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This study reports new crinoid material, which is identified as Muicrinus dawanensis new genus and new species from South China, representing the oldest known iocrinid in the world. These new fossils, which are characterized by bearing simple primibrachials and a helically coiled column, are from the lower-middle part of the Dawan Formation, which ranges from the upper Floian (Lower Ordovician) to the lower Dapingian (Middle Ordovician) (∼470 Ma). A total of 11 related taxa with 80 characters were selected to conduct phylogenetic analyses. Our results indicated that South China specimens are closely related to ones that are endemic to Laurentia. Synapomorphies shared between species in those two cratons include elongate supraradial plates and isotomous arm branching. Furthermore, the phylogenetic closeness of endemic taxa that only occurred in two cratons leads us to suggest a geographic connection between those regions during deep time. Combining biogeographic evidence reported from Cambrian studies, this study supports the “missing-link” configuration of Rodinia during the breakup phase. Based on the crinoid global biodiversity pattern updated here, the potential for discovery of new Paleozoic crinoid faunas in China is very high. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A detailed magnetic analysis has been done on sedimentary core of the International Ocean Discovery Program (IODP) Site U1433A during Leg 349 in the South China Sea (SCS). Results show that dominant carriers of the natural remanent magnetization are greigite and (titano) magnetite. The major shift in both declination and inclination at ~ 185 mbsf is assigned to the Matuyama-Brunhes reversal boundary (~ 0.773 Ma). Constrained by biostratigraphic ages, variations in magnetic parameters of the core can be well correlated to the marine oxygen isotope record at glacial/interglacial cycles. Low values of concentration-dependent magnetic parameters correspond to the interglacials, and vice versa. During the interglacial periods, the dominant magnetic minerals are detrital (titano) magnetite and have relatively coarser grain sizes, while fine-grained greigites dominate the glacial periods. This indicates that during the glacials, greigite prevails at the anoxic condition with amount of terrigenous iron oxide caused by the disconnection between the SCS and the Indian Ocean and the exposure of shelf, but digenesis is suppressed at the opposite environment by the high sea level (interglacials). Thus, the preservation/sulfide process of (titano) magnetite is intimately related to the transformation of sea level changes with the monsoon-related rainfall caused by the glacial/interglacial variation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Magnetic properties of 22 river samples collected in the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo, Luzon and Taiwan have been investigated in order to magnetically characterize the sediments drained and deposited into the South China Sea. The geological formations as well as the present climatic conditions are different from one region to another. Laboratory analyses include low-field magnetic susceptibility, anhysteretic (ARM) and isothermal (IRM) remanent magnetizations acquisition and decay, back-field acquisition, thermal demagnetization of three-axes IRM, hysteresis cycles and low-temperature magnetic measurements. The magnetic properties indicate that the sediments are a mixture of hematite, magnetite and pyrrhotite in different proportions depending on the region. Combined with results previously reported for the three main Asian rivers (Pearl, Red and Mekong rivers), the new data indicate that, in general, hematite-rich sediments are delivered to the southern basin of the South China Sea while the northern basin is fed with magnetite and pyrrhotite-rich sediments. In addition to this general picture, some variability is observed at smaller geographic scales. Indeed, the magnetic assemblages are closely related to the geology of the various catchments while clay minerals, previously reported for the same samples, are more representative of the climatic conditions under which the parent rocks have evolved within each catchment. The magnetic fraction, now well characterized in the main river sediments drained into the South China Sea, can be used as a tracer for changes in precipitation on land and in oceanic water mass transport and exchange. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Switched sequence stratigraphic architectural units were developed in the Eocene Wenchang Formation stratigraphic section of the Pearl River Mouth Basin (PRMB), northern South China Sea. Utilizing a high-quality 3D seismic data set, well logs and restored paleogeomorphology, the architecture and genesis of switched sequence stratigraphic units have been systematically investigated. The Wenchang Formation, a second-order sequence, can be subdivided into seven third-order sequences (from base to top: SQ1, SQ2, SQ3, SQ4, SQ5, SQ6, and SQ7). The sequence stratigraphic architecture of the Wenchang Formation is characterized by continuous lateral stacking patterns from sequences SQ1 to SQ7. Sequences SQ1–SQ4 mainly developed in the HZ26 sag, whereas sequences SQ5–SQ7 mainly developed in the XJ24 sag. The depositional centres of the Wenchang Formation appear to have migrated from the HZ26 sag to the XJ24 sag-along the northwest direction from sequences SQ1 to SQ7. Multiple tectonic activation episodes or alternating tectonic subsidence of the HZ26 and XJ24 sags resulted in the distinctive geomorphological features that effected the development of the switched sequence stratigraphic architecture in the study area. The switched sequence stratigraphic architecture presented in this study may provide new insights into a better understanding of sequence stratigraphic stacking patterns in continental lacustrine rift basins. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The decimeter-scale 3-D network structure of the Upper Ordovician Pagoda Formation in South China has been an enigmatic sedimentary feature and a case of non-uniformitarian carbonate depositional system, without modern analog. The network bands are developed pervasively throughout the entire Pagoda Formation, superficially resembling desiccation or syneresis cracks, especially in bedding-plane view, with decimeter-scale sub-polygonal to irregularly sinuous patterns. Detailed petrographic analysis, however, shows that the crack-like network bands have the same carbonate matrix, skeletal grains, and overall fabrics as the rock they surround. In this study, we demonstrate that the network structure is not generated by shrinkage cracks but is rather a time-specific lithofacies. It originated from prolonged growth of nodular carbonate, controlled by the convergence of several geological and paleoclimatic factors, including a) a protracted sea-level highstand lasting for about 5 Myr, b) an interval of tectonic quiescence favoring the dominance of carbonate production, with minimal siliciclastic input, and c) location of the South China paleoplate in the hurricane-free paleoequatorial zone devoid of severe storm disturbances between the fairweather and maximum storm wave bases (normally 15–120 m depths), favoring long-term, uninterrupted growth of CaCO 3 meganodules on a mid-shelf substrate. This study corroborates recent paleogeographic reconstructions that position the South China paleoplate on the Equator during the Late Ordovician. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on 3D seismic data, the polygonal fault system (PFS) discovered in the southern slope of the Qiongdongnan (QDN) Basin was studied through fine seismic interpretation and coherent cube analysis. The results show that: ① the PFS is mostly composed of small plate-type faults, with fault length of 1–3 km, maximum fault throw of 20–40 m and dip angle of 25°–45°; ② the PFS is mainly observed in the Huangliu Formation, deposited in the early stage of fast slope depression; ③ the PFS is layer-bound and can be separated into two tiers by T31′ interface with obvious channel incision features; ④ the PF of tier2 exhibit “y” structural style, including two parallel faults, master fault and associated fault, dipping in opposite directions. Their intersection relationship can be divided into three classes, and 14 sub-classes based on the fault intersection relationship of master fault and its associated fault; ⑤ the PFS is dominated by two strikes: NE60° and NW150°, indicating that it was controlled by tensile stress produced by differential settlement between the Xisha uplift and QDN basin; and ⑥ its genesis was jointly controlled by the syneresis of clay minerals and overpressure cyclical dehydration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Multi-phase deepwater fan systems have formed in the Baiyun Sag of the Pearl River Mouth Basin on the northern margin of the South China Sea since the beginning of the Miocene. Integrated analysis of 2D/3D seismic, well log, core, and biostratigraphic data shows that the early Miocene Pearl River deepwater fan deposits consist of four 3rd-order sequences, SQ23.8, SQ21, SQ17.5 and SQ16.5. Each of them is bounded by regional discontinuity surfaces (3rd-order sequence boundaries). Of particular interest are the sandy deepwater fan deposits in the HST of SQ23.8 and LST of SQ21, which are absent in SQ17.5 and SQ16.5. The SQ23.8 deepwater deposits are relatively thin sheets, densely spaced sandy debris flow channels and MTDs, whereas in SQ21 they manifest as thicker sheets and larger channels. In terms of lithofacies, SQ23.8 deepwater deposits are massive sandstones, in contrast to SQ21 deposits of massive sandstones, normally graded sandstones, inversely graded sandstones, and locally interbedded ripple laminated siltstones. It is interpreted that SQ23.8 deepwater sands result from homochronous slumping of the shelf margin delta front, while SQ21 deepwater sands result from the erosion and re-deposition of the ancient SQ23.8 highstand shelf margin delta. The Paleocene-Early Oligocene rift stage (57.5 Ma ∼ 32 Ma) was characterized by extensive development of half-grabens and normal faults. Since 32 Ma, the drift stage has been characterized by thermal subsidence and weak tectonic activity. The distributions of deepwater sands in SQ23.8 and SQ21 are interpreted to have been controlled by seabed topography that was inherited from buried rift-related tectonic features. We propose that the primary controlling factor for the development of the early Miocene Pearl River Deepwater Fan System was likely sediment supply of the Pearl River influenced by the Baiyun Event and the uplift of Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. The specific location of the sandy deepwater fan was due to tectonic influence on paleotopography of the shelf. The interpreted two depositional models can help predict the types of deepwater depositional elements are in the Baiyun Sag of the Pearl River Mouth Basin and where deepwater sands are likely to occur. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Methane adsorption experiments were performed on eight Lower Silurian Longmaxi moisture-equilibrated shale samples from the Upper Yangtze Platform, south China, at pressures up to 12 MPa, at 20 °C, 40 °C, 60 °C, 80 °C and 100 °C to investigate the effects upon methane adsorption capacity and to estimate the variation of methane adsorption capacity as a function of depth and burial history. The methane adsorption capacity of the Longmaxi shale shows a significant positive correlation with total organic carbon (TOC) content, which is accompanied by an increase in BET (Brunauer Emmett Teller) surface area and total pore volume. A quadratic relationship was observed between clay content and methane adsorption capacity. There is a threshold clay content (42.3–44.4%) in this trend. Methane adsorption capacity declines with increasing clay content below the threshold, and later increases with increasing clay content. The Langmuir pressure decreases exponentially with the reciprocal of temperature and the Langmuir volume decreases linearly with temperature. The isosteric heat of adsorption and standard entropy for the Longmaxi shale ranges from 10.34 to 11.67 kJ/mol and from −57.04 to −61.32 J/mol/K, respectively, which are clustered around kerogen type I. Using these relationships a computational scheme was developed to calculate methane adsorption capacity as a function of TOC content, temperature and pressure based on the Langmuir equation. This algorithm was applied to estimate methane adsorption capacity of the Longmaxi shale as a function of depth. Due to the dominating effect of pressure methane adsorption capacity increases initially with depth, through a maximum and then decreases as a result of increasing temperature at a greater depth. The maximum gas adsorption capacity is typically located at a depth range between 800 and 1350 m. With TOC content increasing, the curves shift continuously towards higher adsorption capacity. Furthermore, the maximum methane adsorption capacity moves higher and shifts to a deeper depth as TOC content increases. Ultimately, four principal dynamic evolutionary stages of methane adsorption capacity of the Longmaxi shale over geologic time as a function of burial history were reconstructed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

9172 Conodonts have been recovered from the uppermost Hunghuayuan Formation and the Zitai Formation at two sections in Shitai County, southern Anhui Province, South China, which was situated close to the margin of the Lower Yangtze Platform during the Early to Middle Ordovician. Systematic and multivariate statistical studies on these conodonts permit recognition of seven conodont biofacies: Tropodus biofacies, Diaphorodus biofacies, Oepikodus biofacies, Baltoniodus biofacies, Paroistodus biofacies, Periodon biofacies and Protopanderodus biofacies. Each biofacies is restricted to a particular lithofacies and stratal position and shows a consistent order and/or position within the succession. Turnover of these conodont biofacies is related to sea-level changes. The transgressive–regressive patterns demonstrated by the conodont biofacies compare closely to published sea level curves for South China, and highlight the utility of conodont biofacies as a means of confirming sedimentological evidence of relative sea-level change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using recently gathered onland structural and 2D/3D offshore seismic data in south and central Palawan (Philippines), this paper presents a new perspective in unraveling the Cenozoic tectonic history of the southeastern margin of the South China Sea. South and central Palawan are dominated by Mesozoic ophiolites (Palawan Ophiolite), distinct from the primarily continental composition of the north. These ophiolites are emplaced over syn-rift Eocene turbidites (Panas Formation) along thrust structures best preserved in the ophiolite–turbidite contact as well as within the ophiolites. Thrusting is sealed by Early Miocene (∼20 Ma) sediments of the Pagasa Formation (Isugod Formation onland), constraining the younger limit of ophiolite emplacement at end Late Oligocene (∼23 Ma). The onset of ophiolite emplacement at end Eocene is constrained by thrust-related metamorphism of the Eocene turbidites, and post-emplacement underthrusting of Late Oligocene – Early Miocene Nido Limestone. This carbonate underthrusting at end Early Miocene (∼16 Ma) is marked by the deformation of a seismic unit corresponding to the earliest members of the Early – Middle Miocene Pagasa Formation. Within this formation, a tectonic wedge was built within Middle Miocene (from ∼16 Ma to ∼12 Ma), forming a thrust-fold belt called the Pagasa Wedge. Wedge deformation is truncated by the regionally-observed Middle Miocene Unconformity (MMU ∼12 Ma). A localized, post-kinematic extension affects thrust-fold structures, the MMU, and Late Miocene to Early Pliocene carbonates ( e.g . Tabon Limestone). This structural set-up suggests a continuous convergent regime affecting the southeastern margin of the South China Sea between end Eocene to end Middle Miocene. The ensuing structures including juxtaposed carbonates, turbidites and shallow marine clastics within thrust-fold belts have become ideal environments for hydrocarbon generation and accumulation. Best developed in the Northwest Borneo Trough area, the intensity of thrust-fold deformation decreases towards the northeast into offshore southwest Palawan. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The South China Sea is the largest marginal basin of SE Asia, yet its mechanism of formation is still debated. A 1000-km long wide-angle refraction seismic profile was recently acquired along the conjugate margins of the SW sub-basin of the South China Sea, over the longest extended continental crust. A joint reflection and refraction seismic travel time inversion is performed to derive a 2-D velocity model of the crustal structure and upper mantle. Based on this new tomographic model, northern and southern margins are genetically linked since they share common structural characteristics. Most of the continental crust deforms in a brittle manner. Two scales of deformation are imaged and correlate well with seismic reflection observations. Small-scale normal faults (grabens, horsts and rotated faults blocks) are often associated with a tilt of the velocity isocontours affecting the upper crust. The mid-crust shows high lateral velocity variation defining low velocity bodies bounded by large-scale normal faults recognized in seismic reflection profiles. Major sedimentary basins are located above low velocity bodies interpreted as hanging-wall blocks. Along the northern margin, spacing between these velocity bodies decreases from 90 to 45 km as the total crust thins toward the Continent–Ocean Transition. The Continent–Ocean Transitions are narrow and slightly asymmetric – 60 km on the northern side and no more than 30 km on the southern side – indicating little space for significant hyper-stretched crust. Although we have no direct indication for mantle exhumation, shallow high velocities are observed at the Continent–Ocean Transition. The Moho interface remains rather flat over the extended domain, and remains undisturbed by the large-scale normal faults. The main décollement is thus within the ductile lower crust. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to understand the response of authigenic pyrite to gas hydrate geo-systems, pyrite tubes or rods at the sulfate-methane transition (SMT) zone of core GC10 from the northern continental slope of the South China Sea (SCS) were investigated. In situ X-ray diffraction (XRD) results show that the pyrite tube consists of pyrite micro-crystals with trace amount of graphite in the inner tube. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) observations of pyrite tubes indicate various aggregations in the form of framboidal, euhedral, and colloidal pyrite microcrystals. Typical framboidal pyrite is considered as packing of octahedral microcrystals. Interestingly, many framboids in the tubes consist of round or irregular microcrystals and have an outer crust that consists of secondary pyrite. The size of the framboids in the inner wall of the tube is larger than that in the middle wall or foraminifer-filled pyrite. High-resolution transmission electron microscopic (HRTEM) images show marcasite lamellae defects in the spherulitic pyrite crystals, which reveal different solution conditions during the pyrite precipitation. Nano-foil-like graphitic carbon was observed to be closely associated with the pyrite spherules. The occurrence of both marcasite layers and nano-foil-like graphitic carbon suggest that the migration of methane from deep sediment. It is suggested that the formation of pyrite serves as a catalyst during the reaction from methane to elemental carbon under the anaerobic oxidation of methane. Meanwhile, this reaction results in local acidification of the solution inside the pyrite tubes, which favors marcasite lamellae growth on the host pyrite substrate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The occurrence of shale diapirs in the Yinggehai–Song Hong (YGH–SH) Basin is well documented, as is their association with big petroleum fields. In order to better understand how and why the diapirs form we performed a detailed geophysical analysis using a new regional compilation of high-resolution two- and three-dimensional seismic reflection data, as well as drilling data that cover the diapirs in YGH–SH Basin. As many as 18 diapirs were identified and are arranged in six N–S-striking vertical en échelon zones. On seismic reflection sections gas chimney structures, diapiric faults and palaeo-craters are genetically linked with the process of diapirism. Here we use geophysical and geological observations to propose a three-stage model for diapirism: initiation, emplacement, and collapse. During these three stages, different diapiric structure styles are formed, which we describe in detail. These include buried diapirs, piercing diapirs and collapsed diapirs. We link the diapirism to activity on the offshore continuation of the Red River Fault, as shown on our high-resolution seismic reflection data, which is also related to a high paleogeothermal gradient caused by crustal thinning. We also recognize the role of loading by the very large volume of sediment eroded from the edges of the Tibetan Plateau and delivered by the Red River to the basin. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Although native aluminum (Al°) has been reported to occur in various geological settings for more than 20 locations but its mechanism of formation still remains to be elucidated. We report the occurrence and characterization of Al° particles recovered from the surface sediment (CF4) and a short core sediment (ROV-G, 37cm length) obtained at cold seeps in the northeastern continental slope (NCS) of the South China Sea (SCS). X-ray diffraction analysis shows that the collected particles are metallic aluminum with the unit cell edge a of 4.059±0.005Å (CF4#2) and 4.029±0.004Å (T26–28#2, ROV-G). The Al° particles occur as spherules, irregular plates and elongated forms with typical lamellar structures. Their chemical compositions are 95.07–99.84% Al (the average values is 98.42%) with very small amounts of Si, Fe, Ti, S, Zn, Mg, Ca, K, Na, Cu, Co and P, and are similar to Al° particles from the East Pacific Rise and the Central Indian Basin but differ markedly to those from other locations. After ruling out several possibilities of Al° sources and mechanism of formation, an alternative cold seep mechanism is proposed for the origin of Al° in the SCS. During the processes of anaerobic oxidation of methane (AOM) and pyrite formation, high H2S and H2 partial pressures result in strong reducing micro-environments, under which is reduced to its metallic state by the microbial-bacterial processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Trace element and rare earth element (REE) concentrations in cold seep carbonates from the northern continental slope of the South China Sea are used in this study to indicate source fluid characteristics and redox conditions. Carbonate samples from the two study areas (Shenhu and Dongsha) all show low total REE concentrations (mostly 10–20ppm). In the Shenhu area, the shale-normalized REE patterns of the chimney carbonates display slight light REE enrichment, positive Ce anomaly, and a consistently positive Gd anomaly. These carbonate chimneys show a two-stage formation history, with a slight increase in the positive Ce anomaly from the rim to core. Trace and rare earth element data suggest that the core may have formed in a more anoxic condition than the rim. In the Dongsha area, seep carbonate samples show a slight heavy REE enrichment, with both negative and positive Ce anomalies, and more positive Gd anomalies, which are consistent with precipitation in an anoxic environment. Redox sensitive trace elements, such as Mo, U, Ni, V and Co, also indicate anoxic conditions for this cold seep carbonate precipitation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The identification of a deeply-buried petroleum-source rock, owing to the difficulty in sample collection, has become a difficult task for establishing its relationship with discovered petroleum pools and evaluating its exploration potential in a petroleum-bearing basin. This paper proposes an approach to trace a deeply-buried source rock. The essential points include: determination of the petroleum-charging time of a reservoir, reconstruction of the petroleum generation history of its possible source rocks, establishment of the spatial connection between the source rocks and the reservoir over its geological history, identification of its effective source rock and the petroleum system from source to trap, and evaluation of petroleum potential from the deeply-buried source rock. A case study of the W9-2 petroleum pool in the Wenchang A sag of the Pearl River Mouth Basin, South China Sea was conducted using this approach. The W9-2 reservoir produces condensate oil and gas, sourced from deeply-buried source rocks. The reservoir consists of a few sets of sandstone in the Zhuhai Formation, and the possible source rocks include an early Oligocene Enping Formation mudstone and a late Eocene Wenchang Formation mudstone, with a current burial depth from 5000 to 9000m. The fluid inclusion data from the reservoir rock indicate the oil and the gas charged the reservoir about 18–3.5Ma and after 4.5Ma, respectively. The kinetic modeling results show that the main stages of oil generation of the Wenchang mudstone and the Enping mudstone occurred during 28–20Ma and 20–12Ma, respectively, and that the δ13C1 value of the gas generated from the Enping mudstone has a better match with that of the reservoir gas than the gas from the Wenchang mudstone. Results from a 2D basin modeling further indicate that the petroleum from the Enping mudstone migrated upward along the well-developed syn-sedimentary faults in the central area of the sag into the reservoir, but that the petroleum from the Wenchang mudstone migrated laterally first toward the marginal faults of the sag and then migrated upward along the faults into shallow strata. The present results suggest that the trap structure in the central area of the sag is a favorable place for the accumulation of the Enping mudstone-derived petroleum, and that the Wenchang mudstone-derived petroleum would have a contribution to the structures along the deep faults as well as in the uplifted area around the sag. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]