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The West Indies can be considered as a laboratory of biogeography and evolution, and the Caribbean Islands constitute one of the planet's biodiversity hotspots. Within the region, Cuba is the largest island and is crucial to gaining an understanding of the origin and evolutionary history of Caribbean flora and fauna. This paper provides an introduction to a Special Issue of the Biological Journal of the Linnean Society on current Cuban plant and animal biodiversity, with an emphasis on evolutionary biology and biogeography. The present issue includes 10 contributions and addresses a wide diversity of species and taxonomic groups, study levels, and research tools. This collection of articles not only provides an integrative vision of Cuba's biodiversity and the potential patterns and processes involved in its evolutionary history, but could also provide food for future research on its biodiversity from an evolutionary perspective. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present paper describes three new species of freshwater flatworm of the genus Dugesia from Madagascar, by applying an integrative approach to taxonomy, combining morphological and molecular information. Further, molecular data uncovered a cryptic species diversity, enabling taxonomic assignment of several asexual populations to already known species and thus pointing to at least two more species of the genus Dugesia present on Madagascar. The paper redefines several character state conditions in species of Dugesia, relating to three types of accessory structures of the copulatory apparatus: penial annexes, atrial folds and valves, and adenodactyls. It also provides a more precise definition of character states concerning the course of the ejaculatory duct through the penis papilla. In order to be able to examine the taxonomic status, phylogenetic position and biogeography of the Malagasy Dugesia species, molecular phylogenetic analyses were performed on many populations from Madagascar and also on representatives of 27 species from across the geographic range of the genus. Our results show that Madagascar is not only rich in number of species but also in genetic diversity, thus highlighting that the biodiversity and endemicity of Malagasy freshwater planarians has been underestimated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although the Caribbean region is recognized as a major biodiversity hotspot, many megadiverse groups remain taxonomically understudied. The ornate spiders of the genus Spintharus Hentz, 1850 (Theridiidae, Araneae) are a good example where taxonomic boundaries have remained unclear. The genus shows profuse habitus and genitalic variation in the Caribbean and has distinct colour patterns that rapidly degrade in ethanol. The leading theridiid taxonomist of the last six decades (Herbert W. Levi) therefore concluded that the morphological diversity of Caribbean Spintharus was, with the evidence available at the time, best characterized as intraspecific variation. The first molecular study, however, rejected the 'single widespread species' hypothesis, rather indicating multiple short-range endemics. This paper describes and diagnoses 15 new species based on the combination of molecular and morphological data, including S. davidattenboroughi sp. nov., S. barackobamai sp. nov., S. michelleobamaae sp. nov., S. davidbowiei sp. nov., S. leonardodicaprioi sp. nov. and S. berniesandersi sp. nov. Much Caribbean diversity may be similarly 'hidden' by existing taxonomical hypotheses; clearly, more focus is needed on the taxonomy of megadiverse groups. The implications of integrated taxonomy dramatically alter conservation biology when a single widespread species is instead found to represent multiple short-range endemics. Our goal here is thus to update Spintharus taxonomy and discuss the implications of the newly found diversity for both biodiversity research and conservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It has been recognized for decades that animals sense light using photoreceptors besides those that are devoted strictly to vision. However, the nature of these receptors, their molecular components, their physiological responses, and their biological functions are often obscure. Only recently have researchers begun to learn how critical these non-visual or very simple visual responses are to organismal function. New approaches, including high-throughput molecular genetic techniques, have led to a revolution in our understanding of the evolution, anatomical distribution, physiology, and--in some cases--function of non-visual photoreception in diverse organisms. In the following papers, we bring together specialists from throughout the field to review the current state of knowledge regarding extraocular, non-visual, and simple photoreceptors in a large diversity of organisms ranging from protists through vertebrates and invertebrates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Most species evolve within fluctuating environments, and have developed adaptations to meet the challenges posed by environmental heterogeneity. One such adaptation is phenotypic plasticity, or the ability of a single genotype to produce multiple environmentally-induced phenotypes. Yet, not all plasticity is adaptive. Despite the renewed interest in adaptive phenotypic plasticity and its consequences for evolution, much less is known about maladaptive plasticity. However, maladaptive plasticity is likely an important driver of phenotypic similarity among populations living in different environments. This paper traces four strategies for overcoming maladaptive plasticity that result in phenotypic similarity, two of which involve genetic changes (standing genetic variation, genetic compensation) and two of which do not (standing epigenetic variation, plastic compensation). Plastic compensation is defined as adaptive plasticity overcoming maladaptive plasticity. In particular, plastic compensation may increase the likelihood of genetic compensation by facilitating population persistence. We provide key terms to disentangle these aspects of phenotypic plasticity and introduce examples to reinforce the potential importance of plastic compensation for understanding evolutionary change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The major histocompatibility complex (MHC) plays an important role in an organism's ability to respond to pathogens. Immunogenetic diversity is advantageous as it permits the recognition of more external antigens. For this reason, MHC and immune gene variation are considered a barometer for the genetic health of wild populations. Mountain goats (Oreamnos americanus) were previously shown to have little variation at the MHC Class II Oram-DRB locus, which was attributed to population bottlenecks during the last glacial maximum (LGM). In this paper, we extended the analysis of immunogenetic variability in mountain goats to 5 genes representing the 3 classes of MHC gene (Class I OLA, Class II DRA and DRB, and Class III TNF-α) and the natural resistance–associated macrophage protein. We sequenced approximately 3000 bp from 31 individuals sampled across the range of mountain goats and found very low levels of diversity (1–3 polymorphic sites per gene) with the exception of the Class I Oram-OLA gene. Oram-OLA was nearly 30 times more diverse than the other immune genes and appears to represent a source of increased immunogenetic diversity. This diversity may be attributed to multiple loci, mediated by pathogen exposure, or potentially influenced by social factors. The distribution of SNPs was not associated with refugial history, suggesting that the current distribution of immunogenetic diversity was present prior to the LGM. These data suggest that although they have low levels of diversity at the 4 of 5 immune loci, mountain goats may be better equipped for future climate oscillations and pathogen exposure than previously thought. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The flower fly genus Citrogramma is revised here. Seventeen new species are described; four lectotypes and one neotype are designated; two species are transferred from Xanthogramma to Citrogramma; and another Xanthogramma species, Xanthogramma fasciatum, is synonymized under Citrogramma clarum. Xanthogramma indica and Xanthogramma pruthii are considered junior synonyms of Scaeva latimaculata. Redescriptions, illustrations, synonymies, diagnoses, and distributional data are given for all species of Citrogramma recognized here, and an identification key is also provided. New specimens and species from New Caledonia, Taiwan, Nepal, and China expand the geographical range of the genus. The large number of new species proposed in this paper highlights the prevailing incomplete knowledge of this genus. New Guinea has the highest diversity of known Citrogramma species. © 2012 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2012, 164, 99-172. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the Society for Integrative and Comparative Biology's (SICB) grand vision research in organismal animal biology known as the "Grand Challenges in Organismal Biology" (GCOB) as requested by the National Science Foundation(NSF). It states that a workshop was held at the SICB annual meeting to address the grand challenges and increase awareness of the grand challenge. It adds that a strawman framework was presented to garner support in the research to address the GCOB.

