility of e-books needs further improvement, considering fixation duration time, saccade movement, eye fatigue, device and so on. Practitioner Summary:This study evaluated the legibility difference between e-books and paper books from the viewpoint of readability, eye fatigue and subjective discomfort by using an eye tracker. The results showed that paper books provided a better experience than e-books. This indicates that the readability of e-books needs further improvement in relation to paper books. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

An individualized education program is a legal document that details information regarding the special education program of a student with a disability. For parents to determine whether they agree with the individualized education program that is proposed by the school, they must first be able to read and comprehend the document. This study aimed to examine the readability of 28 individualized education programs. Results indicated that 8 of the 9 individualized education program sections were written at a high school to college reading level. Other variables that increased text difficulty, such as small print size and large number of typographical errors, were also found. These findings suggested that parents might have difficulty reading and understanding their children's individualized education programs. The author discusses the implications for research to practice. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Objective: The aim of this study was to analyse the content, design, and readability of printed hearing aid user guides to determine their suitability for older adults, who are the main users of hearing aids. Design: Hearing aid user guides were assessed using four readability formulae and a standardized tool to assess content and design (SAM - Suitability Assessment of Materials). Study sample: A sample of 36 hearing aid user guides (four user guides from nine different hearing aid manufacturers) were analysed. Results: Sixty nine percent of user guides were rated ʽnot suitable' and 31% were rated ʽadequate' for their suitability. Many scored poorly for scope, vocabulary, aspects of layout and typography, and learning stimulation and motivation. The mean reading grade level for all user guides was grade 9.6 which is too high for older adults. Conclusion: The content, design, and readability of hearing aid user guides are not optimal for older adults and thus may serve as a barrier to successful hearing aid outcomes for this population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Communication influences health outcomes such as health status, adherence, and satisfaction. It is also highly modifiable, so it should be a target of intervention studies. However, measurement of communication can be difficult, as many scales exist and there is no clear guidance on which to use in a healthcare setting. We performed a systematic review conducted in four article databases (PubMed, Medline, Embase, and PsychINFO). The initial search yielded nine satisfactory scales. An in-depth analysis based on their content, readability, and psychometric properties determined two communication scales to be most suitable: the Communication Adaptability Scale and the Interpersonal Communication Competence Scale. This finding may make selection of an instrument to measure communication in intervention studies in healthcare more straighforward. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the distinctiveness of koans as a form of Zen practice. Particular focus is given to the variety of koans in form which consists of statements, questions, dialogues or brief descriptions of situations involving the master that were offered to disciples for reflection. The comprehensibility of koans from one position despite their variety in form is articulated. A short history of Zen and collection of koans is offered.