The costs of bird song incurred in a diversity of ways may result in trade-offs in the production and maintenance of elaborate plumage ornaments. In this paper, we examine evolutionary trade-offs between acoustic and visual signalling in trogon birds (Trogonidae). Using multiple regressions with phylogenetically independent contrasts, we found that interspecific variation in male plumage coloration was not significantly predicted by song traits (reduced by PCA) or altitude. Although plumage coloration is expected to decrease with increases in song elaboration, both groups of variables were not related. Given that song and plumage coloration traits are likely targets of sexual selection, we also examined their relationships with sexual plumage dimorphism. We found that male carotenoid-derived coloration was positively related to sexual plumage dimorphism, suggesting that sexual selection on male carotenoid-derived coloration may be stronger than on melanin- or structurally based coloration, or than on acoustic traits. Comparative studies on other bird families accounting for the effects of phylogeny as well as environmental covariates are required to test the generality of our findings in trogons. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The analysis of diversification and character evolution using phylogenetic data attracts increasing interest from biologists. Recent statistical developments have resulted in a variety of tools for the inference of macroevolutionary processes in a phylogenetic context. In a recent paper Maddison (2006 Evolution, 60: 1743–1746) pointed out that uncareful use of some of these tools could lead to misleading conclusions on diversification or character evolution, and thus to difficulties in distinguishing both phenomena. I here present guidelines for the analyses of macroevolutionary data that may help to avoid these problems. The proper use of recently developed statistical methods may help to untangle diversification and character change, and so will allow us to address important evolutionary questions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rates of phenotypic evolution have changed throughout the history of life, producing variation in levels of morphological, functional, and ecological diversity among groups. Testing for the presence of these rate shifts is a key component of evaluating hypotheses about what causes them. In this paper, general predictions regarding changes in phenotypic diversity as a function of evolutionary history and rates are developed, and tests are derived to evaluate rate changes. Simulations show that these tests are more powerful than existing tests using standardized contrasts. The new approaches are distributed in an application called Brownie and in r8s. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Vicariance and dispersal hypotheses have been proposed over the last two hundred years to explain the distribution, diversity, and faunal composition of the Caribbean biota. Despite great advances in understanding the geological history of the region, recent biogeographical reviews have not used historical biogeographical methods. In this paper I review the taxonomy, distribution and phylogeny of all Cenozoic Caribbean non-volant mammals and four bat lineages, and present reconciled trees for available phylogenies. Dates available from the fossil record and hypotheses of divergence based on molecular phylogenetic studies are also included in general assessments of fit between proposed geological models and Caribbean mammal diversification. The evidence posited in mammalian phylogenies does not add to the argument of dispersal vs. vicariance. One previously unidentified temporal pattern, the colonization of the Caribbean by South American mammals between the Palaeocene and the Middle Miocene, accounts for the distribution and phylogeny of the majority of lineages studied. Choloepodine and megalocnine sloths, hystricognath rodents, and primates all arrived during this window of colonization. Of these, megalocnine sloths, hystricognath rodents, Brachyphylla and allied bats, Stenodermatina bats, and primates fit the pattern of divergence from the mainland implied by the Gaarlandia hypothesis. Sloths, rodents and primates also roughly fit the timing of arrival to the Caribbean implied by Gaarlandia. The remaining taxa show contradictory dates of divergence according to molecular clock estimates, and no taxa fit the predicted timing and pattern of divergence among Antillean landmasses under the Gaarlandia model. Choloepodine sloths, murid rodents, insectivorans, mormoopids, and natalids show patterns of divergence from the mainland that are inconsistent with the Gaarlandia hypothesis and seem to require taxon-specific biogeographical explanations. © 2004 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2004, 81, 373–394. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

He studies nutritional properties of feed materials and principles of biomass transformation in the metabolism of agricultural livestock with particular interest on minerals, functional dietary compounds including antinutritive substances, and the impact of livestock feeding on food quality, food safety, and environment. Keywords: biomass; circularity; ecology; livestock; pasture; sequestration EN biomass circularity ecology livestock pasture sequestration 28 34 7 04/19/23 20230401 NES 230401 Implications Agricultural land is a scarce resource globally and will continue to encounter challenges to sustainably increase food production in the face of global change. The agroecological potential of livestock primarily relates to the fact that they are able to upcycle copious quantities of nonedible biomass into nutritious foods, while also recycling plant nutrients back to the land, improving soil health, and sequestering carbon (see the next section, below). [Extracted from the article]

Species delimitation is essential to informing conservation policy and understanding ecological and evolutionary processes. Most of our recent gains in knowledge on animal diversity rely on morphological characteristics and mitochondrial (mt) DNA variation. Concordant results based on both have led to an unprecedented acceleration in the identification of new species and enriched the field of taxonomy. However, discordances are also found commonly between morphological and mtDNA evidence. This confounds species delimitation, especially when gene flow or mt genome introgression has occurred. Here, we illustrate how mt genome introgression among species of the Odorrana grahami complex confounds species delimitation using the combined evidence of morphological characters, mt variation, and thousands of nuclear single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) from genotyping-by-sequencing (GBS). Fifty-eight samples across the distribution of the O. grahami complex were included. The mtDNA matrilineal genealogy indicated 2 clades, with O. grahami and Odorrana junlianensis clustered together. In contrast, all nuclear evidence including gene trees, species trees, and genetic structure analyses based on GBS data support 3 species with distinct genetic clusters. These 3 distinct genetic clusters also correspond to distinct morphological characters. They affirm the distinct taxonomic entities of both O. grahami and O. junlianensis , as well as a third clade distinct from either. Which species the third clade belongs to remains unclear and will require further testing. The nuclear genomic loci contradict the COI evidence, with indications of rampant historical mt genome introgression among the species of the O. grahami complex. These discordant signals previously confused species delimitation efforts in this group. Based on these findings, we recommend the integration of independent data, especially nuclear genomic evidence, in species delimitation so as to be robust against the pitfalls of mt introgression. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Behavioral ecologists have long studied the role of coloration as a defense against natural enemies. Recent reviews of defensive coloration have emphasized that these visual signals are rarely selected by single predatory receivers. Complex interactions between signaler, receiver, and environmental pressures produce a striking array of color strategies—many of which must serve multiple, sometimes conflicting, functions. In this review, we describe six common conflicts in selection pressures that produce multifunctional color patterns, and three key strategies of multifunctionality. Six general scenarios that produce conflicting selection pressures on defensive coloration are: (1) multiple antagonists, (2) conspecific communication, (3) hunting while being hunted, (4) variation in transmission environment, (5) ontogenetic changes, and (6) abiotic/physiological factors. Organisms resolve these apparent conflicts via (1) intermediate, (2) simultaneous, and/or (3) plastic color strategies. These strategies apply across the full spectrum of color defenses, from aposematism to crypsis, and reflect how complexity in sets of selection pressures can produce and maintain the diversity of animal color patterns we see in nature. Finally, we discuss how best to approach studies of multifunctionality in animal color, with specific examples of unresolved questions in the field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While human perception can play a role in influencing public support for species conservation, the mechanisms underlying human perception remain poorly understood. Some previous studies on perception have focused on a few specific taxa, which makes the understanding of the public perception of species at large a resource- and time-intensive task. Here, we introduce the World Archives of Species Perception project that consists of an animal survey and a plant survey to construct the first systematic database to study the human perception of the floral and faunal diversity at a global scale. We provide a description of our survey method, species selection, survey implementation and a discussion of the potential uses of our databases in multidisciplinary research. In the animal survey, we cover 1980 International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)–evaluated species, representing 25 classes, 192 orders, 1037 families and 1705 genera. In the plant survey, we cover 2000 IUCN-evaluated species, representing 13 classes, 93 orders, 386 families and 1968 genera. Data from the survey will be collected and made available 24 months after the publication of the article. Database URLhttp://wasp-project.net/ [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Why are most herbivorous insects so specialized? How do generalists and specialists differ ecologically? And what sensory and cognitive processes determine which host species an insect recognizes and uses? We review sensory cues involved at different stages of interaction with host plants and outline a unified scheme of insect–host interaction mechanisms. Generalist species may be best understood as specialized organisms with a longer tail of secondary host species that they accept to a lessening extent. Secondary hosts have fewer attractive cues, and hence a lower probability of meeting the stimulation threshold required for egg laying. We then discuss the alternative theories of co-evolution and sequential evolution used to explain the diversification of insect herbivores. We conclude that 'escape and radiate' co-evolution rests on unrealistic assumptions and empirical evidence favours sequential evolution of plants and herbivores, and the unique life cycles of insect herbivores may sufficiently explain their extreme diversity within the animal kingdom. We also outline a new speciation-oriented hypothesis to explain why specialists are far more diverse than generalists. Generalists tend to have large, contiguous distributions and therefore lower speciation rates. Natural selection in novel environments may also result in narrowing of the host range more often than broadening, further increasing specialist diversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For sequences assigned as Firmicutes, cattle co-grazed with camels had the highest rate of abundance at 24.8%, followed by 19.3% for camels grazed alone, and 14.8% for camels co-grazed with cattle. Graph: Figure 2. class="chapter-para">Bacterial distribution between cattle co-grazed with camels, camels grazed alone, and camels co-grazed with cattle evaluated at the family taxonomical level. The Microbial Ecology of the Forestomach of the Arabian Camel The camel's forestomach is home to a vast number and diverse microbiota, including bacteria, protozoa, fungi, and archaea. Co-grazing camels with cattle has altered the forestomach bacterial community in camels and cattle. [Extracted from the article]

Given these abilities, it is not surprising that Josh attracted the most interested undergraduate students for his course projects, and the most bright and hard working MSc and PhD candidates. For those of us who knew about his two-year struggle against cancer, the news should not have come as a total surprise; yet the message that Josh Van Buskirk (Fig. JOSH AS A TEACHER AND SUPERVISOR Josh's broad knowledge and fascination for science and nature also made him an excellent and versatile teacher and supervisor. Josh as a Co-director in the Departmental Board There is no better indication of Josh's commitment to the local scientific community than his long-term service on the directorial board of the I Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies i . [Extracted from the article]

One of the simplest models of chromosomal speciation is speciation by monobrachial centric fusion. This model is based on the assumption that a sterility barrier can develop between populations, in which fixed centric fusions show monobrachial homology, i.e. share only one chromosome arm. However, studies aimed at delineating intermediate stages of transition to reproductive isolation are lacking. In this paper, we describe a new area of chromosomal polymorphism in the house mouse, Mus musculus domesticus Schwarz and Schwarx, 1943, in Sicily (Italy). We trapped 79 mice at eighteen localities in an area of approximately 500 Km surrounding the largest active European volcano, Mount Etna. Combining G-banding and chromosome painting we identified twelve different Robertsonian (Rb) metacentrics. Considering the high number of Rb fusions, some of them shared with other documented areas, the presently studied area of chromosomal polymorphism is very likely to represent a mixture of allochthonous and autochthonous Rb fusions. The Rb(9.16) is the most widespread metacentric (overall frequency 0.80). Two Rb metacentrics, Rb(4.10) and Rb(5.6), have similar overall frequency, 0.29 and 0.37, respectively, and are narrowly co-distributed in ten populations. Nine fusions - Rb(2.13), Rb(1.3), Rb(12.17), Rb(8.17), Rb(2.14), Rb(10.14), Rb(11.17), Rb(3.15), and Rb(11.14) - show a low frequency (0.04-0.01) and mostly non-overlapping localization, but each of them shares monobrachial homology with at least one other metacentric. The overall geographical distribution of different Rb fusions seems to match an early stage of race formation. The eventual role of the presently studied hybrid zone in the context of chromosomal speciation by monobrachial centric fusions is discussed. © 2011 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2011, , 722-731. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wildlife commodification can generate benefits for biodiversity conservation, but it also has negative impacts; overexploitation of wildlife is currently one of the biggest drivers of vertebrate extinction risk. In the present article, we highlight 10 issues that in our experience impede sustainable and humane wildlife trade. Given humanity's increasing demands on the natural world we question whether many aspects of wildlife trade can be compatible with appropriate standards for biodiversity conservation and animal welfare, and suggest that too many elements of wildlife trade as it currently stands are not sustainable for wildlife or for the livelihoods that it supports. We suggest that the onus should be on traders to demonstrate that wildlife use is sustainable, humane, and safe (with respect to disease and invasion risk), rather than on conservationists to demonstrate it is not, that there is a need for a broad acceptance of responsibility and, ultimately, widespread behavior change. We urge conservationists, practitioners, and others to take bold, progressive steps to reach consensus and action. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Species distribution data are fundamental to the understanding of biodiversity patterns and processes. Yet, such data are strongly affected by sampling biases, mostly related to site accessibility. The understanding of these biases is therefore crucial in systematics, biogeography, and conservation. Here we present a novel approach for quantifying sampling effort and its impact on biodiversity knowledge, focusing on Africa. In contrast to previous studies assessing sampling completeness (percentage of species recorded in relation to predicted), we investigate whether the lack of knowledge of a site attracts scientists to visit these areas and collect samples of species. We then estimate the time required to sample 90% of the continent under a Weibull distributed biodiversity sampling rate and the number of sampling events required to record |$ \ge $| 50% of the species. Using linear and spatial regression models, we show that previous sampling has been strongly influencing the resampling of areas, attracting repeated visits. This bias has existed for over two centuries, has increased in recent decades, and is most pronounced among mammals. It may take between 172 and 274 years, depending on the group, to achieve at least one sampling event per grid cell in the entire continent. Just one visit will, however, not be enough: in order to record |$ \ge $| 50% of the current diversity, it will require at least 12 sampling events for amphibians, 13 for mammals, and 27 for birds. Our results demonstrate the importance of sampling areas that lack primary biodiversity data and the urgency with which this needs to be done. Current practice is insufficient to adequately classify and map African biodiversity; it can lead to incorrect conclusions being drawn from biogeographic analyses and can result in misleading and self-reinforcing conservation priorities. [Amphibians; birds; mammals; sampling bias; sampling gaps; Wallacean shortfall.] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Aims Much of our understanding of the ecology and evolution of seed dispersal in the Neotropics is founded on studies involving the animal-dispersed, hyperdiverse plant clade Miconia (Melastomataceae). Nonetheless, no formal attempt has been made to establish its relevance as a model system or indeed provide evidence of the role of frugivores as Miconia seed dispersers. Methods We built three Miconia databases (fruit phenology/diaspore traits, fruit–frugivore interactions and effects on seed germination after gut passage) to determine how Miconia fruiting phenology and fruit traits for >350 species interact with and shape patterns of frugivore selection. In addition, we conducted a meta-analysis evaluating the effects of animal gut passage/seed handling on Miconia germination. Key Results Miconia produce numerous small berries that enclose numerous tiny seeds within water- and sugar-rich pulps. In addition, coexisting species provide sequential, year long availability of fruits within communities, with many species producing fruits in periods of resource scarcity. From 2396 pairwise interactions, we identified 646 animal frugivore species in five classes, 22 orders and 60 families, including birds, mammals, reptiles, fish and ants that consume Miconia fruits. Endozoochory is the main dispersal mechanism, but gut passage effects on germination were specific to animal clades; birds, monkeys and ants reduced seed germination percentages, while opossums increased it. Conclusions The sequential fruiting phenologies and wide taxonomic and functional diversity of animal vectors associated with Miconia fruits underscore the likely keystone role that this plant clade plays in the Neotropics. By producing fruits morphologically and chemically accessible to a variety of animals, Miconia species ensure short- and long-distance seed dispersal and constitute reliable resources that sustain entire frugivore assemblages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Neogene diversity history in the world center of biodiversity known as the Indo-Australian Archipelago (IAA) or the Coral Triangle remains poorly understood. Of particular interest is the recently reported Pliocene diversity jump that is considered to have established the present-day biodiversity level of the region needs rigorous inspections. We investigated Neogene fossil marine ostracods from Java, Indonesia and evaluate and test the Pliocene Diversity Jump hypothesis. We found a significant diversity increase from the late Miocene to the Pliocene, supporting the hypothesis. At the same time, there are considerable differences in depositional environments between the Miocene and Pliocene samples. Although it is unlikely that the main reason of the diversity increase is due to this paleoenvironmental difference, further samples and data from the IAA hotspot region are needed for more rigorous inspections. Our comparison between species-level and genus-level data indicated that species-level data are better to detect detailed macroevolutionary diversity histories, and genus level data are more useful for paleoenvironmental and paleoceanographic reconstructions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although the magnitude of the Cretaceous–Palaeogene extinction event, and the timing and tempo of the subsequent diversification of Mammalia, continue to be debated, the evidence to date unequivocally indicates that one mammalian group in particular, the Eutheria, benefitted enormously from the selective nature of the extinctions and flourished during the Palaeocene. Western Canada has long been an important region in documenting this diversification, with a fossil record that includes significant parts of the Palaeocene. I report here on the discovery of an unusual new eutherian from rocks of earliest Late Palaeocene age (earliest Tiffanian North American Land Mammal Age) in south-western Alberta. The new mammal, named Ferrequitherium sweeti gen. et sp. nov. closely resembles a second, slightly younger eutherian, Horolodectes sunae, in the major features of the molar dentition, but differs in having comparatively unspecialized premolars. The results of phylogenetic analyses under varying conditions show strong support for a close evolutionary relationship between Ferrequitherium gen. nov. and Horolodectes, and form the basis for naming a new family, the Horolodectidae fam. nov. Horolodectids first appear near the onset of chron 26r in south-western Alberta, at the beginning of the Late Palaeocene, and may have been one of several eutherian immigrants into the Alberta Basin during mammalian faunal turnover near the Early–Late Palaeocene boundary. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When animals move or forage in groups, collective behaviors arise from independent decisions that individuals make based on limited information about the environment. In decentralized systems in which individuals use local cues to decide how to allocate their time amongst multiple tasks, a “global” signal detectable over large distances by all members of the group could have a profound effect on task allocation and coordination. Honeybees provide a unique opportunity to study how information transfer modulates behavior because they produce pheromones that can regulate the actions of thousands of individuals in a colony. We used electrophysiological and behavioral assays to compare the transmission modes of 2 larval pheromones to test the hypothesis that larval pheromones can act as “global” signals by rapidly regulating behavior throughout a colony without direct physical interactions between individuals. By studying mechanisms of pheromone transmission at the individual and colony level, we provide evidence that larval pheromones act as direct rapid and powerful regulators of behavior, even among individuals too far away from each other to use visual or tactile cues. Therefore, our results suggest that in some cases, global signals can be important regulators of collective behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A correction to the article "Cryptic diversity in the Oecomys roberti complex: revalidation of Oecomys tapajinus (Rodentia, Cricetidae)" that was published in the periodical "American Society of Mammalogists" issue is presented.

Chemoreception is a widespread biological function that is essential for the survival, reproduction, and social communication of animals. Though the molecular mechanisms underlying chemoreception are relatively well known in insects, they are poorly studied in the other major arthropod lineages. Current availability of a number of chelicerate genomes constitutes a great opportunity to better characterize gene families involved in this important function in a lineage that emerged and colonized land independently of insects. At the same time, that offers new opportunities and challenges for the study of this interesting animal branch in many translational research areas. Here, we have performed a comprehensive comparative genomics study that explicitly considers the high fragmentation of available draft genomes and that for the first time included complete genome data that cover most of the chelicerate diversity. Our exhaustive searches exposed thousands of previously uncharacterized chemosensory sequences, most of them encoding members of the gustatory and ionotropic receptor families. The phylogenetic and gene turnover analyses of these sequences indicated that the whole-genome duplication events proposed for this subphylum would not explain the differences in the number of chemoreceptors observed across species. A constant and prolonged gene birth and death process, altered by episodic bursts of gene duplication yielding lineage-specific expansions, has contributed significantly to the extant chemosensory diversity in this group of animals. This study also provides valuable insights into the origin and functional diversification of other relevant chemosensory gene families different from receptors, such as odorant-binding proteins and other related molecules. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Twelve new karst-adapted species of the gekkonid genus Cyrtodactylus Gray are described from the Shan Hills and Salween River Basin of Myanmar. Three species occur in rocky habitats along karst ridges and nine species are microendemics restricted to isolated karst caves and towers. This high, localized diversity underscores the archipelago-like nature and microendemism associated with karst habitat-islands. Eleven of the 12 new species are not related to other Indo-Burmese species and form four monophyletic species groups nested within a larger Indo-Chinese clade of Southeast Asian species. Phylogenetic relationships and distributions indicate Cyrtodactylus originated in the Himalayan uplands and dispersed westward through Myanmar with subsequent invasions back into eastern and southern Myanmar. These new species highlight the understudied nature of karst biodiversity in general and karst herpetology in particular. Extensive karst ecosystems throughout the massive Shan Plateau of eastern Myanmar remain largely unexplored and are likely to harbour tens--if not hundreds--of undiscovered species. The unique and complex structure of understudied limestone ecosystems throughout Southeast Asia are habitats in which amphibians and reptiles have specialized, speciated and become endemic. In an age of biodiversity crisis, managing and conserving these ecosystems throughout Southeast Asia should be given greater priority. A key to the species of Cyrtodactylus of Myanmar is provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The fissure localities of the Bristol region and South Wales have yielded some of the most important Late Triassic and Early Jurassic small tetrapods. The 'Microlestes' quarry fissure at Holwell, which has produced the most diverse overall fauna, was originally investigated in the 1850s by the renowned amateur geologist, Charles Moore. The mammaliamorphs and marine fish have been well documented, but there are few reports and barely any descriptions of the terrestrial small reptile fossils. We address that deficiency with a description of the bones and teeth that can be assigned to the Reptilia, confirming the presence of Diphydontosaurus and describing two new rhynchocephalians. We recognise the presence of Variodens inopinatus Robinson, 1957 and Gephyrosaurus Evans, 1980: the first time that they have been recorded outside their original sites. Additionally, we record a procolophonid, elements of the actinopterygian Pholidophorus, and a number of unnamed lepidosaur specimens that show varying degrees of pleurodont-acrodont implantation, providing an insight into the evolution of rhynchocephalians. Our findings demonstrate that Holwell is a key link between the sauropsid and mammaliamorph fissure faunas of the Late Triassic and Early Jurassic of the south-west UK. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new genus and new species of tree crab is described from the Western Ghats biodiversity hotspot in Kerala, southern India. Kani maranjandu n. gen., n. sp., is substantially different from all congeners in a suite of characters, notably the diagnostic carapace and male abdominal structure, as well as the conspicuously elongated ambulatory legs. The species is wholly arboreal, living in tree-hollows or the canopy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The diversity of sex chromosomes among amniotes is the product of independent evolution of different systems in different lineages, defined by novel sex-determining genes. Convergent evolution is very common, suggesting that some genes are particularly adept at taking on a sexdetermining role. Comparative gene mapping, and more recently whole genome sequencing, have now turned up other surprising relationships; different regions of the amniote genome that have become sex determining in some taxa seem to share synteny, or share sequence, in others. Is this, after all, evidence that these regions were once linked in a super-sex chromosome that underwent multiple fission in different ways in different amniote lineages? Or does it signify that special properties of sex chromosomes (paucity of active genes, low recombination, epigenetic regulation to achieve dosage compensation) predispose particular chromosomes to a sex-determining role? [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Intermediate strategies due to mixed selection pressures can be equally optimal as coloration produced by a single selection pressure for a "pure" strategy ([2]). The evolution of protective and aggressive animal coloration is driven by selection caused by the viewer's perception, cognition, and behavior together with the visual properties of the environment where the viewer encounters the coloration. Thus, to distinguish whether a coloration represents an intermediate strategy due to multiple conflicting selection pressures or a maximized strategy as a response to a single or multiple concurring selection pressures is probably not as straightforward as it might superficially appear. [Extracted from the article]

Information about marine tardigrades in the Iberian Peninsula is very scarce. To improve our knowledge of this group, a sampling programme was started in 2010. The main coastal marine habitats of northern Portugal were explored. Eighteen species were found. Four species are new to science (the previously described Prostygarctus aculeatus Rubal, Veiga, Fontoura & Sousa-Pinto, 2013 and three species of the genus Batillipes), and another four species of the genera Batillipes, Echiniscoides, Halechiniscus and Wingstrandarctus are potentially new species. Moreover, six species ( Stygarctus bradypus Schulz, 1951; Halechiniscus greveni Renaud-Mornant & Deroux, 1976; Styraconyx haploceros Thulin, 1942; Styraconyx sardiniae D'Addabbo Gallo, Morone De Lucia & de Zio Grimaldi, 1989; Anisonyches diakidius Pollock, 1975; and Batillipes tubernatis Pollock, 1971) were recorded in the Iberian Peninsula for the first time. Two species ( A. diakidius and S. sardiniae) were recorded for the Atlantic Ocean for the first time and the distribution range of S. haploceros and B. tubernatis was extended to the south. The results showed the importance of collecting information from poorly studied regions to achieve a better understanding of the biogeography of marine tardigrades. Finally, intertidal rocky shores were shown to be more diverse than other habitats, probably due to the great habitat heterogeneity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Testudinidae is a clade of tortoises known in Europe from the early Eocene. It is the only lineage of terrestrial turtles identified in the post-Paleocene record of this continent. However, very little information on the taxonomy and systematics of the Eocene representatives is currently available. The oldest testudinids from Europe, recovered in several countries, are studied here. Some of them were previously attributed to genera defined in North America. The hypothesis suggesting that the European Eocene testudinids correspond to genera exclusive to this continent is confirmed here. In this sense, two new genera, Fontainechelon (early Eocene) and Pelorochelon (middle Eocene), are proposed. The largest collection of European Paleogene testudinids, from the middle Eocene of the Spanish site of Mazaterón (Soria), is analyzed for the first time. A new species from this locality is defined. The validity of various previously proposed taxa is refuted, and the diagnosis of several forms is emended. Thus, the diversity, taxonomy, phylogenetic relationships, and biogeographical and stratigraphic distributions of the European primitive representatives of this successful extant clade are analyzed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Geography influences the evolutionary trajectory of species by mediating opportunities for hybridization, gene flow, demographic shifts and adaptation. We sought to understand how geography and introgression can generate species-specific patterns of genetic diversity by examining phylogeographical relationships in the North American skink species Plestiodon multivirgatus and P. tetragrammus (Squamata: Scincidae). Using a multilocus dataset (three mitochondrial genes, four nuclear genes; a total of 3455 bp) we discovered mito-nuclear discordance, consistent with mt DNA introgression. We further tested for evidence of species-wide mt DNA introgression by using comparisons of genetic diversity, selection tests and extended Bayesian skyline analyses. Our findings suggest that P. multivirgatus acquired its mitochondrial genome from P. tetragrammus after their initial divergence. This putative species-wide mitochondrial capture was further evidenced by statistically indistinguishable substitution rates between mt DNA and nDNA in P. multivirgatus. This rate discrepancy was observed in P. multivirgatus but not P. tetragrammus, which has important implications for studies that combine mt DNA and nDNA sequences when inferring time since divergence between taxa. Our findings suggest that by facilitating opportunities for interspecific introgression, geography can alter the course of molecular evolution between recently diverged lineages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tropical forests of Central and South America represent hotspots of biological diversity. Tree squirrels of the tribe Sciurini are an excellent model system for the study of tropical biodiversity as these squirrels disperse exceptional distances, and after colonizing the tropics of the Central and South America, they have diversified rapidly. Here, we compare signals from DNA sequences with morphological signals using pictures of skulls and computational simulations. Phylogenetic analyses reveal step-wise geographic divergence across the Northern Hemisphere. In Central and South America, tree squirrels formtwo separate clades, which split froma common ancestor. Simulations of ancestral distributions showwestern Amazonia as the epicenter of speciation in South America. This finding suggests that wet tropical forests on the foothills of Andes possibly served as refugia of squirrel diversification during Pleistocene climatic oscillations. Comparison of phylogeny and morphology reveals one major discrepancy: Microsciurus species are a single clade morphologically but are polyphyletic genetically. Modeling of morphology--diet relationships shows that the only group of species with a direct link between skull shape and diet are the bark-gleaning insectivorous species of Microsciurus. This finding suggests that the current designation of Microsciurus as a genus is based on convergent ecologically driven changes in morphology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We document a new genus and species of shrew rat from the north peninsula of Sulawesi Island, Indonesia. The new taxon is known only from the type locality at 1,600 m elevation on Mt. Dako, in the district of Tolitoli. It is distinguished from all other Indonesian murines by its large, flat, pink nose with forward-facing nares. Relative to other Sulawesi murines, the species has extremely large ears (∼ 21% of head and body length), very long urogenital hairs, prominent and medially bowing hamular processes on the pterygoid bones, extremely long and procumbent lower incisors, and unusually long articular surfaces on the mandibular condyles. Morphologically, the new taxon is most similar to a group of endemic Sulawesi rats known commonly as 'shrew rats.' These are long faced, carnivorous murines, and include the genera Echiothrix, Melasmothrix, Paucidentomys, Sommeromys, and Tateomys. Our Bayesian and likelihood analyses of DNA sequences concatenated from 5 unlinked loci infer the new shrew rat as sister to a clade consisting of Melasmothrix, Paucidentomys, and Echiothrix, suggesting that Sulawesi shrew rats represent a clade. The Sulawesi water rat, Waiomys mamasae, was sister to the shrew rats in our analyses. Discovery of this new genus and species brings known shrew rat diversity on Sulawesi to 6 genera and 8 species. The extent of morphological diversity among these animals is remarkable considering the small number of species currently known. Kami mendokumentasikan genus dan spesies baru tikus cucurut dari bagian semenanjung utara pulau Sulawesi, Indonesia. Takson baru ini hanya diketahui dari lokasi spesimen tipe pada ketinggian 1,600 mdpl di Gunung Dako, Kabupaten Tolitoli. Ia dibedakan dari spesies tikus Indonesia lainnya berdasarkan ukuran hidung yang besar, datar, berwarna merah muda dengan moncong hidung menghadap ke arah depan. Jika dibandingkan dengan spesies tikus Sulawesi lainnya, spesies ini memiliki telinga yang sangat besar (∼ 21% dari panjang kepala dan badan), rambut urogenital yang sangat panjang, prosesus hamular yang jelas dan menonjol pada pertulangan pterygoid, gigi seri bagian bawah yang sangat panjang, dan penampang persendian yang panjang dan tidak biasa pada kondilus mandibula. Secara morfologi, takson ini lebih mirip dengan kelompok tikus endemik Sulawesi yang umumnya dikenal sebagai 'tikus cucurut'. Kelompok ini dicirikan dengan mulut yang panjang, pemakan daging, dan termasuk didalamnya adalah genus Echiothrix, Melasmothrix, Paucidentomys, Sommeromys, dan Tateomys. Analisis Bayesian dan likelihood menggunakan sambungan sekuens DNA dari 5 lokus yang tidak terpaut menunjukkan spesies tikus cucurut baru ini berkerabat dekat dengan kelompok yang terdiri dari Melasmothrix, Paucidentomys, dan Echiothrix, memberi kesan tikus cucurut Sulawesi merepresentasikan suatu clade atau kelompok tersendiri. Tikus air Sulawesi, Waiomys mamasae, diketahui berkerabat dekat dengan tikus cucurut dalam analisis yang dilakukan. Penemuan genus dan spesies baru ini menambah keanekaragaman jenis tikus cucurut di Sulawesi yang telah diketahui menjadi 6 genera dan 8 spesies. Besarnya perbedaan morfologi di antara spesies-spesies tersebut merupakan sesuatu yang luar biasa mengingat sedikitnya jumlah spesies yang telah diketahui saat ini. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Here we review research over the past quarter century regarding the systematics and taxonomy of an ancient, popular and economically valuable group of snakes referred to as pythons ( Serpentes, Pythonidae). All recent phylogenetic studies recognize the pythons as monophyletic; however, the phylogenetic relationships at supraspecific levels are conflicting, and many of the relationships recovered are paraphyletic. We identify several taxonomic changes as necessary to clarify supraspecific relationships and which resolve the issue of paraphyly recovered in several studies. Overall, our review of the phylogenetic systematics of pythons points to considerable incongruence among recovered relationships. Instances of paraphyly emerge, low node support is detected, and terminal taxa are unstable across phylogenetic hypotheses. We thus recognize that pythonid gene trees have been unable, for various reasons, to reveal the true species tree. This occurrence is not unexpected and can arise from incomplete taxon sampling, long-branch attraction and repulsion, homoplasy, ancestral polymorphism, and, more notably, the anomaly zone. These phenomena ultimately yield incomplete lineage sorting, or the failure of lineages to coalesce over evolutionary time. We discuss future directions to resolve these troubling issues. Without resolution, adaptive hypotheses about pythons will be limited, including hypotheses of geographic origin. Analyses that recover the clade Python as sister to the Indo- Australian clade are interpreted to support a Laurasian origin of Pythonidae. In contrast, a Gondwanan origin is supported when the Indo- Australian clade is recovered as basal to the Python clade. We describe the morphology of two recently proposed genera. Finally, we designate and describe the neotype for Morelia azurea and offer a list of the currently accepted python species and their taxonomy. © 2015 The Linnean Society of London [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The cloud forests of Mesoamerica are notable for their high endemism, and plethodontid salamanders provide a striking example of divergence and microendemism across cloud forest blocks at a regional level. Salamanders that make use of arboreal bromeliad microhabitats in the cloud forest appear to be especially prone to divergence driven by natural habitat fragmentation, and are expected to show high endemism at small spatial scales. We use a multilocus dataset to investigate the biogeographic history and relationships among species of a small genus of salamander, Cryptotriton, restricted to the cloud forests of Nuclear Central America. We use a morphological data set along with a coalescent species delimitation method to reveal the presence of at least one undescribed species from an isolated cloud forest in eastern Guatemala. Biogeographic analyses show that Cryptotriton has a different biogeographic history than another clade of cloud forest-restricted salamanders in the same region, perhaps indicating that each genus restricted the spatial expansion and diversification of the other through preemptive occupancy. Our results suggest that isolation across relatively short geographic distances has led to range fragmentation and deep divergence between species. Exploration of remaining patches of cloud forest likely will continue to reveal undetected diversity. © 2015 The Linnean Society of London [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Camouflage is ubiquitous in the natural world and benefits both predators and prey. Amongst the range of concealment strategies, disruptive coloration is thought to visually fragment an animal's' outline, thereby reducing its rate of discovery. Here, I propose two non-mutually exclusive hypotheses for how disruptive camouflage functions, and describe the visual mechanisms that might underlie them. (1) The local edge disruption hypothesis states that camouflage is achieved by breaking up edge information. (2) The global feature disruption hypothesis states camouflage is achieved by breaking up the characteristic features of an animal (e.g., overall shape or facial features). Research clearly shows that putatively disruptive edge markings do increase concealment; however, few tests have been undertaken to determine whether this survival advantage is attributable to the distortion of features, so the global feature disruption hypothesis is under studied. In this review the evidence for global feature disruption is evaluated. Further, I address if object recognition processing provides a feasible mechanism for animals' features to influence concealment. This review concludes that additional studies are needed to test if disruptive camouflage operates through the global feature disruption and proposes future research directions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present a new medium-sized basal sauropodomorph, S efapanosaurus zastronensis gen. et sp. nov., from the Upper Triassic− Lower Jurassic Elliot Formation of South Africa. It is represented by parts of the postcranial skeleton of at least four individuals, including: cervical, dorsal, sacral and caudal vertebrae, most of the forelimb, and part of the hindlimb. Sefapanosaurus bears several autapomorphies of the astragalus, and referred material also shows autapomorphic features. The inclusion of Sefapanosaurus in a phylogenetic analysis places it within the group of sauropodomorphs more closely related to sauropods than to Massospondylus (i.e. Sauropodiformes), increasing the currently known diversity of the so-called 'transitional forms' leading to Sauropoda. Character optimization revealed the presence of several features that are common for taxa placed within the transitional branches basal to Sauropoda. Sefapanosaurus, together with other transitional sauropodomorphs reported during the last decade, highlights the importance of Gondwanan taxa for understanding the palaeobiodiversity, global distribution, and macroevolutionary changes in the group related to the rise of sauropods. © 2015 The Linnean Society of London [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Mediterranean Basin is typified by a high degree of species rarity and endemicity that reflects its position, geomorphology, and history. Although the composition and cryptic variation of the bat faunas from the Iberian and Balkan Peninsulas are relatively well studied, data from the Apennine Peninsula are still incomplete. This is a significant shortfall, given the presumed refugial role of this region in the context of Europe's Pleistocene phylogeography. It was thus our aim to supplement the phylogeographical information from the region, generating mitochondrial sequences and reviewing published data, with a focus on the dispersal and diversification patterns characterizing taxa with different life strategies. Site-specific lineages were ascertained, especially in the genera Myotis and Plecotus and amongst the pipistrelloid bats, representing speciose radiations. It was possible to observe disjunct ranges with patches isolated south of the Alps in several species, corresponding with evolution of elevated genetic distance. The genetic subdivision within the continuous Italian range into northern and southern lineages in several taxa indicated the possible past substructure of the refugium. Several shared lineages between the Apennine and Ibero- Maghrebian regions were observed, indicating connectivity between the Adriatic and Atlantic− Mediterranean refuges, and raising questions as to which region these clades originated from and what was the direction of faunal exchange between them. In contrast to Europe's other two main refugia, the Apennine Peninsula is a smaller region with simpler phylogeographical patterns. Nevertheless, our results support the idea that the region generated novel lineages. Whereas diversification in sedentary bats may have been driven through the generation of in situ adaptations, specialization, and niche differentiation, the emergence of species with a tramp strategy could have entailed the utilization of faunal drift and the taxon cycle. © 2015 The Linnean Society of London [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change models are predicting increased frequency and severity of droughts in arid and semiarid environments, and these areas are responsible for much of the world's livestock production. Because cattle (Bos taurus) grazing can impact the abundance, distribution, and ecological function of native plant and animal communities, it is important to understand how cattle might respond to increasingly arid conditions. Here, we evaluate changes in habitat selection by cattle across an 8-yr period as a function of rainfall and other environmental covariates. Using resource selection functions, we evaluated habitat selection based on 2 behaviors, stationary and mobile. Models revealed similarity in cattle habitat selection across years, with only modest changes in selection as a function of precipitation, despite marked seasonal and interannual differences in rainfall. Cattle preferred gentle slopes, forest edges, wet meadows, and areas near water as well as areas far from water on plateaus. Cattle avoided areas at intermediate distances from water, typically associated with steep slopes. As conditions became drier during the late season, cattle did not switch selection patterns but instead contracted their selection around water. Cattle also selected similar habitats whether they were mobile or stationary, possibly making microsite decisions therein. This consistent pattern of selection across years could be particularly problematic for riparian communities as climates become drier; however, it may also simplify cattle management, as range managers can focus vegetation monitoring efforts on riparian areas. Due to the uncertainty surrounding future climatic conditions, it is imperative that both range and wildlife managers develop longterm plans to continue managing these multiuse landscapes in an ecologically sustainable manner based on expected patterns of livestock grazing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An introduction is presented in which the editor discusses various reports within the issue on topics including hybridization, animal diversity and natural hybrids.

Three new isopod species, Palaega furcillanatis, Archaeoniscus italiensis and Sphaeroma montefallanoense, and an occurrence of the tanaidacean Niveotanais brunnensis Polz, 2005, are described from the Jurassic Plattenkalk of Monte Fallano, Italy. Such a high-diversity, isopod assemblage in the context of the Triassic and Jurassic occurrence of later cosmopolitan taxa, and high diversity of European Jurassic isopods, suggests that isopod taxa whose geographic range was extensive in the Cretaceous, could have been endemic to the Tethys of Europe before the Cretaceous. Occurrence of a tanaidacean in the Monte Fallano Plattenkalk is significant, because it suggests that bottom water conditions were consistently dysoxic at the time of deposition. This second occurrence of TV. brunnensis suggests that the niveotanaids represent the survival of the primarily Paleozoic anthracocaridomorphs into the Mesozoic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pleistocene climate cycles and glaciations had profound impacts on taxon diversification in the Boreal Forest Biome. Using population genetic analyses with multilocus data, we examined diversification, isolation, and hybridization in two sibling species of tree squirrels ( Tamiasciurus douglasii and Tamiasciurus hudsonicus) with special attention to the geographically and genetically enigmatic population of T. hudsonicus on Vancouver Island, Canada. The two species differentiated only about 500,000 years ago, in the Late Pleistocene. The island population is phylogenetically nested within T. hudsonicus according to our nuclear analysis but within T. douglasii according to mitochondrial DNA. This conflict is more likely due to historical hybridization than to incomplete lineage sorting, and it appears that bidirectional gene flow occurred between the island population and both species on the mainland. This interpretation of our genetic analyses is consistent with our bioclimatic modeling, which demonstrates that both species were able to occupy this region throughout the Late Pleistocene. The divergence of the island population 40,000 years ago suggests that tree squirrels persisted in a refugium on Vancouver Island at the last glacial maximum, 20,000 years ago. Our observations demonstrate how Pleistocene climate change and habitat shifts have created incipient divergence in the presence of gene flow. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Freshwater habitats and organisms are among the most threatened on Earth, and freshwater ecosystems have been subject to large biodiversity losses. We developed a Climate Change Sensitivity (CCS) indicator based on trait information for a selection of stream- and lake-dwelling Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and Trichoptera taxa. We calculated the CCS scores based on ten species traits identified as sensitive to global climate change. We then assessed climate change sensitivity between the six main ecoregions of Sweden as well as the three Swedish regions based on Illies. This was done using biological data from 1,382 stream and lake sites where we compared large-scale (ecoregional) patterns in climate change sensitivity with potential future exposure of these ecosystems to increased temperatures using ensemble-modelled future changes in air temperature. Current (1961~1990) measured temperature and ensemble-modelled future (2100) temperature showed an increase from the northernmost towards the southern ecoregions, whereas the predicted temperature change increased from south to north. The CCS indicator scores were highest in the two northernmost boreal ecoregions where we also can expect the largest global climate change-induced increase in temperature, indicating an unfortunate congruence of exposure and sensitivity to climate change. These results are of vital importance when planning and implementing management and conservation strategies in freshwater ecosystems, e.g., to mitigate increased temperatures using riparian buffer strips. We conclude that traits information on taxa specialization, e.g., in terms of feeding specialism or taxa having a preference for high altitudes as well as sensitivity to changes in temperature are important when assessing the risk from future global climate change to freshwater ecosystems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]